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PUBLICRESPONSES TOFOSSILFUEL EXPORT
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Editedby
HILARYBOUDET
Sociology,SchoolofPublicPolicy, OregonStateUniversity, Corvallis,OR,UnitedStates
SHAWNHAZBOUN
GraduateProgramontheEnvironment, TheEvergreenStateCollege, Olympia,WA,UnitedStates
Elsevier
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ForJeff,whosteadfastlysupportsmyresearchwhileconductinghis own.Thankyouforthemealsandhugs,thehoursonweekendstothink andwrite,andfortrulydoingyourshareoftheparenting(andholdingthe babyasItypethis).
ShawnHazboun
FortheBoudetboys,whomakesurethatIdon’tgettoowrappedupin workandgivemehopeforthefuture. HilaryBoudet
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Acknowledgmentsxv
PARTIIntroduction1
1.Anintroductiontothesocialdimensionsoffossilfuelexport inaneraofenergytransition3
HilaryBoudetandShawnHazboun
Fossilfuelexport:statusandtrends4 Whatdowealreadyknow?6 Organizationofthebook12
Someconcludingthoughts15 References15
PARTIIThenewlandscapeoffossilfueltechnology, supply,andpolicy23
2.Thenewglobalenergyorder:shiftingplayers,policies,and powerdynamics25
FaridGuliyev
Introduction:theemergenceofanewenergyorder25 Globalenergysystem29 Cleanenergytransition35
Winnersandlosersoftheenergytransition38 Conclusion40 References41
3.Fossilfuelexportasaclimatepolicyproblem45
GeorgiaPiggotandPeterErickson
Whyfossilfuelexportisoftenignoredinclimatepolicy46
Therationaleforaddressingfossilfuelexportasacomponentof climatepolicymaking47
Howpublicresponsehashelpedbridgetheissuesofclimatechangeand fossilfuelexport50 References52
PARTIIIPublicopiniononexport
4.TheevolutionofUSpublicattitudestowardnaturalgas export:apooledcross-sectionalanalysisoftimeseries data(2013 2017)57
ChadZanocco,ShawnHazboun,GregStelmachandHilaryBoudet Background57 Materialsandmethods60 Findings63 Discussion69 References70
5.DriversofUSregulatorypreferencesfornaturalgasexport73 GregStelmach,JonathanPierce,ChadZanoccoandHilaryBoudet Introduction73 Literaturereview75 Dataandmethods79 Results83
Discussionandpolicyimplications87 References88
6.Energyandexporttransitions:fromoilexportstorenewable energygoalsinAotearoaNewZealand91 PatriciaWidener Islandtransitions91 Criticaltimeandplacemethodologies93 Debatingoffshoreexplorationandanonshoreterminal95 Disputingemploymentpromotionsandloweredpetrolprices97 Transitioningtogreenjobsandgreentechnologyexports99 Conclusions101 References102
7.TrendsinNorwegianviewsonoilandgasexport105 GisleAndersen,ÅstaDyrnesNordøandEndreMeyerTvinnereim Background Norway’sroleasanoilandgasexporter105 Dataandmethods107 Main findingsfrompolicyanalysis110 Resultsfrompublicopinionstudies114 Discussion117 References119
8.A “thingreenline” ofresistance?Assessingpublicviewsonoil, naturalgas,andcoalexportinthePacificNorthwestregion oftheUnitedStatesandCanada121
ShawnHazbounandHilaryBoudet
Introduction121
Fossilfuelproduction,export,andpolicyinthePacificNorthwest123 Publicopiniononfossilfuels:howdoesitrelatetoexport?125
Methods:surveysamplingandmeasurement127 Results130
Discussion,implications,andfutureresearch134 References136
PARTIVCommunityresponsetoexportprojects
9.Globaldiscourses,nationalpriorities,andcommunityexperiences ofparticipationintheenergyinfrastructureprojectsin northernRussia143
JuliaLoginova
Introduction143
ShiftingspatialitiesofRussia’soilandgasprojects144 Strategiesofexclusionandnonparticipation148
Discussionandconclusion153 References154
10.Indigenousambivalence?It’snotaboutthepipeline : Indigenousresponsestofossilfuelexportprojectsin WesternCanada157
CliffordGordonAtleo,TylaCrowe,TamaraKrawchenkoand KarenaShaw
Introduction157
SettlercolonialismandtheongoingstrugglesforIndigenous self-determination158
TheTransMountainPipelineexpansionproject160 Methods162
Casestudies:contextualizingambivalence163 Discussionandconclusions172 References174
Contents
11.Theprimacyofplace:acommunity’sresponsetoa proposedliquefiednaturalgasexportfacility177
EmilyPaigeBishopandKarenaShaw Introduction177
Context179 Methods182 Findings182 Discussionandconclusions188 References190
12.Impactgeographiesofgasterminaldevelopmentinthe northernAustraliancontext:insightsfromGladstone andDarwin195
ClaudiaF.Benham Introduction195 Methods198
GasterminaldevelopmentinAustralia:ataleoftwocities199 Concludingreflections204
References205
13.Communityriskorresilience?Perceptionsandresponses tooiltraintrafficinfourUSrailcommunities209
AnneN.Junod Introduction209 Perceptionsofenergytransportationandexportsviarail211 Methodsandanalysis213 Findings219 Discussion:ruralandurbanrisks,vulnerabilities,andopposition221 Conclusion224 References225
14.Leaveitintheground,orsenditabroad?Assessing themesincommunityresponsetocoalexportproposals usingtopicmodelingoflocalnews229
ShawnHazboun,KathleenSaul,HuyNguyenandRichardWeiss Introduction229 Backgroundandframework231 Dataandmethods234
Findings239
Conclusion:implicationsforfossilfuelexportinthePacificNorthwest248 References250
15.Socialdimensionsoffossilfuelexport:summaryoflearnings andimplicationsforresearchandpractice257
ShawnHazbounandHilaryBoudet
Climateisanincreasingconcerninenergyexportdebates257
Exportroutespresentmanyopportunitiesforopposition259
Changingattitudesaboutnaturalgaslikelytoimpactexport260
Somefamiliarpatternspersist261 Implications(andafewlimitations)forresearchandpractice262
Closingwords265 References266 Furtherreading268
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Contributors
GisleAndersen
NorwegianResearchCentre(NORCE),SocialScienceDepartment,Bergen,Norway; UniversityofBergen,CentreforClimateandEnergyTransformation(CET),Bergen, Norway
CliffordGordonAtleo(NiisNa’yaa/Kam’ayaam/Chachim’multhnii)
SchoolofResourceandEnvironmentalManagement,SimonFraserUniversity,Burnaby, BC,Canada
ClaudiaF.Benham
SchoolofEarthandEnvironmentalSciences,TheUniversityofQueensland,StLucia, QLD,Australia
EmilyPaigeBishop
SchoolofEnvironmentalStudies,UniversityofVictoria,Victoria,BC,Canada
HilaryBoudet
Sociology,SchoolofPublicPolicy,OregonStateUniversity,Corvallis,OR,United States
TylaCrowe
SchoolofResourceandEnvironmentalManagement,SimonFraserUniversity,Burnaby, BC,Canada
PeterErickson
StockholmEnvironmentInstituteUSCenter,Seattle,WA,UnitedStates
FaridGuliyev
DepartmentofPoliticalScienceandPhilosophy,KhazarUniversity,Baku,Azerbaijan
ShawnHazboun
GraduateProgramontheEnvironment,TheEvergreenStateCollege,Olympia,WA, UnitedStates
AnneN.Junod
UrbanInstitute,Washington,DC,UnitedStates
TamaraKrawchenko
SchoolofPublicAdministration,UniversityofVictoria,Victoria,BC,Canada
JuliaLoginova
SchoolofEarthandEnvironmentalSciences,TheUniversityofQueensland,StLucia, QLD,Australia
HuyNguyen
ComputerSciencesProgram,TheEvergreenStateCollege,Olympia,WA,UnitedStates
ÅstaDyrnesNordø
NorwegianResearchCentre(NORCE),SocialScienceDepartment,Bergen,Norway
JonathanPierce
UniversityofColoradoDenver,SchoolofPublicAffairs,Denver,CO,UnitedStates
GeorgiaPiggot
SchoolofEnvironment,UniversityofAuckland,Auckland,NewZealand;Stockholm EnvironmentInstituteUSCenter,Seattle,WA,UnitedStates
KathleenSaul
GraduateProgramontheEnvironment,TheEvergreenStateCollege,Olympia,WA, UnitedStates
KarenaShaw SchoolofEnvironmentalStudies,UniversityofVictoria,Victoria,BC,Canada
GregStelmach
Sociology,SchoolofPublicPolicy,OregonStateUniversity,Corvallis,OR,United States
EndreMeyerTvinnereim
UniversityofBergen,DepartmentofAdministrationandOrganizationTheory,Bergen, Norway;UniversityofBergen,CentreforClimateandEnergyTransformation(CET), Bergen,Norway
RichardWeiss
ComputerSciencesProgram,TheEvergreenStateCollege,Olympia,WA,UnitedStates
PatriciaWidener Sociology,FloridaAtlanticUniversity,BocaRaton,FL,UnitedStates
ChadZanocco
CivilandEnvironmentalEngineering,StanfordUniversity,Stanford,CA,UnitedStates
Acknowledgments
We firstwishtothankalltheauthorswhocontributedtothiswork collectively,yourresearchhasbeguntoclosetheknowledgegaponthe socialdimensionsoffossilfuelexport.Wewouldalsoliketothankthe researchparticipantswhoprovidedthedatafortheempiricalchaptersinthis volume.Weknowthatenergycommunitiesoftengetrepeatedrequeststo participateinsocialscienceresearchandthatthiscanbedraining your inputisinvaluable,thankyou.Last,wewouldliketoacknowledgethe presentersandaudiencemembersofthe “Publicresponsestoshiftingfossil fuelregimes” sessionatthe2ndInternationalConferenceonEnergy Research&SocialScience(ERSS2019) thisvolumewasbornoutofthat session.
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PARTI Introduction
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CHAPTER1
Anintroductiontothesocial dimensionsoffossilfuelexport inaneraofenergytransition
HilaryBoudet1 andShawnHazboun2
1Sociology,SchoolofPublicPolicy,OregonStateUniversity,Corvallis,OR,UnitedStates; 2Graduate ProgramontheEnvironment,TheEvergreenStateCollege,Olympia,WA,UnitedStates
Thetwinforcesoftheclimatecrisisandtheshalerevolutionhavecreated profoundchangesinglobalenergymarkets.Mountingpressurestocut carbonemissionshaveacceleratednationalpoliciestofacilitatetransitions awayfromcoalandoiltonaturalgasandultimatelyrenewableenergy sources.Atthesametime,technologicaladvancescombininghorizontal directionaldrillingandhydraulicfracturinghaveopenedvastpreviously infeasiblereservesofoilandgastodevelopment.Moreover,theCOVID19pandemichashadvastimpactsonhumanbehaviorandmobilityaround theworld,affectingenergyandelectricitymarketsinunprecedentedways thatwilllikelypersistbeyondthehealthcrisis.Theresulthasbeenchanges intheenergymarketsandtradethatwouldhaveseemedunfathomablejust twodecadesago.Forexample,theUnitedStates,whichwasfacingdire predictionsofnaturalgasshortagesinthe1990s,promptinga flurryof proposalsforimportfacilities,becameanetenergyexporterforthe first timein70yearsin2019(U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration,2021). OilproductionandexportationinNorthAmericahasalsobrokenOPEC’ s strongholdonoilprices.Moreover,inAustralia,despitedwindling domesticconsumption,coalbecameitsmostvaluableexportin2018,with mostofitsproductiongoingtoEastAsia.
Yet,fossilfuelexporthasnotcomewithoutcontroversy.Increasingly, environmentalactivistsfocusedonkeepingfossilfuelsinthegroundto preventtheircombustionfromcontributingtoclimatechangehave targetednotjustextractivesites,butthepipelines,railways,andexport terminalsmeanttofacilitatetheexportofthesefuelsoverseas.Despiteits importancetoglobalenergymarkets,researchonpublicperceptionsand responsestofossilfuelexporthasreceivedrelativelyscantattentionfrom socialscientists whohavepreferredtofocusonextractionandproduction PublicResponsestoFossilFuelExport ISBN978-0-12-824046-5
sites.Here,webringtogetheravolumeexclusivelyaboutfossilfuelexport, coveringsocialscienceresearchfromavarietyofdisciplinesaboutavariety offueltypes.
Ouraimistoprovidewide-rangingperspectives boththeoretically andmethodologically onthehumandimensionsoffossilfuelexport. Whatdomembersofthepublicthinkaboutexportingfossilfuelsinplaces whereitishappening?Whatdotheyseeasitsmainrisksandbenefits?What connectionsarebeingmadetoclimatechangeandtheimpendingenergy transition?Howhavethosecommunitiesmostaffectedrespondedto proposalsrelatedtofossilfuelexport,broadlydefinedtoincludetransport byrail,pipeline,ship,etc.?Thesearetheresearchquestionsthatunderpin thisbook.
Intheintroductiontothisvolume,webeginwithabriefoverviewof thestatusoffossilfuelexportaroundtheworld,includinganoverviewof recenttrendsandtheimpactoftheCOVID-19pandemic.Wethenprovideareviewofrelevantliterature,withaparticularfocusonstudiesof publicperceptionsandcommunityresponsetoenergytechnologies.We concludewithinformationabouttheorganizationofthebook.
Fossilfuelexport:statusandtrends
TheCOVID-19pandemichashadandcontinuestohaveasignificant impactoneconomiesaroundtheworld.Theenergysector whichis fundamentallytiedtoeconomicactivity wasnotimmune.Accordingto the InternationalEnergyAgency(2021),globalenergydemandfell4%in 2020 thelargestdropsinceWorldWarII.Oildemand,whichfuelsmuch ofglobaltransport,wasparticularlyhardhitbytravelrestrictionsimplementedtoslowthespreadofthevirus.Yet,2021hasbroughtstimulus packages,vaccines,andeconomicrecoverytosomepartsoftheworld, whichhaveresultedinacorrespondinggrowthinenergydemand particularlyinChinawhereearlyandaggressivecontainmentofthevirus hasallowedlifetolargelyreturntonormalwithassociatedincreasesin demandsforenergyservices.Infact,globalenergydemandisexpectedto grow4.6%in2021,thuscounteracting2020’scontraction,with70%of thisincreaseexpectedtocomefromemergingmarketsanddeveloping economies.
Unfortunately,thisincreasedenergydemandwillresultinincreased carbonemissions energy-relatedcarbonemissionsareexpectedtoexperiencetheirsecondbiggestincreaseeverin2021,reversing80%ofthe
declineexperiencedin2020.Increaseddemandforallfossilfuels,in particularcoal,isdrivingtheseincreasedemissions.Infact,coaldemandis expectedtoexceed2019levels,largelydrivenbydemandsforpower generationinAsia.Yet,demandfortransportoil,specificallyforaviation, willremainbelow2019levels,soemissionscouldhavebeenhigherwith recoveriesinallindustriestoprepandemiclevels.Amongfossilfuels,natural gashasbeenthemostresilienttothepandemic’simpacts,anddemandison tracktohavethelargestincreasecomparedto2019levels,growing3.2%in 2021.Thisresiliencehasinpartbeendrivenbyfuelswitchingfromcoalto naturalgasforelectricitygeneration(InternationalEnergyAgency,2021).
Turningtothepowersector,electricitydemandisprojectedtoincrease 4.5%in2021 itsfastestgrowthinoveradecade(InternationalEnergy Agency,2021).Again,mostofthisincreaseindemandcomesfrom emergingmarketsanddevelopingeconomies,withChinaresponsiblefor halfofglobalgrowth.Thegoodnewsisthatrenewables,particularlytheir useintheelectricitysector,havegrownthroughoutthepandemic.Their shareofelectricitygenerationisexpectedtogrowtoalmost30%in 2021 thelargestsincetheindustrialrevolution.Again,Chinaleadsandis expectedtoaccountforalmost50%ofthisincrease(InternationalEnergy Agency,2021).
Whatwillthismeanforfossilfueltradeandassociatedproposalsforits transportationandexport?Afterthehistoricdisruptionofglobalenergy tradein2020,2021hasbeenmarkedbygrowth,butalsogrowingpains. Muchofthisgrowthindemandhasbeenmetusingexcesssupplyand reserves,butthesearedwindling.Currentsupplyhasnotkeptupwith increasingdemand;priceshavesoared;andthusfarEuropeandChinahave sufferedthebruntoftheproblem(InternationalEnergyAgency’s,2021d; Bradsher,2021).Suchissuesareunlikelytoremaingeographicallyisolated, however.
Muchuncertaintyremains.Despiterecentsurgesindemandforfossil fuels,pandemic-relatedshockscombinedwithaggressivepoliciesinmany countriesaimedatmoresustainable recoveriesmaymeanthatfossilfuel demand,inparticularforoilandcoal,isunlikelytofollowprepandemic trendsandmayevenpeakearlierthanpreviouslypredicted( International EnergyAgency,2021b).Thelevelofuncertainty createdbysubsequent COVID-19variants,politi calwilltomaintainpoliciesaimedatsustainablerecoveries,price fl uctuations,etc makespredictiondif fi cult.What wedoknowisthatcommunitiesandcitizenswillcontinuetofaceproposalsforenergyinfrastructure bothitsgenerationandtransportation.
Ourhopeisthatthisvolumeshedsadditionallightonhowthepublic perceivestheseproposalsandhowtheyrespond,particularlyinthe contextoffossilfuelsbutalsowithrelevantinsightsforthesitingofrenewables.Suchinsightswillproveinvaluablebothinthecurrentmoment andaswe(hopefully)transitioninto amoresustainableenergysystemof thefuture.
Whatdowealreadyknow?
Boomtowns,riskperceptions,andoveradaptation Alongandextensiveliteratureonenergyfacilitysitinganditseffectsexists. Someofitsinitialbeginningscanbetracedbacktoworkby Gilmore (1976),outliningtheboomtowneffectsofenergydevelopmentona hypotheticalruraltowninWyoming,andworkby Slovic(1987) onpublic perceptionsofhazards,includingnuclearenergy.The1970s,1980s,and early1990ssawa flurryofacademicworkonthetopicinsocialpsychology andruralsociology particularlyasitrelatedtothedevelopmentofthe nuclearindustryintheUnitedStatesandYuccaMountainasadisposalsite (Flynnetal.,1992; Flynn&Slovic,1995; Krannichetal.,1991; Kunreutheretal.,1988, 1990; Rileyetal.,1993; Slovicetal.,1991) but alsoexploringpublicperceptionsandcommunityresponsestooilandgas development(Brownetal.,1989; England&Albrecht,1984; Freudenburg, 1992; Freudenburg&Gramling,1992, 1994; Gramling&Freudenburg, 1992; Krannichetal.,1991; Krannich&Greider,1984; Molotch,1970; Molotch&Lester,1975).Findingsfromthesestudiesunderscoredtherole ofbothindividualdemographicandcommunitycontextualfactorsin shapingpublicperceptionsofenergydevelopment,aswellashowaspectsof thehazarditselfcanshapeviews.Theyalsooutlinedtheinfluential boomtownmodeloftheimpactsofenergydevelopmentoncommunities, focusingonsocialdisruptionsrelatedtoserviceprovision(e.g.,foreducation,policing,etc.)(Brownetal.,1989; Jacquet&Kay,2014),whilealso highlightinghowcommunitiesdependentonaparticularindustrycan become “overadapted” orevenaddictedtoextractivedevelopmentdueto itseconomicbenefits(Freudenburg,1992; Freudenburg&Gramling, 1992).Theyoutlinedthetypicalopportunitiesandthreatslinkedtothese typesofproposals(e.g.,tophysicalenvironments;cultural,social,political/ legal,economic,andpsychologicalsystems),withaneyetowardthe developmentofamorecomprehensiveprocessforsocialimpactassessment (Gramling&Freudenburg,1992).
Intermsoffossilfuelinfrastructurebeyondextraction,liquefiednatural gas(LNG)facilitiesdidreceivesomeattentionduringthistimeframe,as severalwereproposed(andsomebuilt)intheUnitedStatesandEurope toimportnaturalgasfromforeignsources(Kunreutheretal.,1983; Kunreuther&Lathrop,1981; Kunreuther&Linnerooth,1984).These studieshighlightedtheroleofcontextandexogenouseventsinshaping publicperceptions.Forexample,inastudyofLNGsitinginCaliforniain the1970s, KunreutherandLathrop(1981) describedhowanoiltanker explosionintheLosAngelesharborthedayaftertheCityCouncilallowed worktobeginonanLNGterminalledtoconstructionbeingsuspendeda weeklater.
Locallyunwantedlandusesandtheenvironmentaljustice movement
Aslowdowninsitingofbothnuclearpower(inpartdrivenbytheThree MileIslandaccidentandcostconcerns)andoilandgasdevelopment (relatedtothe1980soilglut)intheUnitedStatesalsoresultedinless attentiononthistopicintheacademy.Attentionshiftedtootherenergyrelatedtopics,inparticularhowtolowerdemandinthewakeofthe1970s oilembargoandourenergysystem’senvironmentalimpactsasconcerns aboutpollutionincreasedandtheenvironmentalmovementstrengthened (Rosaetal.,1988).
Duringthissametimeframe,arelatedsetofliteraturewasalsogrowing intheplanningandpublicpolicy fieldsexploringoppositiontolocally unwantedlanduses(LULUs)morebroadly(beyondenergy),including incinerators,landfills,hazardwastesites,prisons,highways,etc(Dear,1992; Futrell,2003; Lesbirel,1998; Schively,2007; Smith&Marquez,2000). Suchfacilitiesoftencreatebenefitstolargersocietybutresultinasetofrisks tothelocalhostcommunity.At first,muchofthisliteraturefocusedon overcomingso-calledNIMBYism,shortfor “NotinMyBackYard” or anobservedtendencyforcommunitymemberstoopposedevelopment nearthem(Inhaber,1998; Rabe,1994).Asthe fielddeveloped,however, scholarsbecamelessfocusedonovercomingNIMBYismandmorefocused onunderstandingitandevenjustifyingtheconcernsofthosemostproximatetodevelopment(Boholm&Lofstedt,2013; Hager&Haddad,2015). ThetermNIMBYhasnowtakenonapejorativetone castingopponentsas self-interested,ignorant,andirrational whenopponentsareoften community-minded,well-informed,andrational(Dear,1992; Rand&Hoen, 2017; Schively,2007; Wolsink,2006, 2007; Wüstenhagenetal.,2007).
Scholarshavemovedawayfromafocusoneducatinganuninformedpublic andtowardmoreinclusive,participatorydecision-makingaroundthesitingof unwantedfacilities,includingpushingforadequatecompensationforthose mostaffected(Arnstein,1969; Devine-Wright,2005, 2013; Kunreutheretal., 1987; O’Hare&Sanderson,1993; Portney,1984; Rabe,1994).
Whatwasbecomingclear,thanksinlargeparttotheenvironmental justicemovement,wasthatLULUsandotherhazardousfacilitieswere overwhelminglybeingsitedindisadvantagedcommunities(Bullard,1990; Mohaietal.,2009; Roberts&Toffolon-Weiss,2001; Schlosberg,2009; Taylor,2014).Environmentaljusticescholarsandactivistsbegantohighlightthewaysinwhichsegregation,zoninglaws,andbusinesspractices allowedtoxicfacilitiestobesitedinraciallysegregated,low-income communities,exposingcommunitymemberstotoxicsubstancesand creatinghealthandotherproblems(Taylor,2014).Instudiesofenergy development,scholarshavebeguntorefertosomeareasas “energysacrifice zones ” placesthathavebeenpermanentlydamagedbyextensiveand continuousenergydevelopment,e.g.,WestVirginia’scoal fields,coastal Louisiana’soilandgas fields(Bell,2014; Lerner,2012; Maldonado,2018).
Environmentaljusticeconcernshavealsoplaguedfossilfueltransport infrastructure,e.g.,thedevelopmentofLNGterminalsinMexicotoserve Californiamarkets(Carruthers,2007).Scholarshaveofferedeconomic, sociopolitical(i.e., “pathofleastresistance”),andracialdiscriminationexplanationsfortheseinjustices,aswellasprinciplesforenvironmentaljustice (Harlanetal.,2015; Mohaietal.,2009).Theseprinciples,whichhavebeen carriedforwardintoscholarshipandmovementsrelatedtoenergyand climatejustice,includedistributional,procedural,andrecognitionaljustice (Harlanetal.,2015; Jenkinsetal.,2016).
Renewablesandfracking
Specifictoenergyfacilitysiting,agrowingliteraturebegantofocusonthe sitingofrenewables.Withproposalsforwindenergybeginningtotakeoff, socialscientistsinboththeUnitedStatesandEuropebegantostudy opposition.A “socialgap” wasobservedbetweenwidespreadsupportfor renewablesbutlocaloppositiontoparticularprojects.Reviewing30years ofliteratureonpublicacceptanceofwindinNorthAmerica, Randand Hoen(2017) foundthatsupportforwinddevelopmenthasgenerallybeen high(higherthanfossilfuels),withsocioeconomic,visual,andsound impactsstronglytiedtooppositionandacceptance,moresoeventhan environmentalimpacts(Haggett,2011).Likepreviousstudiesoffossilfuel
developmentandLULUs,perceptionsofdecision-makingprocessesrelated tofairness,participation,andtrustmatter.Despitethesocialgap,NIMBYismhaslargelybeendebunkedinthesestudieswithproximityeffectson supportoroppositionunclear(Wolsink,2006, 2007).Instead,explanations foroppositionhavefocusedonplaceattachment emotionalconnections toparticularlocations andtheplace-protectiveactionsresidentsare willingtotaketopreventchanges(Devine-Wright,2009, 2011; Firestone etal.,2017).
Morerecentlyandperhapsmostrelevanttooursubjectmatter,a flurry ofacademicactivityhassurroundedpublicperceptionsandcommunity responsestofracking.Fracking orhydraulicfracturing combinedwith horizontaldirectionaldrillinghasopenedvastresourcesinshalerockfor extraction.Thistechnologicalinnovationislargelyresponsibleformanyof thechangestotheenergymarketdescribedinthisbook,aswellasthe increasedpushtoexportfossilfuels,particularlynaturalgas.Community responseandpublicperceptionsoffrackingattheextractionsitehave receivedalotofattentionfromscholarsandinthemedia,particularlyasthe technologybecameincreasinglycontroversial(Aczel&Makuch,2018; Boudetetal.,2014, 2016, 2018; Alcornetal.,2017; Bomberg,2017; Brasieretal.,2011; Bugdenetal.,2017; Bugden&Stedman,2019; Cotton, 2013; Craigetal.,2019; Davis&Fisk,2014; Dokshin,2016, 2021; Evensen,2018; Evensenetal.,2014, 2017; Grahametal.,2015; Jacquet etal.,2018; Jerolmack&Walker,2018; Junod&Jacquet,2019; Lachapelle etal.,2018; Ladd,2014; Mayer,2016; Thomasetal.,2017).Muchofthis literaturehasdrawnonconceptsandconceptualframeworksfromthe studiesdescribedpreviously theboomtownmodel,riskperception studies,theroleofcontextandplaceinshapingperceptionsandresponse, opportunity-threat,environmentaljustice,etc.Othertheoreticaland conceptualframeworkshavebeenadded includingconceptsfromthe studyofsocialmovementsandsocialrepresentationstheory.Conceptsfrom socialmovements’ studiesincludeframing,resourcemobilization,and politicalopportunitystructure,withadditionalfocusonthestrategiesand tacticsusedbyprojectsupportersandopponents(Aldrich,2008; Boudet, 2011; Boudet&Ortolano,2010; Cheon&Urpelainen,2018; McAdam& Boudet,2012; McAdametal.,2010; Sherman,2011; Vasietal.,2015; Walsh,1981; Wright&Boudet,2012).
InSocialRepresentationTheory,socialrepresentationsare “ commonsense understandingsofcomplex,oftenscientific,phenomena,generatedinthe publicsphereandreliantonthehistory,culture,andsocialstructureofthe
