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DefiningDemocracy
DemocracyasanAmbiguousSymbol
TheCritiqueofTraditionalPolicyAnalysis
StructuringDemocracy
CommunitarianismandDemocracy
DemocratizingStepsIthroughIVandInsertingaNewFifthStepintoaSix-StepModel
DoingDemocracy:PostpositivistTools
EthicsasDemocracy
ATiethatBinds
Mini-Case: Kathmandu: Red Pandas, Hunger, USAID, and Agriculture in Nepal
ConcludingThoughts
GlossaryTerms
Case Study: So You Want to Be a Policy Analyst?
Notes
Chapter9
LettingYouShowOff
PartIVConclusion:Praxis/Practice
Mini-Case: Drug Abuse and Waterville (Revisited)
ConcludingThoughts
Glossary
Bibliography Index
8-6
BOXES
DoYouReallyBelieveWhatYouAreSaying?
NeedleExchangesNeedleGovernorWhitman SugarBeetsversusCandy
AnotherLookatOrwell’s Animal Farm
TheUseandMisuseofInternetSurveys
Oops:ExtrapolationinPractice
UptoMyElbowsandBeyond Positivism,Postmodernism,Postpositivism,andPraxis
EvaluatingRisk(andScience):GMOsandVaccines BlackLetterLaw?
TheChocolateCakeintheClassroomStory BiographyandPolicyAnalysis
Baseball,ATragicTale,FocusingEvents,andMultipleStreams DifferentCauses,DifferentSolutions
TheAdviceIsSimple;theRealityIsn’t TeenageDrugUse
InsideBaseball:PostpositivismversusPositivism South Park andSchoolShootings
BureaucraticHorrorStories:PublicversusPrivate AirRegulation:WilsonversusStone Democracy:Problems,Descriptions,andSolutions ChangingtheGame
BigHearts,ColdCash,andValueConflict MonologicCommunication
Voting:RulesMatter,ButDoResultsTellUsAnything? GoodandBadFacilitation
our collective hats on in PPP1 These academic orientations talked about subjectivity and ambiguity or, in otherwords,theprimacyofpolitics Thesewereinsightsthatourmentorhadgainedinthe1960s,1970s,and 1980s without ever hearing of postpositivism and postmodernism. Again, though, none of this meant we rejected rationality, rigor, or pragmatism Indeed, our central critique of postpositivism and postmodernism was that its adherents had often failed to explain how to make it useful Praxis is “about” theory informing practice, and we believed that this mattered Public administration and policy analysis education has long emphasizedtidiness,stages,andrationality.Partofthisisexplainedbythefactthatacademiaitselfstresses falsification,objectivity,andneutralityinscience,butpractitionersfrequentlymustdealwithaworldwhere objectivityisbuffetedby,repressedby,andsometimesdefeatedbyvalueconflict Aspart-timepractitioners, andregularlyworkingwithfull-timepractitioners,thisisnotourscholarlyopinion,butgroundedintheworld policyanalystsconfront.
Unfortunately, when we wrote PPP1, the dichotomy between the tidy world of positivism and the messinessofpostpositivismmeantthatmostscholarspickedasiloandstayedthere Butnow,nearly20years later, as suggested earlier, that has changed Smith and Larimer (2013, pp 118–119) argue that there is an “emerging middle ground” between the two camps. They suggest that rationalists realize that they must accountforthe“fracturedandvalue-ladennatureofthepoliticalarena”andthattheunderlyingassumptions of individual rationality have come under increased attack as the social sciences better understand how individualsmakesdecisions(p 19) Atthesametime,SmithandLarimerconclude,therationalistapproachis importantbecauseitprovidesevidenceanddatainpolicydisputesandthisevidenceplaysanimportantrolein the policy process (p 19) PPP3 sits nicely in this new policy world and perhaps our book helped the disciplinelandhere
Public Policy Praxis provides students with the ability to grapple with ambiguity and complexity by offering six different analytical models of policy analysis: the rational model (Chapter 2), the quantitative model(Chapter3),thepoliticalmodel(Chapter5),thepragmaticmodel(Chapter6),apostpositivist-inspired model (Chapter 7), and the democratic model (Chapter 8) By still emphasizing mixed methodologies, students are encouraged, through the use of cases, to synthesize these different models into a workable and practicalapproachtoappliedpolicyanalysis.Inadditiontotheseanalyticalmodels,weprovidespecifictools ofpolicyanalysis,suchasstakeholdermapping,contentanalysis,groupfacilitation,narrativeanalysis,costbenefit analysis, futuring, and survey analysis Students are given the opportunity to try out these globally applicable analytical models and tools in varied case settings (e.g., county, city, federal, international, plus urbanandrural)whilefacingwide-rangingtopics(economicdevelopment,e-cigarettes,GMOs,expansionof humanservices,buildingahealthcareclinicinaruralcommunity,aninner-citydrugprogram,andthebison controversyinYellowstoneNationalPark)thatcapturethediversityandrealityofpublicpolicyanalysisand theintergovernmentalandcomplexnatureofpolitics.WhileourcasesareprimarilysetintheUnitedStates, wethinkthatourcasesplaywellforinternationalaudiences.Forexample,thelessonsfromacaseaboutbison inanationalparkintheUnitedStatescouldeasilybetranslatedtoacontroversyaboutendangeredelephants inAfrica Asweoftentellourstudents,weusecasestoteachthecentralityofpoliticsinpublicpolicy The caseitselfisimportantandinterestingbutcasesareusedprimarilytodemonstratetheoryinaction.
Wehopethis editionofthebookevenbetter capturesourfundamentalviewofpolicy analysis.Westill believethatpolicyanalysisrequiresacombinationofknowledgeandskills Studentsneedtolearnaboutthe politicsofthepolicyprocessaswellashowtodopolicyanalysis Alongwithteaching“howto,”wediscuss thelimitations,thepracticalpoliticalproblems,andtheethicalproblemsassociatedwithdifferenttechniques and methodologies Pedagogically, we rely heavily on a case approach Tactically, we rely on mixed methodologies
Politicsisattheheartofpolicyandadministration,andpolicymakingisrootedinstorytelling Although gettingandkeepingajobasapolicyanalystmaydependonexpertiseandtechnicalskills,policyanalysisis predominantly not about “objective” material facts, but rather about battles among ideas and about socially constructedcategoriesofsharedmeaning(eg,aboutwhatisdeviantandcriminalornormalandaboutwhois undeservingordeserving)
Eventheselectionoftoolsandproceduresisavalue-ladenchoicethatcandeterminetheoutcomeandthe winnerortheloser Thepolicyprocesscentersonvalueconflictandchoosing includingthechoicesrelevant to democracy (eg, what role should public sentiment play and who gets to sit around the table when determining criteria or selecting options) Public policy analysis is fundamentally not about technical questions.
Thus,insum, webelievethatthefailureof politicalscienceand publicadministrationto findandteach practical yet democratic methodologies of policy analysis had real consequences but that today many programs have moved beyond this and our approach is no longer filling a niche but instead is now the mainstream.Wearguethatpragmatismdemandsthatpolicyanalystsunderstandpoliticsandthatthefieldis
Organization,Approach,andChangesintheThirdEdition
While there are changes to the book, we never waver from our focus on theory and practice Chapter 1 introducesthecentralityofpower,valueconflict,politics,anddemocracy InChapter1,thenowclassiccase “Drug Abuse and Waterville” throws students right into the world of policy analysis Students are also first introducedtodemocracy,thepolicyprocess,stakeholdermapping(usingthecase“Big-Mart:CheapGoodsat WhatPrice?”involvingthesitingofalargemassmerchandisestoreinacommunity),astakeholdermapping tool, political IOUs, the strategic use of words and numbers, and the role that the analyst’s values play in policyanalysis Chapter1alsoincludesanexpandedintroductiontopoliticalstorytellingasakeycomponent ofthebook.
Chapter2retainsthepopularmini-case“PortersvilleHealthClinic,”alongwithadiscussionofVietnam and“wickedproblems”andwhentouse,andnotuse,therationalmodel Italsoincludesthetimelynewcase “DemocracyorScience?ClimateChangeandGMOs,”whichhasthestudentanalystgrapplewiththetension betweenbeliefsandsciencethatoftenunderpinsourcontemporarypolicydebates.
Chapter 3 opens with a defense of the use of Big Data and evidence in policy decision making Then, using a case integrated throughout the chapter which uses the example of an analyst working for local government, five tools of rational analysis are explored through their application, including sampling and surveys (including an examination of Internet surveys), extrapolation and forecasting, measures of central tendency,discounting,andcost-benefitanalysis Wealsodiscussdata-analyticskills,andtopicsrangingfrom building a new community swimming pool to workplace safety The chapter also reminds readers of: the potentialpitfalls,andsometimesintentionalmisuse,ofthesetools;theirimplicationsfordemocracy;andthe factthattheycannotmakenormativeandpoliticalquestionsgoaway.
Chapter 4 retains the original critique of the rational model An e-cigarette case, “Vaping Politics and Policy Up in Smoke,” helps highlight this chapter’s theoretical and practical critique of rationality The chapter provides examples of the power of various nonrational explanations of policy and then details four critiques of rationality: intellectual/analytical critique, a (new) cognitive critique, a political/institutional critique,andanideological/philosophicalcritique Twomini-casesaddtothepraxiselementasstudentsgetto applytheoriestospecificpolicyproblems Additionaldiscussionsincludethefallacyofblackletterlaw,and rationalityandGMOs,vaccinations,terrorism,andgluten-freediets
InChapter5,twoclassiccases themini-case,“PocatelloPrisonSitingStory:ACaseofPolitics”anda shortened “The Expansion of Human Services in Allegheny County, 1968–95, Section I” highlight this chapter’sformalintroductiontoanonrational(political)modeltopolicyanalysis Thechapterbeginswitha concise but thorough historical and contemporary discussion of developments in policy process theory, includingtheMultipleStreamsApproach,theAdvocacyCoalitionFramework,PunctuatedEquilibrium,and Narrative Policy Framework The chapter then proceeds through the policy cycle of problem identification and agenda setting (including discussion of the role of narratives and language in that process, policy formulation,adoption,andfunding,andpolicyimplementation).
InChapter6,readerslearnmoreaboutproblemdefinition,criteriaestablishment(toevaluatealternatives), generatingpolicyalternatives,evaluatingandselectingpolicies,andevaluationresearch Wehaveupdatedthe casestudy“PlayingPolitics:Bison,Brucellosis,Business,andBureaucrats”and,respondingtofeedbackfrom professorsovertheyears,haveincludedteachingresourceideas.
Chapter7 focuses on the power of language and problem definition. The tragedy of school shootings is updatedwithnewanalysisandliterature AdiscussionofHurricaneKatrinaandtheBPoilspillandcausation theory also plays an important rolein Chapter7 Although all of the flaws and problems are explained, the reader learns how to conduct content analysis and narrative analysis, and how to facilitate focus groups, futuringsessions,andmeetingsdesignedtoresolveconflictandbuildconsensus
Chapter8focusesondemocracyasthekeyethicalissueinpolicyanalysisandoncivicengagement(or how to “do” democracy) with updated literature A new mini-case “Kathmandu: Red Pandas, Hunger, USAID, and Agriculture in Nepal” ties together not only ideas from Chapter 8, but 1–7 as well. Also, the chapterstillcloseswith“SoYouWanttobeaPolicyAnalyst?”
Finally, Chapter 9 takes readers back to the first chapter’s Waterville case; readers can demonstrate knowledge of policy analysis as a coherent whole and utilize all of the separate elements they have learned about.Thisshortchapterpresentsvirtuallynonewmaterial.Asthroughoutthebook,andthistimebasedon theentirebook,readersarepresentedwiththechancetoapplywhattheyhavelearnedandtolearnbydoing; theyarethenaskedtoreflectonwhattheydid
Mostprofessors,especiallythoseteachingagraduatecourse,pairourtextwithotherbooks However,the
breadth of our approach makes it is possible to build an entire course around our text if the cases are fully utilized In particular, the bison case in Chapter6 can serve as a major research project for student analyst teams.
Further,thenewTeachingAppendixisincludedonlineforadoptersandisnotinthebook Reviewersof the second edition thought that this move would give faculty more flexibility on how they use the many teaching ideas in the appendix PartI of this dramatically updated teaching tool available online for faculty adoptersofthetextbookincludesninefullydevelopedteachingexercises,includingcasesrangingfromorgan donationtoaschoolfight,whilecoveringtopicsrangingfromnarrativeanalysistothewayvotingrulesaffect results Additionally, Part II offers nine more teaching aids (such as links to other cases and articles, pedagogicalideasonhowtousematerials,andsupplementalmaterialdirectlytiedtoconceptscoveredinthe text). Topics covered here include cognitive differences between liberals and conservatives, GMOs, the politicsofwolves,andaflagburningcase,aswellasskillssuchashowtodocodingforcontentanalysis It alsoincludesananswersettoproblemsofferedinChapter3
PARTI:OVERVIEW
CHAPTER1
PUBLICPOLICY,POWER,THEPEOPLE,PLURALISM, ANDYOU
Mini-Cases
“DrugAbuseandWaterville” “ThisIsn’taHiltonHotel,Ma’am”
CaseStudy
“Big-Mart:CheapGoodsatWhatPrice?”
AccordingtoProverbs1:7–9,fearisthebeginningofknowledge,foolsdespisewisdomandinstruction,and you should listen and heed teaching for it will gain you honors and rewards We tend to agree and would ratherscareyouthanboreyou So,webeginthischapterandthebookbythrowingyourightintothepolitical firestormofdoingpublicpolicyanalysis.Goodluck!
Introduction
Thanksforcompletingthecase Whileyourprofessormighthaveyouworkonthisasagrouptasklater,for now you need to think about, and thus be prepared to discuss, the following questions: How would you describetheprocessyouusedtorespondtoyourtask?Didyoutrytobeobjective?Didyourecognizeyour valuescomingintoplay?Doyoubelievethatitisappropriateforananalyst’spersonalvaluestoaffectpolicy recommendations?WhoinWatervillewouldyoubetryingtoplease?Whodoyouworkfor?Howshouldyou approach your job? Should you use your expertise and be “scientific,” or should you use more democratic1 means that encourage citizen participation? Should you just accept the stories of major players, or is that a mistake because individuals view and describe issues based on their own interests? What type of decisionmakingtoolsshouldyouuse?Shouldyouusenumbersand,ifso,howdoyouusethemappropriately?
The case and the discussion questions were successful in preparing you for the rest of this book if they madeyouthinkaboutissuesthatyounormallydonotthinkabout.Infact,thissimplecaseisveryimportant forsettingthestagefortherestofthebook.Andthisbook’ssubjectmatterishelpfulwhetherornotyouever holdajobformallydoingpolicyanalysis Governmentpolicydeterminesthelikelihoodofthefoodyoueat makingyousick,graduatesgettinggoodjobs,workersgettinginjuredorkilledonthejob,andhowmuchof yourpaycheckyougettokeep,aswellaswhatthatcollectedmoneyisspenton.Italsoimpactsthecostand availabilityofhealthcare,troopsbeingsenttofightoverseas,thecleanlinessoftheairandwateryoubreathe anddrink,andyoursafetywhenwalkingdowntown,flying,orincaseofapandemicornaturaldisaster The simple fact is this: from the minute you get out of bed until the minute you go back to bed, public policy affects your life. If you want to have the chance to affect it back, you need to learn to think like a policy analyst who understands politics, power, and stories If you don’t choose that route, like second-graders scramblingforthelastchairwhenthemusicstopsinagameofmusicalchairs,othersareverywillingtograb thatchair,sitinit,andmakedecisionsforyou
It is also important that we explain the “praxis” part of the book’s title, although you may already have turnedtoadictionary,Wikipedia,oryourprofessorforanexplanation Althoughtherearemoreideologically loadeddefinitionssomemaywishtoimposeontheterm,quitesimply, praxis means“theory-guidedaction,” whichmeansthataspracticinganalystswewantyoutothinkcriticallyaboutyourroleasananalystandapply whatyoulearn.Praxisrequiresbothactionandreflection.Ouruseoftheterm praxis alsoreflects,asdoesthe use of cases, our belief that we need both theory-guided practice and theory capable of guiding, and being guided by, practice Consequently, our approach is both guided by and tailored to both scholars and practitioners Our focus is both on “how to do” policy analysis and on how to ask questions and pose answersforyourconsideration aboutthenatureandmeaningofpolicyanalysisitself.Theunifyingtheme between those concerns, the way to get praxis, is to focus on “how it really works” in the so-called “real” world
Policyanalysisiscomplexandrequiresamethod,tools,andpoliticalknowledge Infact,whatwebelieve makes our book unique is that both of us believe that political knowledge is an essential aspect of policy analysis In fact to do a good job, we argue that policy analysis requires a mixed methodology As you go through the book, the meaning of the phrase “mixed methodology” will become increasingly clear Policy analysisisalsoaffectedbytheanalyst’svalues especiallyhisorherunderstandingofdemocracyandview oftheappropriateroleofgovernment.Beginningpolicyanalysisstudentsoftenmistakenlybelievethatgood analysiscanbelearnedbymemorizingsteps,justlikebakingacake:stepone,youdefinetheproblem;step two,youchoosecriteriatoevaluatesolutions;andsoforth Althoughyouwilllaterlearnafive-stepdecision model (in Chapter 6), we contend that good policy analysis is about critical thinking tied to an improved theoreticalunderstandingofdemocracy;humanrationalityandnonrationality;politics,power,andthepolicy process;aswellashowvarioustoolsareused(andmisused)
Infact,acentralelementofpraxisistheabilitytoreflectonyourengagementwithreality Wewillargue thatcentraltopraxisinthepolicyworldistheanalyst’sabilitytounderstandandanalyzestories Muchofour teaching and scholarship has revolved around what is commonly called narrative analysis. That is, trying to researchandteachthepowerofstoriesandlanguage
IntroducingNarrativeAnalysis
As you know, stories (also called narratives) have beginnings, middles, and endings They have heroes and villainsandinnocentvictims Well-toldstoriesengageusemotionallyandintellectually,makinguscareabout andidentifywithsomeoneelse’sexperience Thetellersofthestoriesstrategicallyframetheirstoriesforusin ways that expand or limit who is affected. Like a painting, the story frames a picture for us, focusing our attention on certain things, placing other things in the background, and leaving still other things completely out of the picture Some stories, like landscape paintings, move what previously had been thought of as backgroundintotheforeground,makingitthesubjectofthestorybeingtold
Thetellerofthetalechoosesthefocus,thewords,thecharacters,andtheanalogies,andtheygettoleave outsidetheframeofthenarrativethepartsofthestorytheydon’twantyoutofocuson Forexample,stories imposedifferentiatedtimeframesontotheveryundifferentiatedpassageoftime Anarrativealsopresentsa versionofthestory,usuallyasifitweretheonlypossiblestory Yetthatisrarelyifevertrue Onecansee this, and the potential power of your story carrying the day, in the following example. In the run-up to the 2008SummerOlympicsinChina,the New York Times carriedaneditorialbyNicholasKristof(April3,2008) explainingthatwhilethetensionbetweentheUnitedStatesandChinaispartiallybasedinconcreteinterest conflicts,itisrootedin“competingnarratives”thatprovideverydifferentlensesthroughwhichtoviewthe storyofTibet.FortheChinese,heargued,Tibetfitsnicelyintothelongandhumiliatingstoryofimperialism andinterference;offoreignerstryingtobreakup,weaken,andstopChinafromclaimingitsrightfulplacein theworld Yet,AmericanscategorizedthestoryofTibetaspartofthelongstruggleagainstcolonialismand anoppressivegovernmentdenyingbasichumanandpoliticalrights Thesortofpressurebroughttobearon China, by the United States and by the rest of the world, as well as China’s response, depends largely on whichnarrativeresonatesbest
In a sense, stories are like theories Consider the role of theory Theories are supposed to accurately describe what you can observe, and they are supposed to explain That is, they are supposed to help make senseoftheworld.Politicalsciencestudents,forexample,areoftentaughttheoriesaboutpowerandstructure. In essence, students are given special lenses with which to view the world These lenses often make visible things that they had not seen before Noted sociologist C Wright Mills (1959/1976) taught this with his concept of the “sociological imagination” His point is that we cannot simply look at the world objectively, butratherthatweseetheworldthroughthelenseswehavebeengiven.Thetheoriesandstoriesinourheads determinewhatquestionsweaskandwherewelook,ultimatelyaffectingwhatwesee
Another simple, but powerful example of this is exemplified by this famous cognitive psychology experimentthatyoucantryforyourself.Readthefollowingparagraph,andthenbeforereadingon,closethe bookandtrytorememberandexplainwhatyoujustread:
Theprocedureisactuallyquitesimple Firstyouarrangethingsintodifferentgroups Ofcourse,onepilemaybesufficientdependingon howmuchthereistodo Ifyouhavetogosomewhereelseduetoalackoffacilities,thatisthenextstep,otherwiseyouareprettywell set It is important not to overdo things That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many After the procedure is completedonearrangesthematerialsintodifferentgroupsagain Thentheycanbeputintoappropriateplaces Eventuallytheywillbe usedoncemoreandthewholecyclewillthenhavetoberepeated
(BransfordandJohnson,1972,p 723)
Okay,howdidyoudo?Didyouunderstandit?Couldyourememberitandexplainittosomeoneelse?Iflike most people the answers to these questions are: not that good, not really, and no don’t feel bad This is simplyabouthowthebrainworks.Nowthough,readthenoteattheendofthechapter2 whichtellsyouwhat theparagraphisabout,thenrereadtheparagraphandseeifitmakesmoresenseandismorememorableand explainable
Politicalstoriesthen,areattemptsbystakeholderswhenthereareconflictingvaluesandinterestsatstake, to frame the issues, to direct the public’s attention, to persuade, to convince people either to care or not, to placeblame,ortodeclareaproblemasbeingsimplythewaythingsare (Theterm stakeholders simplyrefers toindividualsorgroupsthathaveaninterestinapolicyissue Laterinthechapteryouwillbeintroducedto theprocessofstakeholderanalysis)Inpoliticalstories,itisalmostguaranteedthatthestorybeingspunhasa point, sometimes a very sharp point. Sun Tzu famously said that battles are won before they are fought, by choosing the terrain on which the battle occurs; that’s exactly what political stories are attempting to do Public opinion in the United States about gun control depends on whether a proposal is “just about backgroundchecks”orifthatsameproposalisinsteadseenasbeingaboutanationalregistryandanattackon theSecondAmendment.Policyanalystshavetolistentothesestoriesandattempttounderstandthemwithin thecontextofthepolicyissuebeingdiscussed RecallthatintheWatervillecaseseveraldifferingstorieswere
Box1-1DoYouReallyBelieveWhatYouAreSaying?
Sometimesitishardtobelievethatourpolicyopponents,ormediasourceswithabiasdifferentfromour political leanings, really believe what they are saying And often the people making political statements areconsciouslytryingtotellapersuasivestorythattheythemselvesmaynotfullybelieve,butfrequentlythey reallydobelieveexactlywhattheyaresaying Thiscanstillbecalledpoliticalposturing,though,because(as wewilldiscussinsomedetailinthenexttwochapters)proponentsofdifferentpoliciesclearlytrytoframe the issue in politically astute ways When President Clinton signed the Family and Medical Leave Act into law in early 1993, it was against the backdrop of more than five years of hard lobbying against it by corporations and the groups that represent them (eg, the US Chamber of Commerce and the National AssociationofManufacturers) Thedirewarningstheyissuedwerethatgivingemployees12weeksofunpaid leave for serious medical problems or family emergencies would lead to reduced competition in the global market,wouldreduceproductivity,and(accordingtotheNationalFederationofSmallBusinessesandothers) wouldcostjobs Somehow,theeconomymanagedrecordexpansionanyway
Afteraverylongbattlethatplayedoutsimilarly,the2006midtermelectionsresultedinadealinlateMay 2007thatledtoabilltoincreasethefederalminimumwageby$210(inthree70-centincrementsspreading out until summer 2009). Some economists, politicians, and interest group leaders first fought and then criticized the bill, with arguments about hurting the people who need help the most, causing a rise in unemployment,andhurtingbusiness Priortothesecondeditionofthisbook,ouranalysisofpastincreases, bothatthefederallevelandinmanystatesandevensomecities,suggestedalessthandraconianoutcomethat wouldhaveapositive,ifminimal,effect.Bythewritingofthethirdedition,pressurestoraisetheminimum wageandargumentsfor“alivingwage”hadtakenholdacrossthecountryandwonmanybattlesincitiesand statesacrosstheUnitedStates
SimilartalesofhowdestructivetheAffordableCareAct(Obamacare)wouldbetotheeconomyhavenot been borne out, as the economy instead has rather steadily recovered, private sector job growth been very strong,and,accordingtothenon-partisanCongressionalBudgetOffice,theAffordableCareActhashelped reducethedeficitandrepealingitwouldincreaseitby$137billionoverthenextdecade
Source:NoamN Levey 2015 “RepealingACAIncreasesDeficit,ReportConcludes” The Spokesman-Review June20,p A-3
Itisimportanttorealizethatsuchstark,zero-sum,anddualisticchoicesdonotoftencorrespondclosely with reality. Competing interests can often find compromises, shared values, and, most important, shared intereststhatcanbeusedtocreateawin–winpolicy Perhaps,afterreadingthisbook,youwilldecidethatan appropriate role for an analyst in a democracy is to facilitate a consensus-building process or at least a process that widely seeks input and that provides the opportunity for increased collective understanding of problemsandpolicieswithgreatercollectiveacceptance.
Intheirclassicstudyofsocialproblems,FullerandMyers(1941)identifysuchdifferingdefinitionsofthe “socialfacts”asillustrativeofwhattheyterm value conflict Value conflict theory centers on objective and subjective conditions. The objective condition is an empirical fact (e.g., the community is growing in population) The subjective condition is the perceptions of the objective condition by individuals or groups withdifferentvaluesorinterests(ie,onepersonseesthegrowthasbad;anotherseesthegrowthasgood) Whendiscussingvalueconflict,onecansometimesdifferentiateinterests(tangible,direct,relatedtopower, money,etc.)fromvalues(beliefs,emotions,etc.),anditoftenseemsthattodayissuesaremorevalue-based.A county clerk who won’t issue marriage licenses to people of the same sex because of his values is different than having a direct interest such as safety or power or wealth, even though the result (discrimination and refusal to do his job and follow the law) may be the same But part of the problem is that our interests and values are often so inextricably tied up even we don’t recognize the difference and it would be hard or impossibletopullthemapart So,theclerkmighthavenotonlyafaith-basedobjection,buthisobjectionmay beintimatelytiedinwithhismembershipinachurchfromwhichhegetspowerandstatusaswellasasense ofcommunityandidentity AnotherpersonmightnotlikeGMOsbecauseheorshereallyhatesMonsantoand mostcorporations(values)butalsoheorsheisconcernedabouthisorherownhealth(interest).
Fuller and Myers argue that social problems (public problems) go through a natural history of (I) awareness, (II) policy determination, and (III) “reform” (implementation of policy) Importantly, the values andinterestsofindividualsandgroupswillconflictateachstage
