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PhysicsAvoidance PhysicsAvoidance EssaysinConceptualStrategy MARKWILSON GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom
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©MarkWilson2017
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ToWinstonandKathleen
Therichprofusiontheeconfounds,mylove, Of flowers,spreadathwartthegarden.Aye, Nameuponnameassailsthyears,andeach Morebarbarous-soundingthantheonebefore Likeuntoeachtheform,yetnonealike; Andsothechoirhintsasecretlaw, Asacredmystery.Ah,lovecouldIvouchsafe Insweetfelicityasimpleanswer! Gazeonthemastheygrow,seehowtheplant Burgeonsbystagesinto flowerandfruit, Burstsfromtheseedsosoonasfertileearth Sendsittolifefromhersweetbosom,and Commendstheunfoldingofthedelicateleaf Tothesacredgoadofever-movinglight! Goethe, “TheMetamorphosisofPlants”1
1 RudolfMagnus,GoetheasaScientist,HeinzNorden,trans.(NewYork:HenryShuman,1949),p.55–6.
SUMMARYCONTENTS PREFACEANDACKNOWLEDGMENTS avoidingphysics Despiteitstitle,thisbookdoesnot “avoidphysics” inthesenseofignoringthetopic altogether.Ratheritconcernsitselfwithvariousstratagemsforevadinglengthyand unreliablepatternsofinferencethatwemightotherwiseconfrontinscience.Hereisour basicprototypeof “avoidance.” WobblyJackandJillareperchedonthetopoftheir proverbialhill,fromwhichtheywillsoontumble.Wherearetheylikelytoland?In theory,wemightpainfullycalculatetheirdownwardtrajectoriesbumpbybumpuntil wereacha finallandingplace,butdoingsorequiresanaccurateassessmentofhillside topography,theelasticcoefficients pertinenttochildren,etc.,aswell asaformidablecomputer.Such reasoningpathwaysarenotoriouslypronetoerror,andgreat careneedstobetakentoinsure thatoneofourchildrenwillnot becomelaunchedintocomputationalinterstellarspacethrougha round-offerrorwhentheyhita rock.Incontrast,considerthepolicyoflookingforthelowestpoints ofgroundatthefootofthehill; thatiswheretheywillbotheventuallytumble,wecanassuredlydecide.Althoughwecannotfullyauguratwhichof theselowestpointstheywillbefound,thepredictionswecanotherwiseobtainthrough avoidancereasoningareextremelyreliableandeasytoobtain.Inthestandardjargonof appliedmathematics,wehaveeschewedcalculationofanevolutionarydevelopment (theirdetailedbuthardtocomputetrajectoriesdownthehill)infavorofanestimation ofeventualequilibriumposition(thelocationswheretheycanremainstationary).The characterofthereasoningemployeddiffersconsiderablybetweenthetwocases,andI’ll saythatthesetwomodesexemplifydifferentformsof explanatoryarchitecture
Inthesecontexts,thephrase physicsavoidance signalstheexploitationofastrategic opportunitythatallowsustoresolveimportantphysicalquestionsinapracticalmanner. Mycentralpurposeistoalertreaderstothecharacteristicsymptomatologyofsomeof thesedistinctivereasoningpatterns.
Contemporaryphilosophicalthinkingblursmanyofthesearchitecturalingredients together,wrappingdistinctedificeswithinapoorlydiagnosedenvelopethatIcall Theory Tthinking (intributetothenumerousT’sandT’’sthatpopulatetheseabstracted discussions).Asaresult,substantiallydifferentformsofexplanatorymotifgetstuffed
avoidingintractablereasoning
intoinadequatepigeonholes,producingconsiderableconfusionintheaftermath.1 Indoingso,welosesightofthe granulardetailrequiredtounderstandhowpracticalsciencestrategicallyadaptsitselftofreshtasks.Manyof thetelltalesymptomsofdistinctreasoningarchitectures arealreadyfamiliartoappliedmathematicians,andIhope tointroducetheirdiscriminationstoawideraudiencein thisbook.
Assuch,thisislargelyaworkwithinthephilosophyof science,withaspecialemphasisonhowvariouspiecesof mathematicalapparatusshouldbe fittedtogetherincapturingaworldlybehavioreffectively(“harmonize” isa wordIwillfrequentlyutilizetothispurpose).Butthe chiefambitionoftheseessaysisnottopersuadeother philosophersthattheyshouldimitatethenarrowveinsof science-basedinquiryIpursue,buttofreethemfromtheshacklesofpseudo-scientific folklorethathampertheirownexplorationsacrossthefar-extendedterritoriesof philosophy.Contemporarywritershavecometobelievethattheymustclaimto “follow thescientificmethod” intheirdeliberations,evenwhentheypursueprojectsthatseem suspiciouslyapriori.Idon’tapproveoftheirarmchairapriorism,butthemethodological apologeticsaren’tnecessaryeither,fortheystemfrommisrepresentationsofworking science.Inarelatedvein,thesweepingportraitof “theory” ingrainedwithinconventionalTheoryTthinkinghasdiscourageddirectstudyofthesubtleexplanatorylandscapesthatcharacterizebothpracticalscienceandoureverydaymodesofdescription,to suchanextentthattheworthiestinsightsofthegreatdiagnosticiansoftwentieth-century philosophy(J.L.AustinandthelaterWittgenstein)arecommonlydismissedasunsystematicandlackinginrigor. “Theyhaven’tsuppliedapropertheory,” thecomplaint runs.Intruth,alegitimatedemandfor “theory” amountstonothingmorethan “tellme somethinghelpful.” However,itistruethatthattheprecautionsingrainedwithinthat cannyhodgepodgeoffolkwisdomthatwecall “commonsensethinking” often resemble andanticipate theformalizedreasoningarchitecturesencounteredwithin thecleverestformsofscientificphysicsavoidance.Ourappreciationofthecultivated subtletiesofcommonsensethinkingcanbeincreased,Ithink,fromarecognitionofthe factthatmanyvarietiesofwell-documentedscientificstrategyoperatealongrather similarlines.Iwillbethereforepleasediftheseruminationsencourageotherwritersto directlycultivatethedescriptivepoliciesthatunderpinoureverydaymodesofpractical discourse,withoutanyneedtoexaminestrings,rubberbands,andseesawsinthedetail providedhere.
Atthepresentmoment,however,anyeffectivedeflationofpseudo-scientificmethodologymustprobablybeginontheTheoryTsideoftheledger,becausethat’swhere
1 InsofarasIcandetermine,thesesameT-ladenpropensitieshavebeenperpetuatedwithinthesinewsofpossible worldthinking,aschampionedbythelateDavidLewis.SeeEssay6formoreonthistheme.
therestrictivetenetsofwhichIcomplainobtaintheirersatzcredentials.Sometimesthe bestwaytocombatpseudo-scientificprejudiceissimplytoevokeconcretescientificfact. That,essentially,ismyprojectintheseessays.Unfortunately,thepracticesthatmost effectivelyrevealthedeficienciesofTheoryTthinkingaresubtleintheirinternal contours,andthesleddingwithinsomeoftheseessaysmaysometimesgetabit bumpy.Someoftheseexpositoryjoltsmerelyreflectpoorwritingonmypart,but otherintricaciesappearsimplybecausenaturehasmadeitso thepathsofreasoningit tolerateswithrespecttoourphysicalsurroundingsarecrookedandcannotbemade straight.Indeed,asignificantpartofmynarrativetaskliesinexplainingwhyeasythings oftenrelyupontrickyrationales.Withoutqualms,baffledreadersshouldskimlightly overanyturgidpassagesthatimpedetheiradvance,forIthinkthatmycentralmorals canbeadequatelygraspedwithoutmasteringeverykinkineveryexamplethatIpresent.
Arecurringthreadrunningthroughoutthebookisthenecessityofapproaching conceptualinnovationinamannerthatisbiologicallyplausibleandcomputationally feasible.Weare,afterall,creaturesofrelativelysmallbrain,andthephysicalworldcasts descriptiveopportunitiesourwaythatarevariedinstrategiccharacterwithlittleregard forourinferentiallimitations.Oftenthekeytoadaptive successisto findwaystore-engineerafamiliarreasoning schemeAintoafreshroutinethataddressestaskBina swiftandrelativelypainlessmanner.Theresultsoften providesignificantcomputationaladvancecloakedinconceptualmuddle,forthestrategiesthatunderpinpolicy Bcanbequitedifferentfromthosethatrationalize A.Wecandiscoveraworthyroutinewhilemisdiagnosing itsunderlyingrationale,justaswecannimblyexecutecard tricks,withoutunderstandingwhytheysucceed(thelatter oftenrequiresdeepmathematics).
parlortrickswithreasoning
Manyofthesebasicissuesareoutlinedinapreliminary mannerwithinEssay1,butmanyreadersmayprefer jumpingdirectlyintothewatersofanyofthesubsequent essays,forimmediateswimmingisoftenmoreappealing thanlongdisquisitionsondryland.Everyessayinthis volumebeganlifeasaself-sustainedlecture,andeveryonecanberead,adlibitum,apart fromtheothers.Doingsoentailssomedegreeofrepetitionandcross-referencingacross chapters,buttheresultsarepreferable,Ithink,tomypreviousliteraryproduction (WanderingSignificance2),whichblossomedintoapinkenormitythroughanoverly earnestattempttothreadalinearnarrativethroughveryvariegatedterritory.Virtually nothingappearingherehasbeenpublishedbefore.3
Thatisnottosaythatthethemesexploredacrosstheseessaysdonotalignwithone anotherfairlytightly,andmostofthemareorganizedaroundoneofthemanypuzzles
2 MarkWilson,WanderingSignificance (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2006).
3 PortionsofEssay5appearedin “StitchingTogetheraLanguageforScience,” AnalyticPhilosophy 56(4)(2015).
thatemergewhenweattempttoexplicatehowtheloosebundleofdescriptivetechniquescalled “classicalphysics” appliessoeffectivelytothemacroscopicworldaboutus. Inmyinitialplottings,Ihadexpectedtoframethiscollectionaroundalongsurvey articleentitled “Whatis ‘Classical Physics’ Anyway?”,portionsof whichhavebeenpublishedelsewhere.4 Ieventuallydecidedthat thisprefacewasn’tnecessary.However,itiswithintheapplicational contextsoftraditionalclassical mechanicsthatI firstrecognized theimportanceofasymptoticconnectionsacrosscharacteristicscales (Essays1and5)andtheconceptual confusionsthatoftenfollowintheir wake.
Inbrief,hereisasummaryof contents.
Essay1(“Pragmatics’ PlaceattheTable”)arguesfortheimportanceofinvestigative contextasanimportantvehicleforreasoningcompression,supportingthevaried explanatoryarchitecturesthatallowustocapturethephysicalworldintractable terms.ThisessayrecapitulatesthecentralargumentofWanderingSignificance in variantterms.
Essay2(“PhysicsAvoidance”)distinguishessomefundamentalclassesofexplanatory architecturefollowingthediscernmentsofappliedmathematics.Inmyopinion,descriptivephilosophyofsciencewouldbegreatlyimprovedifthesediagnostictoolswere morewidelyemployed.Thesedistinctionswillfrequentlyreappearinotheressays.
Essay3(“FromtheBendingofBeamstotheProblemofFreeWill”)outlineshow Leibniz’sstrangemetaphysicalviewsstemfrommathematicalconcernsintimately linkedtothemethodologicalconsiderationsofEssay5.Hisinsightshaveprovedhelpful tomeinotheressaysandhaveguidedmetoabetterappreciationofwhat “metaphysics” shouldbeabout.
Essay4(“TwoCheersforAnti-Atomism”)isanotherhistoricallyorientedchapter focusinguponPierreDuhem’smethodologicalinsightswithrespecttoclassificatory wordssuchas “temperature.” ThisessayislonganddetailedbecauseDuhemdirectsour attentiontoacomplicatedrangeofsubtlefactsabouttheapplicationalrangeofthermal vocabulary.Toitsdetriment,contemporaryphilosophicalthinkingwithrespectto linguisticreferenceseemslargelyunawareofconsiderationsofthistype,soproviding asomewhatlengthyrésuméofDuhem’sconcernsstrikesmeasaworthyexpositional project.Theconclusionsreachedarestronglycomplementarywiththethemesof
4 RobertBatterman,ed.,OxfordHandbookofthePhilosophyofPhysics (NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress, 2013).
roadmaptothebookahead
otherchapters.Again,thisessayisintendedasatributetoanothermajorinfluenceupon mythinking.
Essay5(“TheGreedinessofScales”)outlinestheworkingarchitecturesofmodern multiscalarmodelingtechniques,inamannerthatextendsthediscussionofinvestigative contextfromEssay1.Concreteorganizationalproposalsofamultiscalarcharacterhelp usrecognizethedistortionsandvagariesendemicwithinstandardTheoryTthinking.
Essay6(“BelieversintheLandofGlory”)criticizescontemporarymetaphysics’ tacit relianceuponthecoarsecategoriesofTheoryTthinking,whichhasmisdirected philosophicalattentionawayfromthepuzzlesofappliedmathematicaltechniquethat originallyconcernedLeibnizandotherhistoricalauthorities.
Essay7(“IsThereLifeinPossibleWorlds?”)examinesthetopsy-turvymannerin whichthinkingaboutcausationincontemporary “possibleworld” termsinvertsthe practicalconsiderationsthatrationalizeappealstocounterfactualpossibilitywithin effectivescience.Theessayalsoemphasizestheroleofreliabilitywithinany “science” worthyofthename.ApossiblelinktoWittgenstein’slaterthoughtissketchedaswell.
Essay8(“SemanticMimicry”)suppliesmycentralexemplarofhow “easythingsrely upontrickysupportiverationales.” Itconcentratesuponthelong-vexedproblemsof describingacontinuousmaterialinacoherentway.Thisisprobablythemosttechnicallydemandingoftheessays.
Essay9(“ASecondPilgrim’sProgress”)criticizescontemporaryformulationsof “naturalism” fromtheperspectiveofappliedmathematics,especiallyinregardto mistakenpresumptionsabouttherolethatsettheoryplayswithinitsdeliberations. Althoughtheseassortedessaysemphasizethemanyvarietiesofstrategicarchitecture thatscienceandcommonsenseutilizeinaddressingnature’sdescriptivechallenges, Iwriteasneitherapluralistnorananti-realist.5 Instead,Iseemyselfasrevivingolder strainsofskepticalconcernwithrespecttoourabilitiestoreasonthoroughlyaboutour surroundingsinmathematicalways.JohnLockewrites:
Reason,thoughitpenetratesintothedepthsoftheseasandearth,elevatesourthoughtsas highasthestarsandleadsusthroughthevastspacesandlargeroomsofthismightyfabric, yetitcomesfarshortoftherealextentofevencorporealbeing,andtherearemany instanceswhereitfailsus.6
5 e.g. intheveinofNancyCartwright,HowTheLawsofPhysicsLie (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1983). AlthoughCartwright’swritingscorrectlyhighlightinferentialpatternstowhichphilosophersshouldpaygreaterattention, shegenerallysuppliesthemwithaglossdiametricallyoppositetothatIwouldfavor.Forexample,shecorrectlyobserves thatproductiveinferentialpathwaysleadingtousefulempiricalconclusionsoftenhingeupontheorderinwhichvarious limitsaretaken.Butshethencharacterizesthesebehaviorsasthetypical “putupjobs” thatphysicistssupplywhenthey deceptivelypretendthattheyhavecapturedthe “dappledworld” withinaunifiedphysicalframework.Incontrast, Iregardthosesamelimit-sensitivebehaviorsascharacteristicoftheasymptotictechniquesforwhichappliedmathematicianshavedevelopedcompellingrationalesfortheirfrequentappearanceswithininferentialpractice.Thenotionthat thereisanything “deceptive” or “idealized” abouttheirinvocationstrikesmeasaltogethermisguided.Thisisnottosay thatmanymysteriesabouthowasymptotictechniquesstoredatastillremain.Butthesemerelystrikemeasagendaitems forfurtherresearch,notgroundsforphilosophicaldespair.
6 JohnLocke,AnEssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1979),p.681.
Atbottom,mathematics’ abilitiestocapturenature’sunfoldingprocesseswithinitsown conceptualtermsrestuponitscapacitiesforsupplyingalgorithmsthatcan filloutpieces ofgraphpaperinanumericalmanner,inhopeofparallelingnaturalprocessinahelpful fashion.Prosecutednaïvely,wealreadyknowthatsucheffortsaredoomedtofailure, because,interalia,naturepresentsuswithlotsofmanifoldsthatcan’tbesmoothlymappedto flatpiecesofpaper (videtheproblemsofgraphingagoose’ s flightovera curvaceousearthdiscussedinEssay9).Inthisfashion, ourmostbasicmodesofeffectivemathematicalreasoning mustfall “shortoftherealextent” ofnaturalprocess.But thisishardlytheendofthestory,forclevermathematicianshavedevelopedmanysophisticatedstrategiesfor stringingtogetherpatchworksofnumericalapproximationthatallowustofeelthatwehavenonetheless “understoodnature” inafullysatisfactorymanner,despitethe algorithmiclimitationsuponourconcretereasoningcapacities.Centraltomostvarietiesofthisliberationfrom computationalshortsightednessarethetoolsofsettheory andthedifferentialcalculus.Buttheseappealsfrequentlyintroducedescriptiveexaggerationsofthesorthighlightedas “thegreedinessofscales” probleminEssay5.At present,mathematiciansrepairthesedescriptivelapsesthroughcorrectivedosesof asymptoticinterconnection,followingOliverHeaviside’smaxim:
Itissaidthateverybanehasitsantidoteandsomeamateurbiologistshavedeclaredthat theantidoteistobefoundnearitsbane.7
Inthisvein,appliedmathematicshasdevelopedwonderfullyilluminatingexplanations forwhyourlotaslimitedcreaturesofnatureisdoomedtoperpetualchallenge,aswell assuggestingawidearrayofcleverreasoningarchitecturestoworkaroundthese obstacles.Thisevaluationofourcomputationalpredicamentisnotpluralistinthe usualphilosopher’ssense;itmerelysuppliesstraightforwardscientificexplanationsof thediversedescriptivedemandsthatmakemoreimpatientthinkerspresumethatwe shouldbecomepluralistsoranti-realists.SothemethodologicalmoralIextractis:be morepatientanddonotfallpreytoextremephilosophicalremedies.
Buthowfarcanweadvancethroughthesedeviousmethodsofconceptualrepairand whatwillthefabricofaffectedsciencelooklikeinthefuture?Idon’tknow,andIdoubt thatanyoneelsealivecansupplyreliableappraisalsofthisprognosticcast.Other philosophers,however,believethattheyhavesomehowestablishedanArchimedean perchfromwhichthisfuturisticfeatcanbeaccomplished.InsofarasIcandetermine, theseillusionsofconfidencelargelytracetoourunfortunateheritageofTheory Tthinking,asimplisticmethodologyinwhichmathematicalscienceallegedlysupplies
7 OliverHeaviside,ElectromagneticTheory,Vol.II(NewYork,Chelsea,1971),pp.31–2.Theoriginalcontextis explainedinEssay5.
JohnLocke
“ processes ” thatparallelnature’sowninatidilyisomorphicfashion.Inonefellswoop, manyofthedetaileddescriptiveconcernsthatanimatedthegreatmetaphysicalwriters ofthepastgetremovedfromthedocketofphilosophicalattention.Ihopethatthese essaysmayassistinreversingtheseprematureexclusions.
WhenLockewonderedaboutourcapacityforunderstanding “therealextentof corporealbeing,” heworriedskepticallyaboutourabilitytocapturethevariedphenomenaencounteredamongstordinarysolidslikewoodandsteel(cohesion,elasticity, fracture,transmissionofcoherentwork)withinaunifiedandcoherentconceptual package.Mostofmyownexamplesfocusuponthesamecongeriesofdescriptive concern,butwiththeadvantagesofmodernhindsight.Materialsciencehasmade greatadvanceswithrespecttothebehaviorsofsolidsinthecenturiessinceLocke wrote,andimportantaspectsofthesehistoricaldevelopmentshaveinvolveddeepand subtlerevisionsinhowscientiststhinkabouttheconceptsandthecapacitiesofapplied mathematics.Wecannowrender “corporealbeing” afargreaterdegreeofrepresentationaljusticethanLockeanticipated,butweachievethisfeatbycatchingtherelevant behaviorswithinmorecomplexformsofconceptualnettingthanhecouldhavepossibly envisioned.InsofarasIcansee,aconsiderablepercentageofcontemporaryphilosophers remainoblivioustothesemodernizingalterationsandattempttocobblebywith classicalconceptionsof “concept” verymuchlikeLocke’ sown. 8 Asuitablecorrective issimplytoreturntoLocke’soriginalphysicalconcernsandponderthemafreshinlight ofwhatwenowknow.Such,essentially,isthetaskoftheseessays.
Yet,asLockeandtheothergreatBritishessayistsandpoetsofhistimeemphasized, weforeverremainlimitedcreaturesofnatureandcanonlyprovisionallyevaluateour capacitiesforunderstandingtheworldaroundusbaseduponthepracticaladvanceswe findourselvesabletomake.Philosopherscannotserveasprophetsanymoreeffectively thanourfellowcaptivesofnature,andweshouldnotpretendotherwise.Neither conceptualanalysisnortranscendentalmusingsnoraprioriintuitioncanfreeusfrom theseempiricallimitations.Atbest,wecanassembleprovisionalprogressreportswith respecttohowmatterspresentlyappear.Butdoingsocompetentlyrequiresthatwe attendtothecomplexitiesofexplanatorylandscapeinamoredetailedmannerthanis commonwithinphilosophytoday.
Suchmusingshaveledtoaninterestinthemultiscalartechniquesofmodern computing,andIwasfortunatetohavemyfriendBobBatterman,independently studyingthesetopics,rejoinmeonthePittsburghphilosophyfacultyafewyearsago. ThefruitsofunceasingconversationswithBobappearoneverypageofthisbook,even whenitisnotevidenttotheuntrainedeye.IamfurthergratefultoBobforsecuringa grantfromtheJohnTempletonFoundationthatsupportedmeasIstruggledto completethisfulsomemanuscript.
AsecondcentralinfluencearrivedwithanotherimporttoourAlleghenybanks,Jim Woodward,whoseinsightfulworkoncausationhasgreatlyenhancedmyrecognitionof
8 SeeWanderingSignificance,Chapter3,formoreonthe “classicalpictureofconcepts.”
thelinguisticadjustmentsthatopenunexpectedpathwaysfromoneformofcomputationalarchitecturetoanother.Essay6’smusingson “theearlyapriori” starthere.
Ihavepresentedmuchofthismaterialinawiderangeofforumsoverseveralyears, andIfearthatIcannotrecallallofthekindfolkswhohaveofferedmehelpfuladvice. Butsomeofthemare:JamesAllen,JeremyAvigad,GordonBelot,RobertBrandom, JuliaBursten,A.W.Carus,KathleenCook,JoshEisenthal,SébastienGandon,Brice Halimi,JeremyHeis,JenniferJhun,JeffKing,PeterKoellner,MichaelListon,John MacFarlane,AlanNelson,JillNorth,MeghanPage,KennethPearce,Christopher Pincock,MarkRichard,TomRicketts,RobertSchwartz,EricaShumener,Sheldon Smith,KatieTabb,andJimWeatherall.Asusual,Iagainthankmymostfaithful respondents,MichaelFriedman,AnilGupta,PenMaddy,GeorgeWilson,aswellas myindulgenteditor,PeterMomtchiloff.
Pittsburgh,2016
1 PRAGMATICS ’ PLACE ATTHETABLE LessonsfromMultiscalarScience [O]urcommonstockofwordsembodiesallthedistinctionsmenhavefoundworth drawing,andtheconnectionstheyhavefoundworthdrawing,inthelifetimesof manygenerations:thesesurelyarelikelytobemorenumerous,moresound,sincethey havestooduptothelongtestofthesurvivalofthe fittestandmoresubtle,atleastin allordinaryandreasonablypracticalmatters,thananythatyouorIarelikelyto thinkupinourarm-chairsofanafternoon themostfavoredalternativemethod.
J.L.Austin1
Warning!Thisessaywillshiftratherdramaticallybetweentheuncomfortablyloftyand thedisconcertinglynitty-gritty,foritwilleventuallydiscussthebehaviorofgraniteand steelinmoredetailthaniscustomarywithinaphilosophicalessay.2
Letusbeginwithsomeoftheuncomfortablyloftyissues.ConsiderWittgenstein’ s oldslogan: “Meaningisuse.” Jauntyaphorismssuchasthisserveasphilosophy’sformof Rorschachtest:theirexplicationrevealsmoreaboutthepsychologyoftheirinterpreter thantheyencodeintheirownright.Withthatunderstanding,I’lldevelopmyowngloss onitscontenthere.
Butletme firstexplainwhyIhavepositionedthepresentessay firstinthiscollection. Atheart,Iconsidermyselfaphilosopheroflanguage,interestedinthequestion, “Why willanevolvingdescriptivepracticesometimesfallintostrangeformsofconceptual confusion,despitethefactthatitspractitionershavenotrecognizedthattheyhavemade anyobviouskindofblunder?” Therichesttraditionsoftwentieth-centurycommonsense philosophy(epitomizedbyJ.L.Austin)maintainedthattheseanomaliesarisebecause effectivereal-lifeusageiscontrolledbysubtlecontextualfactorsthatweoftenoverlook. ButtheunsystematiccharacterofthediscussionsprovidedbyAustin’sschoolstrike mostmodernreadersastoohaphazardtoqualifyasaplausibleaccountoflinguistic practice.Howcouldoneeverlearnalanguageasirregularlyframedasthat?
Itturnsout,however,thatcontextualdependenciesofthesorthighlightedbythe commonsensephilosophersarealsoactivewithinaproperlyoperatingphysicalscience. Recentprogressinthemultiscalarmodelingofcomplexmaterials(suchassteelor granite)stemsfromtherealizationthatscientificsuccesscanbeachievedonlyifthe descriptivevocabulariesutilizedaresubjectedtoacarefullymonitoredsetofcontextual restrictions,notwhollyunlikethespecialized “ usages ” ofthecommonsenseschool. Thesemoderncomputationalrecipesfactoracomplicatedproblemintoanestedsetof discreteinvestigations,whichsupplyacollectionoflocalizedcontextsthatembedded terminologiescansubsequentlyexploitwithgreatefficiency.Ibelievethatthedivisions oflinguisticlaborexemplifiedwithinthesemodelingschemessupplyuswithexcellent illustrationsofhowthelooseappealsto “ usage ” characteristicoftheordinarylanguage schoolcanbeformalizedinapreciseandsystematicallylearnablemanner.Thepurpose ofthischapteristoexplicatethebasicnatureofthesestructuraladvantages.
Butletus firstrehearsetheconsiderationsthathaveleadmanycontemporary philosopherstorejecttheappealsto “ use ” characteristicoftheoldBritishschool.In thisvein,considerJerryFodor’sbrusqueobjectiontothenotionthatpragmatically inflectedusagecanplayanysignificantrolewithinthestoryoflanguage:
Thoughtabouttheworldispriortothoughtabouthowtochangetheworld.Accordingly, knowingthatispriortoknowinghow.DescarteswasrightandRylewaswrong.Why, afteralltheseyears,doesonestillhavetorepeatthesethings?3
2 JohnMacFarlaneonceintroducedmeasfollows: “TherearesomeattheUniversityofPittsburghwhoremainloyal totheheritageofWilfridSellars,butWilsonisloyaltoitsheritageof steel ”
3 JerryA.Fodor,LOT2:TheLanguageofThoughtRevisited (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2008),p.14.Amore exactingtreatmentofalliedthemescanbefoundinJeffreyKingandJasonStanley, “Semantics,PragmaticsandtheRoleof SemanticContent” inZóltanGendlerSzabó,ed.,SemanticsversusPragmatics (NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2005).
Articulatedinlesstendentiousterms,theargumentruns:
1.Tasksthatrequirelanguagefortheirsuccessfulexecutiongenerallydemandthat articulatedstretchesofindividualsentencesgetlaiddownindialogues.Thisis thelinguisticlevelatwhichpragmaticpurpose(“meaningisuse”)should normallydisplayitself.
2.Buttheindividualsentenceswithinthesedialoguesmustbeunderstood first beforethepurposeofthelargergroupingstowhichtheybelongcanbe adequatelyrecognized.
3.Parsingthesecomponentsentencesinturnrestsuponafoundationoflexical graspandgrammaticalrecursion.
4.Theserecursiveprocessesofsemanticrecognitionmusttranspirebeforethe pragmaticpurposeofadialoguecanbegrasped,bywhichtimetheprimary “meanings” ofitscomponentsentencesmustbe firmlylockedinplace.
Thus: Thoughtabouttheworldispriortothoughtabouthowtochangetheworld. IagreewithFodorthatpopularaccountsofpragmaticrelevancethatappeallooselyto unsystematicnotionsofcontextcannotaddresstheseobjectionsadequately.4 Thelines ofthoughtpursuedinthisessayfollowadifferentpath.Tokeeptheirreasoning practiceswithinpracticalbounds,engineersdivideamodelingtaskintoacollectionof moreorlessindependentalgorithms,controlledbyanexternalregisterthatmonitors theoverarchingstrategicpurposestowhichthelocalizedresultseventuallycontribute. Wefollowsimilarpoliciesofstrategicguidanceineverydaydiscourseaswell,for essentiallythesamereasons.Ifwehopetounderstandthecomplicatedpatternsin whichphysicalterminologiesattachthemselvestotheworldwithinreal-lifespeech,we must firstappreciatetheremarkablelinguisticefficienciesthataccruetothecontextual factorsweshallsurvey.Onthissamebasis,wewillalso appreciatethemethodologicalshibbolethsrecommended byFodorandothersshouldbe firmlyresisted.
ButwhatdoImeanbya “registerofinvestigativepurpose ”?Inaneverydaycontext,roughlythesortsofbackgroundrationalewerequestwhenMrs.Antonyinthe film StrangersonaTrain nattersonwithnoclearendinview. “Whereareyougoingwiththislineofthought?” wepolitely enquire.Herearesometypicalanswerswemightanticipate:
1. “Oh,Iwastryingtoestablishageneralconclusionaboutpoliticsbyarguingby reductioadabsurdumemployinggenericrepresentatives ‘Hugo’ and ‘Jill’ tostand infortypicalRepublicanandDemocraticvoters.”
2. “Oh,Iamtryingtouncoversomeusefulauxiliarylinesthatwillallowustosee thepropergeometricalrelationsbetweenthesetriangles.”
3. “I’mtryingto figureoutwherethebankrobbersarelikelytostopwhentheygettired.”
4 Thesuggestionsoftheso-calledfreeenrichmentschoolstrikemeashelpful,butastooirregularlyframedtoaddress ourparsingconcernsfully.
Mrs.Antony
UnlikeMrs.Antony,mostofusmonitorourongoingprogressinpurposivereasoning aswethinkthingsthrough(mytalkof “registers” capturesthementalmachinerywe employtokeeptrackofourinvestigativeintentions).Wecommunicatetheseprojectsto othersthroughlocutionssuchas: “Let’sseewhathappensifwegiveanopponentthe benefitofthedoubt,”“Let’sseewhathappensifweenclosethetrianglebetweentwo parallellines,”“Let’ s firstcatalogthepossibleescaperoutes,” etc.Andweterminate thesesamestretchesofinvestigativesearchbyremarkssuchas “We’venowfoundthat ouropponent’sviewsleadinexorablytoacontradiction,hence...,”“Accordingly,we learnthatthesetwoareasareforcedtobeequal,”“Alloftheseroutesultimatelytraceto ahaciendaonoldUS99,solet’ssendsometroopersoutthere,” etc.Sucharetheguiding locutionsoflanguagemanagementthatareabsentwithinMrs.Antony’saimlessdisquisitions.Welearntherudimentsofthesecommunicativestructuresatthesametimeasweacquiretheother significantaspectsoflanguage.WhenMotherteachesus themeaningof “steel,” shesimultaneouslyinstructsusin strategiesforreasoningaboutsuchmaterialsinarudimentaryway,includingthemasteryofdiscoursedirectivessuchas “Let’sconsiderwhathappenswhenwelook atthemetalunderamicroscope.” Iclaimthatmany aspectsofclassificatoryreferencecanbeadequately understoodonlythroughrecognizingtheprofound semanticcontributionssuppliedbythesecompartmentalizedregistrationsofstrategiccontext.
Alliedformsofmentalstructuringhavebeenactivelystudiedwithincognitive science,sometimeswithimportantcarry-oversintolinguisticsproper,butFodor’ s generativeconcernsdonotappeartohavebeendirectlyconfrontedintheseterms. Butthepresentessaywillnotmakeitscasefor “ use ” inthisexactvein,butwillargue insteadfromtheperspectiveofeffectivelanguagedesign:ifwelackedtoolsforkeep trackofourshiftinginvestigativepurposes,wewould findourselvesunabletoreason aboutmanycommonformsofeverydaycircumstance,duetotheirintractablecomplexities.5 Wearenotsupernaturalintellects;weforeverremaintheevolveddescendantsofhumblehunter-gatherers,whomustcobbletogetherandredirectourmodest computationalinheritanceinthepursuitofmoresophisticatedobjectives.Philosophers oftenproceedonthepresumptionthatwepossessbiggerbrainsandinferentialskills thanwedo,abletojuggledescriptiveparametersandcomputationalprocessesfar beyondouractualcapacities.Butwithalimitedstockofwordsandsmallishbrains, wemustforeverseekroundaboutstrategiesthatallowustohandletheextremelylarge rangeofchallengesthatweconfrontwithinscienceandeverydaypractice(such workaroundtacticsarecalled “strategiesofphysicsavoidance” inEssay2).Themultiscalarmethodsweshallsurveyinthisessaybeautifullyillustratehowdescriptive parentalinstruction
5 SomephilosophersliketoarguebytranscendentaldeductionbutIpreferbruteengineeringnecessity.
problemsofanotherwiseinsurmountablecomplexitycanbeconqueredbybreakingthe taskathandintoasetoflocalinvestigationswhoserelationshipstooneanotherare carefullymonitoredbyasetofmarkersthatkeeptrackofinvestigativeintent.
Aswe’llsee,withinasuitablystructureddiscourse,vocabulariessuchas “force” and “ pressure ” frequentlyadjusttheirphysicalsignificancestoreflecttheevanescentinvestigativepurposestowhichthesewordscurrentlycontribute.Fromtheperspectiveof reducingcomputationalcomplexity,thesesubtlereorientionsinreferentialattachment canproveenormouslybeneficial,buttheycaneasilybaffletheobserverwhohasnot appreciatedtheefficienciesofferedbythesecontextualizedadjustmentsinmeaning.In thismanner,thecontextualshiftscharacteristicofmultiscalarmodelingsupplyexcellent prototypesforunderstandingthesensitivitiestousagetowhichcommonsensephilosopherssuchasJ.L.Austinappealed.
Asecondfactoroftencontributestoconceptualpuzzlement.Inotheressays,we’ll findthatmanyofthestockreasoningpracticesofthemodernphysicistorengineerhave graduallyevolvedovertimethroughsilentprocessesoftrial-and-errortinkeringwith pre-establishedinvestigativemethods.Thesecobbledtogetherroutinescanbeeasily passedalongtolatergenerationsthroughinstructionssuchas “Atthispoint,youshould shiftyourinvestigativefocustoalowerscalesizeandcomputeasfollows.” Butlearning howtoexecuteacomplicatedsequentialroutineandappreciatingitsunderlying strategicrationalearetwodifferentthings.Ifwefailtograspthelatter,wewill find ourselvesunabletoproperlyappreciatewhyourdescriptivevocabulariesadjusttheir referentialfocifromoneinvestigativecontexttothenext.Inthismanner,significant conceptualpuzzleshaveoftenappearedwithinthehistoryofscience,arisingasthe accidentalsideproductsofotherwisebeneficialformsoflinguisticadvance.Ourchief taskintheseessaysistounderstandthedevelopmentalmechanismsthatgeneratethese naturalconfusions.
Ofcourse,philosopherslikeAustinoriginallypursuedfarbiggerphilosophicalgame thanunravelingthefunnybehaviorsofwordslike “force” and “ pressure. ” Inthese essays,however,wewilllargelyconfineourselvestophysicalexamples,withoccasional sideremarksreachingtoconsiderationsbeyond.Philosophymust firstliberateitself fromtheanti-pragmaticstraitjacketinwhichFodorandothershavelockeditsmovements.Whatbetterwaytodothatthantoappealtothewell-understoodcomputational policiesthathavesosignificantlyadvancedthecapacitiesofmodernengineering?
(ii) Beforewelookintoatypicalscientificexample,letus firstremindourselvesofhow swiftlyweshiftourinvestigativefocuswithinoureverydayreasonings.Supposethatwe wishtorobacertainbankinMontrose,California.Generalwisdominthedesignof geographicalinformationsystemsrecommendsthatwedivideourproblemintoinvestigativestagestobeaddressedsequentially:Firstask, “Whatistheshortestroutetothe
bank?” andthendetermine howshouldwepilotour waytothetargetalongthat path?InStage1,wewill consultsomekindoftopographicmapincomputing theshortestroute,generally byweighingthecomparative meritsofacollectionof primafaciepossibilities.6 At thisinitialstageinourinvestigation,wewanttoregister thestreetsofMontroseina minimalistfashion,omitting mostofthedetailsofthesurroundinglandscape,forsuchclutterwillonlyimpedeourcalculations.Butwhen thisplanningtaskiscompleted,weneedtoprepareasetofdrivinginstructions sothatwe findourwaytothebank.Soinasecondstageofmentalcogitation,we mustimportsomeofthispreviouslyexcludeddataintoour stage1plan,relyinguponsome expandeddatabaseakintoGoogleStreetView.The finalresult willbealistofpilotinginstructionssuchas “Keepdrivinguntil Cazzette’sChildren’sStore comesintoview.”
Observethatweinstinctively consultthesedistinctinvestigativestages,whenweareasked aquestionlike “Where’sCazzette’sChildren’sStore?” The answersweregardasappropriateusuallyre fl ectthecurrent stageofourgeographical thinking:
6 Itisworthremarkingthatwehumansseldomexecutethisoptimalitysearchasacomputerwould,butprefer drawingaconventionalmaponapieceofpaperandscanningitwithoureyes.Why?Myguessisthatwehaveinherited excellent “geometricalfactestimators” fromourhunter-gathererancestorsoriginallydevisedforcomputingpreferred pathsacrossalandscape.Wehavelearnedtoredirecttheseskillswithrespecttoshortestrouteestimationbysubstituting aconventionalmapforanaturalenvironment.Homosapiens’ remarkablecapacitiesfortheplasticredirectionofpre-set routinesreoccurwithinLessonVIbelow.Thegeneralconsiderationthatpossibilityspacesneedtobekeptsmalland targetedcomprisesthecentralthemeofEssay7.
Stage1
Stage2
(a) AtthecornerofMarketandHonolulu (topographicmode) (b) Waitafewminutes;it’llberightinfrontofyou (pilotingmode).
Inthismanner,ourtacitawarenessofcurrentinvestigativepurposeaffectsthe mannerinwhichweparseasimplequestion.I finditstrikingthatwemakesuch adjustmentsinoureverydaythinkingextremelyswiftlywithoutovertlynoticingthatwe havedoneso.7 Inthepagesahead,anysequentialsuccessionofshiftinginvestigative strategiesofthisilkwillbecalleda cognitivearchitecture.Accordingly,the “architecture” ofourbankrobberyplottingreflectsasimpletwostageprocess.Themultiscalar arrangementsweshallinvestigateinthepagesaheadaremorecomplicated,involving variousfeedbackinterconnectionsbetweendifferentcomputationalstages.
Let’snowseehowasuitablyselectedarchitecturecan vastlyreducethesyntacticdemandsupondataregistration.Here’sasimpleillustration.Howcanwekeepthe storagerequirementsofadigitalphotographwithinreasonablebounds?Considertheexquisiteobjectillustrated (aTubaphone#9banjo),capturedintwostandardpictorialmodes(TIFFandJPEGformats,respectively).The compressedphotoontherightonlyemploysabout15% ofthedatapointsutilizedontheleft.8 Howisthispossible? Answer:compressedformatsstoretheirdatainthehierarchalmannerofagoodstrategyforwinningTwenty Questions:theyaskverybroad,large-scalequestionsat first(“Areyoua fictionalcharacter?”)ratherthanimmediatelyconsidering verydetailedspecifics(“Areyou GeorgeHarvey BoneinHangover Square?”).Simplifyingsomewhat, TIFFimages encodetheirdata straightforwardly onapixelbypixel basis,requiringa largenumberof datapointsinthe
datacompression
partitionedformsofdatacompression
7 Inanalliedmanner,werarelynoticetheeditsinaHollywoodmovielike TheIncredibleShrinkingMan despitethefact thattheyfrequentlyshiftperspectiveradically.
8 6,291,988bytesversus428,587bytesintherepresentationsIoriginallyconsulted.Bythetimeyouseethem,dear reader,thephotoswillhavebecomesubjectedtofurtherformsofcompressionandmayhaveonceagainbecomeequal!
