Peanuts
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The editors are grateful to the American Peanut Research & Education Society and AOCS for their joint presentation of Peanuts: Genetics, Processing and Utilization. The continued work of these societies to foster research development and practical translation of technology will catalyze advances in peanut production that provide an effective strategic option in the quest for sustainable global food security.
APRES
PURPOSE
The purpose of this Society is to instruct and educate the public on the properties, production, and use of the peanut through the organization and promotion of public discussion groups, forums, lectures, and other programs or presentations to the interested public and to promote scientific research on the properties, production, and use of the peanut by providing, forums, treatises, magazines, and other forms of educational material for the publication of scientific information and research papers on the peanut and the dissemination of such information to the interested public.
HISTORY
The need for a national peanut research organization was recognized in 1957 and the Peanut Improvement Working Group (PIWG) was organized. The original membership consisted of representatives from USDA, Land Grant Universities, and the peanut industry. This small group evolved into an organization representing the diverse interests of the peanut industry and in 1968 the PIWG was dissolved and the American Peanut Research and Education Association was founded. In 1979, the organization’s name was changed to the American Peanut Research and Education Society (APRES). APRES now has more than 500 individual, sustaining, organizational, student, and institutional (library) members.
GOALS
The goal of APRES is to provide consumers with wholesome peanuts and peanut products at reasonable prices. To achieve this goal, a comprehensive and effective research and educational program designed to improve the inherent qualities of peanuts is essential. Research emphasis must include the continual development of improved varieties, production, harvesting, curing, storing and processing methodology, which promotes peanut quality. Educational emphasis must include the development of an informational program, which transmits current developments to research and extension personnel at state Universities, in USDA, in private industry and to all other interested people who produce, sell or consume peanuts and/or peanut products.
Specific Goals:
• To exchange information on current research and extension programs at the annual meeting;
• To participate in cooperative program planning among research, extension, and industry personnel;
• To periodically review research and extension programs, with appropriate recommendations for revision and redirection;
• To transmit published information to an international audience via APRES publications
APRES
2360 Rainwater Road
UGA/NESPAL Building Tifton, GA 31793
Phone: (229) 329-2949
Website: www.apresinc.com
Journal website: www.peanutscience.com
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7. Application of Genomic, Transcriptomic, and Metabolomic Technologies in Arachis Species
Ye Chu, Josh Clevenger, Ran Hovav, Jianping Wang, Brian Scheffler, Scott A. Jackson and Peggy Ozias-Akins
15. Processing and Food Uses of Peanut Oil and Protein
16.
17. The Role of Peanuts in Global Food Security
Shane Powell Birdsong Peanuts, Suffolk, VA, USA
Brian Scheffler USDA ARS JWDSRC, Stoneville, MS, USA
Guillermo R. Seijo Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales y Agrimensura, Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Corrientes, Argentina
Zhaolin Shi National Center for Peanut Competitiveness, University of Georgia, Griffin, GA, USA
H. Thomas Stalker Department of Crop Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
Rhonda Starling Golden Peanut Company, Alpharetta, GA, USA
Harikishan Sudini International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, India
John Takash McCleskey Mills, Smithville, GA, USA
Shyamalrau P. Tallury Pee Dee Research and Education Center, Clemson University, Florence, SC, USA
Hari D. Upadhyaya International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, Telangana, India; Department of Agronomy, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; UWA Institute of Agriculture, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
Vincent Vadez International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, India
Howard Valentine The Peanut Foundation, Alexandria, VA, USA
Rajeev K. Varshney International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, India
Farid Waliyar International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, India; International Crops Research Institute for the SemiArid Tropics (ICRISAT), Bamako, Mali
Chuan T. Wang Shandong Peanut Research Institute, Qingdao, China
Hui Wang Crop Protection and Management Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Tifton, GA, USA; Department of Plant Pathology, The University of Georgia, Tifton, GA, USA; Shandong Peanut Research Institute, Qingdao, China
Jianping Wang Department of Agronomy, The University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
Xingjun Wang Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Biotechnology Research Center, Jinan, China
Richard F. Wilson The Peanut Foundation, Oilseeds & Bioscience Consulting, Raleigh, NC, USA
Mei Yuan Shandong Peanut Research Institute, Qingdao, China
Xinyou Zhang Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Industrial Crops Research Institute, Zhengzhou, China
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Preface
Peanuts: Genetics, Processing, and Utilization presents innovations in crop productivity, processing, and food manufacturing technologies that enhance the contribution of peanuts to global food security. The writings of an elite cadre of authors cover three central themes:
l Modern breeding methods and genetically diverse resources for development of agronomic varieties in the US, China, India, and West Central Africa.
l Enhanced crop protection and quality through application of information and genetic tools derived from analysis of the peanut genome sequence.
l State-of-the-art processing and manufacture of safe, nutritious, and flavorful food products in market environments driven by consumer perception, legislation, and governmental policy.
Cultivated peanut (Arachis hypogaea) ranks third in world oilseed supply, on par with sunflower and cottonseed. Peanut products provide a dominant portion of nutrients for human dietary needs in China, India, and countries of South Saharan Africa (SSA). However, the ability to compete with other crops for arable land and intrinsic crop value (a function of yielding ability, production cost, and product quality) poses a significant challenge to expansion of global peanut supply. Symptoms of this economic situation are defined by several observations:
l Total harvested area for world peanut production has not changed significantly over the past decade, averaging 23.3 ± 1.1 Mha.
l India and SSA account for 40% of global peanut supply, but productivity per hectare is only one-fourth of the yields achieved in China, South America, and the US. United Nations reports anticipate a 60% decline in per capita consumption of oilseed peanuts in SSA by 2050 due to insufficient in-country peanut production.
l The US competes with South America for majority share of global peanut export markets; systematic expansion of export markets is needed to help sustain global food security.
l Processors and food manufacturers must take diligent precautions to protect product quality against contamination by pathogenic organisms that may compromise the health safety of peanut-based foods.
Members of the American Peanut Council (which represents the US peanut value chain), the International Crops Research Institute for the Semiarid Tropics (ICRISAT), the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária
(the Brazilian Corporation of Agricultural Research), and four Chinese institutions (Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), and Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences) initiated a process in 2006 to formally address these and other relevant problems with the collaborative inception of the International Peanut Genome Initiative (IPGI). Detailed Information on IPGI activities, including the Peanut Genome Consortium and the Peanut Genome Project, may be accessed at http://www.peanutbioscience.com
Peanuts: Genetics, Processing, and Utilization features highlights of accomplishments and progress toward strategic IPGI research goals in the areas of germplasm resources, genome structure and gene function, crop improvement, and product quality and safety.
l Germplasm resources: USDA ARS, ICRISAT, and CAAS curate separate peanut germplasm collections that provide geneticists access to sources of resistance genes for about 60 devastating diseases/pests that attach peanuts. Substantial research efforts are being made to transfer desirable genetic traits from wild to cultivated peanuts. Resistant cultivars are needed to reduce need for multiple applications of fungicides and other protective treatments, which are the primary reason for the high cost of peanut production. Diplomatic efforts are underway to expand these germplasm collections with accessions of seven new wild species found in South America by Argentine scientists.
l Genome sequence: In 2014, IPGI made the official public release of the first chromosome scale sequences of two wild (diploid) species that contributed equally to the formation of the cultivated (tetraploid) peanut genome. Researchers may access these A genome and B genome sequences, databases, and interactive online computational analysis tools at www.PeanutBase.org/
l Genome structure and gene function: Analysis of the diploid progenitor genomes revealed:
l only 1–3% of the genome space contains genes.
l gene markers in a wild genome also appear in the counterpart cultivated genome.
l KASP, QTL-seq, and CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing technologies help discover gene function and develop gene-specific markers for plant breeding.
l Crop improvement: Disease resistance genes in cultivated peanuts are sourced from wild diploid species through interspecific hybridization. However, several generations of breeding and selection are needed to eliminate accompanying genes which cause “yield drag”. Two new breeding strategies are proposed as remedies for this problem:
l MARS (marker-assisted recurrent selection) to track gene and nongene segments bred into interspecific hybrids.
l MAGIC (multiparent advance generation intercrossing) to meld desirable traits from multiple parents into a single uniform population of breeding lines.
l Product quality and safety: Consumer perception of peanuts as a dietary ingredient has accelerated industry efforts and governmental regulations to ensure that precautions are taken throughout the peanut value chain to protect the quality of peanut-based foods and snacks. These actions are evidenced and administered in part by:
l Strict adherence to Hazard Analysis and Critical Point and Global Food Safety Initiative requirements for handling, storage, and shelling of raw peanuts.
l Cooperative efforts between governments to facilitate trade of highquality peanuts and peanut products free of contamination by pathogenic organisms.
l Market transition to high-oleic peanut cultivars to improve sensory properties, shelf-life, and nutritional value of foods manufactured with peanut ingredients.
l Improved concepts of food allergy and new therapies that specifically treat peanut allergy.
Taken together information presented in this volume helps broaden awareness of how genetic, production, processing, and marketing technologies are deployed to ensure an abundant supply of high-quality peanuts that augments global food security and meets increased consumer demand for healthful food products.
Richard F. Wilson Oilseeds & Biosciences Consulting, Raleigh, NC, USA
TABLE 1 The Peanut in Early Post-Colombian Historical Records: A Chronology for the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (After Hammons, 1973)
Time
Location
Author
Publication Date
Pre-Conquest New Spain Las Casas 1875
1502–1547 Peru Garcilaso de la Vega 1609
1513–1524 Hispaniola de Oviedo y Valdes 1527, 1535
1534–1554 La Plata basin de Léry 1578
1555–1560 Mexico Sahagún 1829
1558–1566 Peru Monardes 1569, 1574
Pre1569a Bahia, Brazil Soares de Souza 1825
1570–1587 Peru de Acosta 1588–89
1571 Mexico Hernández 1605, 1651, 1790
1571–1577 Brazil, Peru Clusius 1605
a West Indies Bauhini, C. 1623
a Brazil de Laer 1625, 1630
a Americas Parkinson 1640
1637–1644 Pernambuco Marcgrave 1648, 1658
a Brazil, Peru Bauhino, J. 1650
Pre1653 New Spain Cobo 1653
Pre1654 French Antilles Duterre 1654
a Americas Jonstonus 1662
a Americas Ray 1686
1687–1689 Jamaica, Barbados Sloane 1696, 1707
a Americas Plukenet 1691
1693 Guadeloupe Plumier 1693, 1703
1697 Guadeloupe Labat 1724
The material is arranged to emphasize the geographical distribution of the peanut in the New World as the time of exploration of the chroniclers rather than in the publication date which sometimes was many decades beyond the actual event.
aIndicates European compiler describing and illustrating material collected by others in New World.
involved and male human being; only the female Indian and half breed females plant them; and the husbands know nothing about these labors, if the husbands or their male slaves were to plant them they would not sprout. The females also harvest them; and as is the custom, the same ones that planted them; and to last all year they are cured in smoke and kept there until the new crop.
Portuguese women make all the sweet things from this fruit which are made from almonds, and which are cut and covered with a sugar mixture as confections
February is the right time to plant peanuts, and they are not to be beneath the ground any longer than May, which is time to harvest the crop, which females do with a much celebration.
Tr: T.B. Stewart.
After Cortés conquered Mexico, many reports of the natural resources of the land were sent to Spain. Few of these documents are available for study, and the early distribution and use of the peanut in Mexico are not yet clear.
During 1558 to 1566, Friar Bernardino de Sahagún compiled an encyclopedia in Nahautl of the Aztecs but it was not published until 1829. Sahagún (1820–1830) mentioned the folk-medicine use of tlalcacuatl (Nahautl for peanut). He did not, however, list peanuts among the principal food plants of central Mexico. It is not recognized among the record of tribute that Montezuma extracted from tribes the Aztecs conquered.
The peanut apparently was not of great importance in early Mexico. It may actually have been introduced from the West Indies by the Spaniards as implied by Hernandez (1604). If this was so, Krapovickas (1968) suggests that the introduction was probably of the hypogaea type grown in the Antilles. The compound name tlacacuatl, or earth cacao, has been cited as evidence of its late arrival in Mexico. Recent archeological evidence, cited subsequently, clearly shows an antiquity of cultivation in Mexico, but the absence of any other species of Arachis is substantive evidence that the cultivated peanut is not native to Mexico, nor was it domesticated there.
In discussion of food plants used in South America, Jośe de Acosta (1588) notes “In those countries they have divers sortes … I remember … mani, and an infinite number of other kinds.”
The peanut did not go unnoticed. Early in the seventeenth century descriptions and illustrations appeared regularly in the European literature, and the plant soon became known in botanical gardens. Many early naturalists were compilers, annotators, illustrators, copiers, and editors who systematized the observations of others and rarely saw the plants whose descriptions and figures they put into their folios. Among those describing and illustrating the peanut during the seventeenth century were Clusius (1605), Bauhini (1623), de Laet (1625), Parkinson (1640), Bauhino (1650), Jonstonus (1662), Ray (1686), and Plukenet (1691) . In sharp contrast are the works of Marcgrave (1648), Marcgrave (1658), Cobo (1653), and the French priests Dutertre (1654), Labat (1742), Plumier (1693), and Plumier (1703) whose descriptions and figures
