NUTRITIONALAND HEALTHASPECTSOF FOODINWESTERN EUROPE
TraditionalandEthnicFoods NUTRITIONALAND HEALTHASPECTS OFFOODINWESTERN EUROPE
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CHRISTINAZ € UBERT
DIMITRIOSARGYROPOULOS
FRANCISCOJAVIERCASADOHEBRARD
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VESLEMØYANDERSEN
VISHWESHWARAIAHPRAKASH
JAMUNAPRAKASH
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Contributors
CamilleAouinaı ¨ t Agroscope,Conthey,Switzerland
DerekV.Byrne DepartmentofFoodScience,AarhusUniversity,Aarhus,Denmark
DaniloChristen Agroscope,Conthey,Switzerland
B.M.J.(Bernd)vanderMeulen EuropeanInstituteforFoodLaw,Amsterdam,TheNetherlands
SaraD.Gardun ˜ o-Diaz YourChoiceNutritionConsultancy,ShaabAlBahry,Kuwait
LuudJ.W.J.Gilissen
WageningenUniversity&Research,WageningenPlantResearch,BUBioscience,Wageningen, TheNetherlands
ShashankGoyal
GermanInstituteofFoodTechnologies(DILe.V.),Quakenbr € uck;EURAAG,Erfurt,Germany
MariaHarris
DWFLawLLP,Manchester,UnitedKingdom
VolkerHeinz
GermanInstituteofFoodTechnologies(DILe.V.),Quakenbruck,Germany
GuntherHirschfelder
ChairofComparativeEuropeanEthnology,UniversityofRegensburg,Regensburg,Germany
DianeJulien-David
UniversityofStrasbourg,CNRS,IPHCUMR7178,Strasbourg,France
SantoshKhokhar Food4Nutrition,Leeds,UnitedKingdom
AlbertoMancuso OperaS.r.l.,Rome,Italy
ChristopheMarcic
UniversityofStrasbourg,CNRS,IPHCUMR7178,Strasbourg,France
Contributors
NadineSchullerB.A.
ChairofComparativeEuropeanEthnology,UniversityofRegensburg,Regensburg,Germany
BernadetteOehen
DepartmentofSocio-EconomicSciences,ResearchInstituteofOrganicAgriculture—FiBL, Frick,Switzerland
MauriceG.O’Sullivan
SchoolofFoodandNutritionalSciences,UniversityCollegeCork,Cork,Ireland
PatrickPollmerM.A.
ChairofComparativeEuropeanEthnology,UniversityofRegensburg,Regensburg,Germany
MichaelSerrur GNTUSA,Inc.,Tarrytown,NY,UnitedStates
SergiySmetana
GermanInstituteofFoodTechnologies(DILe.V.),Quakenbr€ uck,Germany
CarolaStrassner
SustainableFoodSystems/NutritionEcology,MunsterUniversityofAppliedSciences, DepartmentofFood—Nutrition—Facilities,M € unster,Germany
MarcusVolkert GNTEuropaGmbH,Aachen,Germany
MichaelWacker BASFSchweizAG,RegionalesZentrumfurArbeitsmedizin,Kaisten,Switzerland
KarolaKrellZbinden
Attorney-at-Law,MarkwalderEmmenegger,Muri,Switzerland
Therearefourkeyquestionsthatcomeupinthisarticle:Whydowecook?Whydowe eatwhatweeat?Whathaschangedafterthecaveman?Whoinfluencedwhatweeat today?ThefirsttwoIansweronapage,thenitwillbeexciting
Theinventionofcookingextendsthebiologicalnicheofhumans;thishasraisedthe nutritivevalueofwildplantbecausenutrientscanbedigestedbetter.Cookedmeatdeliveredmoreenergy(Carmodyetal.,2011).Meats,suchasbeef,pork,andchicken,can containharmfulbacteriaandparasites.Ifeaten raw,thesebacteriaandparasitescould haveseverehealthimpact.Thus,cookingmeatproperly,harmfulorganismsarekilled duringtheprocess.
ScientistsfromtheSenckenbergCenterforHumanEvolutionandPaleoenvironment inT € ubingenhavestudiedtheNeanderthals’diet.Basedontheisotopecomposition inthecollagenfromtheprehistorichumans’bones,theycouldshowthat,whilethe Neanderthals’dietconsistedprimarilyoflargeplanteaterssuchatmammothsandrhinoceroses,italsoincludedvegetarianfood(Wißingetal.,2016).Theyassumethat NeanderthalsdietinWesternEuropewas80%meat,20%vegetables.Indeed,thereseem tobelargedifferencesintheeatinghabitswiththeirconspecificsfromsouthernEurope: Theshotgun-sequencingofancientDNAfromfivespecimensofNeanderthalcalcified dentalplaqueshowsdifferencesinNeanderthalecology.AtSpycave,Belgium,
Neanderthaldietwasheavilymeatbasedandincludedwoollyrhinocerosandwildsheep (mouflon),characteristicofasteppeenvironment.Incontrast,nomeatwasdetectedin thedietofNeanderthalsfromElSidro ´ ncave,Spain,butdietarycomponentsofmushrooms,pinenuts,andmossreflectedforestgathering(Weyrichetal.,2017).
Hereweseethat—whatmaneats,howhepreparesit,howheeatsit,whathedoesn’t eatdependsonhislivingenvironmentandhisculture.Despitedramaticdifferences betweenthetypicalregionalfoods,nutritionalrequirementsareusuallycovered.There cannotbeabestformofnutritionforall(Wikipedia.org,n.d.-a),notevenanarchaicso calledPaleolithicdiet.
Itstartswiththecavemen
RecentgenomicdatahaverevealedmultipleinteractionsbetweenNeanderthalsand modernhumans.Anatomicallymodernhumansand Neanderthals werebothlivingin Europeforupto5400years(Highametal.,2014).Around40,000yearsago,during thereplacementperiod,humanpopulationincreasedbyoneorderofmagnitude,suggestingthatnumericalsupremacyalonemayhavebeenacriticalfactorinfacilitatingthis replacement(MellarsandFrench,2011).Althoughthisprocessofdisplacementhas existedformanycenturies,anincreaseinafewgenerationscanbeseen.
Reasonsforthesuddenfastgrowthofthepopulationareuncertain.Achangeinthe huntingprocedureortheadaptionofsocialstructureingrowinggroupsof Homosapiens mayhaveplayedarole.Theclimatechangeandtheenvironmentalconditionscouldhave helped;wecouldimaginethatdistributionofknowledgeonnewmedicalplantscanreinforcethistrend.
FirstmedicalherbshavebeenfoundintheShanidarcaveina60,000yearoldNeanderthaltomb: Yarrow, Cornflower, Bachelor’sButton, St.Barnaby’sThistle, Ragwort orGroundsel, GrapeHyacinth,JointPineorWoodyHorsetailand Hollyhock were representedinthepollensamples,allofwhichhavelong-knowncurativepowers (Solecki,1975).Becauseofalackoffindings,wedonotknowmuchabouttheprecise pointoftimeatwhich Homosapiens hasdevelopeddeeperknowledgeofmedicalconditions,treatmentsandproducts.Newerfindingsconcerning € Otzi,Europe’soldest knownnaturalhumanmummy,foundontheHauslabjoch,haveshownsignsofamuch morerefinedmedicalknowledge:hehadseveralspecializedtattooscreatedbymaking multipleparallelorintersectinglinearincisionswithascalpel,fillingtheincisionswith amixtureofherbs,andlightingtheherbs,whichalsohadtheeffectofcauterizingthe incisions.Mostofthesetattoosweremadeontheskinoverjointsthatwereaffected byarthrosis(lumbarspine,knee,andankle).Hemighthaveusedthesetattoosasaform oflocalizedtherapyformuscleandjointpain.AnanalysisofthecontentoftheIceMan’s rectumrevealed Trichuristrichiuraeggs whichcauseabdominalpainandcyclicanemia. Amongtheobjectsfoundwiththemummywerethewoodyfruitof Piptoporusbetulinus,
abracketfungus.Thetoxicoilsinthefunguswereprobablytheonlyremedyavailablein EuropebeforeintroductionoftheconsiderablymoretoxicchenopodoilfromtheAmericas(Capasso,1998).
Numerousfindingscoverthatinthe Mesolithicperiod,fishandseafoodhadabig shareinthedietofmankindincoastalregions(PickardandBonsall,2007).Hugemounds ofshellfish,knownas middens,arecommononcoastalloverEurope.Forexample, Sligo inIrelandisaplacemeaning“shells,”areferencetothesemounds.Thehuntersofthe NorthSeaandBalticcoastswereskilledfisherwhobuiltdugout,huntedsealswith harpoons,andcaughtfishwithtrapsandnets.
TheNeolithicRevolution
InWesternEurope,theNeolithicRevolutioncamedelayedwiththeLinearPotterycultureflourishingapproximately5500–4500BC.Childenamedthistransitionfromthe hunter-gatherertotheagrarianway-oflifewithitsfar-reachingeffectsofthischange inallaspectsoflife.Humansmadetheirfirstsuccessfulattemptstodomesticateanimals andstartedretainingtheminherds.Menbecamesedentary,settleddowninpermanent villagecommunities.Thereismuchspeculationtothecausesofthechangeoverandhow itunfolded.Reichholfcomestoasurprisingconclusion:inthebeginning,livinginsettlementsdidn’tcomeaboutfromneedorhunger,butwasbasedonraucousfestivityand thediscoveryofalcohol.
Heexplainsthatexcess,notneed,turnedhumansintoresourcefulcivilizedbeingsand servedasthecatalystforchange,bothwithrespecttothedevelopmentofhumansaswell astheirshiftfromahunter-gatheringwayoflifetoagriculture.
Reichholfscalculationsforenergybalanceareconvincing.Threekilogramsofgrain perpersonperdaywouldhavebeenrequiredtocompensateaprotein-richmeatdiet. Thismeansthatafamilywouldhaveneededaround5tonsofgrainperyear.
Thenwhydidmanbeganplantingcropsinthefirstplace?Reichholfsanswerisas surprisingasitisconvincing:becauseofalcohol.Atfirst,theyieldofwildgrainwasinsufficienttoreplacemeat,butnowitwaspossibletoproducealcoholthroughfermentation. Thishadservedseveralfunctions.Asanintoxicantatfestivities,alcoholstrengthenedthe community.Atthesametime,enzymesproducedduringthefermentationprocessbreak downplantsubstancesthataredifficulttodigest.Thus,morenutrientsbecameavailable. Indeed,thefirstverifiablerecordofgraincultivationdidnotinvolvewheatbutrather barley,whichisstillusedtomakebeertoday.Untilmuchlaterbeermashturnedinto sourdoughforbakingbread.Alcoholtoleranceisstillhighesttodayinthecultureswhere breadisanutritionalstaple(Reichholf,2008).
Fromnowonhumansproducedfoodstuffsthemselves,andnotonlynature.Human societieswerefoundedinanewdirectionthatquicklyledfromthefirstsettlementsto urbancommunities.Small,looselyaffiliatedtribesdevelopedintoethnicgroupsand
largercommunities.Substantialpopulationgrowthpreviouslywouldhaveposedathreat tothenomadicgroupsbecausethenumberofpeoplehadtobalancewiththesupplyof game.Nowitofferedadvantages,becausethenumberofharvesterproductivityrouse(if thecultivationareacanbeincreased),andfromthisfoodsurplusspecialism,divisionof laborandnotatleastownershipemerged:peopleandownershipcombinedtoform power.Thenewlifestyleprovedfarsuperiortotheoldone.Themigrationandresettlementofpeasantscreatedimitators,spread,andachieveddominance.
Inthecookingpotsofthesocalled“protofarmers”domesticcattleandsheeparenow mixedwithreddeerandmussels(Craigetal.,2011).Grainfarmingvariedfromregionto region,buttwoformsofancienthuskedwheataregenerallyincluded:einkornandabove allemmer.Furtherspelt,barleyandmilletwerecultivated,someassummer,someas wintercrops.Besidesthis,thereareafewfindingsofpeasandlentils.Seedspickedfrom wildplantslikelinseedandpoppyseedswerevaluedfortheiroilcontent.
Berries,fruits,herbsandvegetablesmostlyaddedflavortothefoodorhadmedical purposes.Farmersusedblackberries,raspberries,strawberries,dewberries,elderberries, hawthorn,rosehips,corneliancherries,sourcherries,pears,plums,sloes,wildgrapes andtheverypopularcrabapples.Theycultivatedlocalmedicalplantslikeorach,bistort, sorrel,stingingnettle,wildgarlic,andimportedplantsfromtheMediterraneanregion likeparsley,dill,lemonbalm,mistletoe,verbena,juniperberries,marjoram,caraway andmugwort.
Exceptfordogs,allfarmanimalsoriginatedintheirdomesticformfromtheNear East.Anycross-breedingofsheep,goats,pigsorcattlewithgameanimalswaswillingly avoided.Aspaleogeneticstudieshaveshown,thenativeEuropeanaurochswerenever tamed.Alllocalbovinebreedscanbetracedbacktoasmallherdofaround80animals some10,500yearsago.
SoonacontinuoustradingnetworkwasextendedalloverCentralEuropefromthe ParisbasintotheBlackSee,shownbythelinearbandware,ceramicpotsofaveryparticularwayofproductionanddecorationthatappearthroughoutthetransportroute.
BovineMilkbecameanadditionalagriculturallivestockkeepingforfoodandlabor. Lactosetolerance,thetolerabilityofunfermentedmilkafterweaning,wasgrowing amongdairyingfarmersaround7500yearsinassociationwiththedisseminationof theLinerPotteryculture(Itanetal.,2009).Theearliestevidenceforcheesemakingcame innorthernEuropefromthesixthmillenniumBC.Thepresenceofabundantmilkfatin ceramicvesselsperforatedwithholes,indicatesthevesselsbeingusedtoseparatefat-rich milkcurdsfromthelactose-containingwhey(Salqueetal.,2013).
Saltwasaluxurygoodtradedoverlongdistances.Asflavorenhancerandpreservative, itcreatesmightandrichesfortherulingeliteoftheregion.Theonlyavailablenatural sweetenerwashoney.Honeyhasbeenusedforbothnutritionalandmedicalpurposes. Thebeliefthathoneyisanutrient,adrugandanointmenthasbeencarriedintoourdays (Bogdanovetal.,2008).Honeyinhibitsthegrowthofmicroorganismsandfungi.
Itsantibacterialeffectmostlyagainstgram-positivebacteriaiswelldocumented.Both bacteriostaticandbactericidaleffectshavebeenreportedformanypathogenicstrains. Further,itwasreportedthathoneyhasalsobeenshowntoinhibit Rubella virus invitro,threespeciesofthe Leishmania parasite,and Echinococcus.Theantimicrobialeffect ofhoneyisduetodifferentsubstancesanddependsonthebotanicaloriginofhoney (Bogdanovetal.,2008).
FromBronzeAgetotheRomanEmpire
Later,whenonestartedminingcopperandalloyingwithtintobronze,againdifferent groupsmigratedthroughEuropefromtheIberianPeninsulauptoBohemiainsearchof newmetallogenicrichareas.Thebronzetechnologywasatrailblazerforextensiveculturalexchanges.Thesenewcommercialrelationshipscanbetracedthroughgoldenand ceramicdrinkingvesselsofvariousstylestoconsumealcoholicbeveragesfromberriesand fruits.
Overtime,lessproductivegrainsbecamerarer,whilerye,spelt,milletandoats spread.Pulsesbecamemoreandmoreimportantasfoodstuffandanimalfeed,inmountainareas.Thespreadoffavaorhorsebeanstepswithdomesticationofhorsesfrom around2500BC.Horsemeatwaseatenregionalinvaryingdegrees.Horseswerenever onlybredforhumanconsummation,becauseporkandbeefaresignificantlybetterfeed utilizer.InIrelandandBritaintheyseemalwaystohavebeentabooasafoodstuff (Wikipedia.org,n.d.-b).IntherestofEuropehorsesweremoreoftenusedforritual sacrifice,travelingoraswarhorse.Butpeoplehavealwayseatenhorsemeatatleastuntil theChristianization.Thisisshownbytwoanecdotes:In732, PopeGregoryIII instructedSaintBonifacetosuppressthe pagan practiceofeatinghorses,callingita “filthyandabominablecustom”(Hillgarth,1986).The ChristianizationofIceland in AD1000wasachievedonlywhentheChurchpromisedthat Icelanders couldcontinue toeathorsemeat( Jones,1965).
ShortlyafterhorsescamedomesticchickenandgeesetoWesternEurope.Hunting formeatbecamelessimportantandtookamoreritualandsocialmeaning.
Mencollectedastronomicaldataoveraver ylongperiodandusedthemforagriculturalplanning.Theastronomicalknowledgeandabilitiesofthepeopleofthe European BronzeAge includedcloseobservationoftheyearlycourseofthe Sun ,andtheangle betweenitsrisingandsettingpointsatsummerandwinter solstice Earthworks like Goseckcircle inSaxony-Anhaltfrom4900BCand megalithicastronomical complexes suchas Stonehenge from2600BCwereusedtomarkthesolstice.The skydiscfoundinNebra/Saxonyfromaround2000BCrepresentsthesun,moon,stars, includingthesevenPleiades,usedtodeterminethedatesforsowingandharvest. Althoughannualvariationsinclimatepersi sted,theknowledgeandthediversification ofvarietiesminimizedtheriskofcropfailure.
Thepopulationgrowthwaspartlymadepossiblebytheintroductionofnewcrops, includingimprovedvarietiesofbarleyandwheat,andfarmingofpeas,beans,flaxand othercrops.
Farmingtechniquesimproved,andtheintroductionoftheiron-tippedplowshare madethecultivationofheavyclaysoilspossible.
Withtheadventofiron,aculturaldivisiontookplacebetweenCeltsinthesouthand Germanictribesinthenorth.AlpineCelticsettlementswerefoundedaroundcopper mining.Primarysourceoffoodwascattle,pigsandgrain.Saltminingflourished andCelticsaltporkwasevenexportedtoRomeinbarrels.Tradewithraremetalssuch aspewterincreasedeconomicandculturalcontacts.AburialmoundinHochdorf/ Baden-W€ urttemberg,datedto525BC,showsaCelticprinceburiedwithamassivecauldronandvesselsfordrinkingandeatingthepowerfulsocialandpoliticalelementsof feastingandfineeating.
AttheendoftheIronAge,overpopulationandfailedcropsbroughtgreatestchanges. TheCeltswerepressedwestbyexpansive,migratingGermanictribeswhileRomans advancedovertheRhineandtheDanube.
WithRomanarmycametheirfloodways.Romancommandershadtostocka year’sworthoffood.Figs,rice,olivesandchickpeaswereimported,butforgrain,meat andwine,localproductionwasessential.ItwasinevitablethattheGermanicwould soonerorlaterbecomefamiliarwithandinvolvedintheRomanwaysandhabits (Heinzelmann,2016).
TheextendedRomaninfluenceoverthecontinentalsoleadtogrowingcontact betweenBritainandtheRomanworld.
After43,allofWalesandEnglandsouthofthelineofHadrian’sWallbecamepart oftheRomanEmpire.InScotlandandIreland,theIronAgelifeandtraditionscontinuedwithonlyoccasionalRomanincursionsintoScotlandandtradewithIreland (Richards,2012).
Whenthemilitaryadministrationwasreplacedbyafreeandprivateeconomy,the introductionofagricultureinMediterranean-styleinducedanagrarianrevolution.The densityofpopulationgrowsandacross-culturalmixofCeltic,Celtic-Germanic, Germanic,Italic,andGallicdeveloped.Thevillaerusticaeoftenplacedbetween fields,grasslands,pasturesandwoods.Theyhadbuildingslikebarns,storagebuildings, stables,andworkshopsforglassproduction,potteryandforge.Ryecamefromthe Germaniceast,nakedwheatfromtheGallicwesttojointhelocalvarietieswhokept longerandbetterinamoderate,humidclimatesincetheyarecoveredbyhusks.
Romanfarmerswereadeptatdevelopingnewvarietiessuitedtodifferentclimatic conditions.Orchardsthrived,andvegetableproductionbecamemoreefficientunder theircare.Theyinducednewplantslikeamaranth,chard,turnip,purslane,garlic,dill, coriander,savory,thyme,celery,apricots,almonds,peaches,quinces,walnuts,chestnuts, medlarsandwinegrapes(Heinzelmann,2014).
WinewasanintrinsicpartofRomanLifestyle.Wineorvinegarwasmixedwith water,oftenrefinedwithvariousspicessuchaslaurel,pepper,honeyorseasalt,more forreasonsoftastethantolowerthealcoholcontent.Romanbanquetsoftenincluded threecourses,mostlywithmeatfrompork,butalsowithhare,boar,venison,allkindof birds,fish,famedsnails,musselsandoysters.Romansettlerintroducedrennettoproduce storablecheeseandcrossedlargeRomanbullswithsmallerGermancattlebreeds.The productionofmilk,suppliesbybeefandhidesincreasedsignificantly.Agricultural productivityboomed.Inlargersettlementstradingtookplaceonfixeddaysincovered marketswithallkindofspecialistsoperatingfromworkshopsinnearsurroundings.
TheheritageoftheRomanEmpire
Around260theAllmansforcedthembackbehindtheRhineandtheDanube,buttheir culinaryhabitsdidnotdisappearwiththem.TherichheritageinRomans’calledLesser GermaniainsouthwestGermany,northwestofSwitzerlandandAlsaceistodaycalled Alemannicfood.NorthwestoftheRhine,Romansstayedtwocenturieslonger.Trier wasthelargestcitynorthoftheAlpsandColognebecamedeeplyingrainedwithasouthernfoodcultureandway-of-life.
InthenorthernPartofEurope,Romanculturewasobviouslylessinfluential.Direct contactwithRomanswereunlikeformeninsmallsettlements,butsomeexchange couldtakeplacethroughGermanlegionnairesservingintheRomanarmyaswellas throughtrade.
DuringthemilderperiodsoftheearlycenturiesAC,themarshesandislandsalongthe coastweresettled,peopleandanimals(cattleandsheep)livedtogetherinlargehouses.In theinlandregions,theyusedcattlesheetsandpithousesforstockpile.Pigswereoften keptinoakforests,chicken,ducksandgeeseprovidedeggsandmeet.
Barleywasthepopulargrain,followedbyoatsandrye,milletandwheat.Cultivated beansandonionsandmoreandmorebreadbecamepartofthediet.Inthenorth,quark wasmadebylettingsourmilkcurdleandseparatingtheliquidfromthesolidswitha ceramicsieve.Butter,madeinwoodenbarrels,wasatleastusedformedicalandcosmetic reasons.Becauseofthelowpopulation,cleandrinkingwaterwasabundant,beer,mead andciderwereconsumed,whereasgrapewinealmostremainedanimportedluxury. WhentheRomanEmpire’sinfluenceinCentralEuropecametoanendinthe5thcentury,everybodyseemedtobeonthemove,pushingsouthandwestduetodevastating pandemicsandclimatechance.
Withthesettlercametheirfoodpreferences,suchastheSlavichabitforrye andbuckwheat.WhentheFranksdrovetheRomantroupesout,theownersoflarge estateswentwiththem,butmanyofordinarypeoplelikeworkerandlaborers,stayed behindandmaintainedtheRomanagriculturalsysteminLesserGermaniathroughout awhile.GermanicsettlementsslowlyabsorbedtheremainingRomanpopulation.
ButfourcenturiesofRomanlife-style,agriculturalandculinarydevelopmentsaugmentedtheregionaldifferences.LargercitieslikeCologne,Trier,MainzandAugsburg survivedthecrisis.AttheendofthemigrationoftheGermanicpeoples,peoplestarted tore-cultivatemorelandnowwithanimal husbandryofequalimportancetograin cropping.
Christianfoodrulesandmedicaltraditions
Atthistime,anotherimportantinfluenceintheEuropeanfoodtraditionwasgainingin strength:Christianity.Basedonthegeneralvirtuesofthrift,modestyandhonesty, Churchprovidedtobequitepragmaticinadaptingpagantraditionstocomplywith thenewreligion,inothersitprescribedabstinencefromthem.Afteraseriesofserve faminesin6th-centuryRome,thepopedeclaredgluttonsasoneoftheDeadlySins.
Christianchurchfurtheredsocialstratification.AfterthecoronationfromCharlemagne bythepopeintheyear800,heestablishedtheFranksasthenewEuropeanleaderswitha counterbalancingelementofstandardizedadministrationandunifyingsystemoflaws,to ensureanagriculturalsurplusforsavingthepoliticalstabilityinhisempire,dependeding onlocalleaders’loyalty.Heissuedthe Capitualedevillisvelcurtisimperii,aninventoryof detaileddirectivesforthemanagementoftheroyalestatesandprescribedthemoreeffectivethree-field-systemunderwhichsummerandwintergrainwererotatedwithroot cropsandfallowperiods.Hehadwrittendownrulesfortheproductionofwineand includedthesingleuseofwoodenbarrelstostoreit.TheCapitularehaslistedaround 70herbsandvegetablesasbeingcultivatedintheimperialgardensandmadehunting asapermanentroyalprivilege.
Inthe9thandearly10thcentury,nomadicHungarianhorseman,Arabtribesand Vikingsgaveadditionalculturalimpulses.
TheNorthmanniplayedanimportantroleasdistributors,explorersandcolonists, theymaintainedtraderoutesthatreachedalloverEuropeandintonorthernAfrica andtheBlackSeaandbroughtalongexoticfoodstuffsandspices.Weknowfromthe AbbayedeCorby,amonasteryinnorthernFrance,fromtheuseofimportedgarum (akindoffishsauce)alongwithotherimportedgoodssuchasoliveoil,pepper,cumin, cloves,cinnamon,spikenard,costus,dates,figs,almonds,pistachios,olives,chickpeasand riceinthistime(Levillain,1902).
IbrahimibnYa’qub,a10th-centurymerchantfromArabSpain,hasdescribedthe“very bigcity”ofMainzwherehewasamazedtofindintheutmostwestoftheOccidentspices thatonlygrowattheveryendoftheOrient,likepepper,ginger,cloves,spikenard,costus andgalangal.ThereweretwopossibleroutesbetweenAsiaandEurope:oneonthe Mediterranean,fromFranceorSpainthroughAlexandriaorAntioch,theotheracross CentralEurope,toConstantinopleortheareasonthelowerVolga.Thisshowsthatthese goodsdidnotrequirereintroductionasCrusaders’souvenirstoEuropeankitchens.
FortheVikingsettlementofHaithabuwehaveanexampleofurbanfoodsourcesin thenorth:Foodstuffscultivatedorgatheredfromtheimmediatesurroundingsinclude barley,rye,oat,wheat,millet,favabeansandflaxaswellasplums,peachesandeight varietiesofwildberries,cherries,beechnutsandhazelnutswithonlywineandwalnuts importedfromasignificantdistance(Behme,1997).
BarreledupwinewastransportedfromtheUpperRhineasfareasStockholm.In NorthernCountries,thepreferencewasforbeeroraleandlessfrequentlymead.Allgrain wasusedfortheproductionofbeer.Withhobsslowlyreplacinggruit,beerbecame longerstorageable.
WeknowfromthedetailedPlanofSt.GallmonasterygardendrownuponReichenauisland(early9thcentury)whatcooksofthetimemighthavehadattheirdisposal (UCLADigitalLibrary,2012).Theygrewonions,garlic,celery,leeks,coriander,dill, opiumandfieldpoppies,radishes,chard,lettuce,chervil,parsley,shallots,savory,parsnipsorcarrots,cabbageandnigellainthehortus.Theherbulariuswasreservedformedicalplants:spearmint,cumin,lovage,fennel,sage,rue,iris,pennyroyal,lilies,roses, savory,beans,costmary,fenugreek,rosemaryandmint.
Theorchardincludedapples,pears,plums,pinenuts,sorb,medlar,laurel,chestnuts, figs,quinces,peaches,hazelnuts,almonds,mulberriesandwalnuts.Italsoservedasa graveyard.
ManyoftheseplantswerealsoavailablefromcastlegardensinthelowerRhineareain the11thand12thcentury,soavariedsupplyoffruit,vegetablesandmedicalplantscould beonofferatleastinprivilegedplaces.Cultivatedsweetfruitswereregardedasagreat luxuryandreservedfortherichandpowerfulelite.Meat,especiallytheroastedchoice cutswasanotheraristocraticprivilege.Bonesfoundatthecastleshowaregulardietof meatfrompigs,cattle,sheep,goats,domesticorwildgeese,ducks,chicken,hare,wild rabbitdeerandboar(Ekkehard,2013).
Thesimpleruralpopulationhadeatencereals.Meatandmilkproductsweresmaller supplements.Graincameinmanydifferentforms,fromthethin,darkgrueleatenbythe poortofinewhitebreadfortherich.Thediversityofbreadcanstillbefoundintoday’s Germany,althoughpresentlythesocialclassificationisalmostreversed.TheundemandingryehadaquickexpansionandatthelateMiddleAgesitwasthemostimportantof Germany’sgraincrops,evenonmorefertilesoils.Allcrops,wereinallprobabilityamix ofdifferentvarieties,thegeneticdiversitywasakindofinsurancepolicyagainstpestsand diseases.
Regionaldistributionwaslimitedandthesurplusfromgoodharvestquicklyturned intoashortageinbadyears.Severedroughtandfaminelastedoverafewyearsandhave beensofrequentthateveryonewentatleastthroughoneinthistime(Behme,1997).
Nowhuntingwaspartoftheterritorialclaims.Bythe13thcenturyeventhearistocracyconsumedlessthan5%oftheirmeatasgame.Thedistinctionbetweenhigherand lowergamewasinduced.Thehighergamewasreservedforthekingandaristocratsof
elevatedstandingwithredandfellowdeer,boar,bear,elk,ibex,chamois,capercailleand pheasant.Thelowergameforgentryincludedroedeer,hare,partridge,fox,badger,martenandduck.
Theconnotationofmilkproducts,eggsandmeatwiththevicesofgluttonyandlecheryresultedinacomplexpatternofeating.The40daysfromAshWednesdaytoEaster Sunday(notcountingSundays),thethreerogationdaysbeforeAscensionDayandthe fourEmberdays(orevenweeks),aswellasthe4weeksinAdventbeforeChristmas, altogetheraboutonethirdoftheyear,werefastdays.FridaysandSaturdaysandthe eveningsprecedingallmayorsaints’dayswereleandays.Onfastdays,allpartsof warm-bloodedanimals,milk,dairyproductsandeggswereprohibitedandonlyonemeal couldbetaken.Onleandays,theruleswerelessstrictandmostlyconcernedtheexclusionofmeat(Heinzelmann,2014).
Theserulesbroughtpeopletoinventivesolutionssuchastheargumentsthatmadethe beaverintoafish,citingitsamphibiousbehaviorandthescalesonitstail.However,in contrastoftheMediterraneanregionswithitsopulenceoffruits,vegetables,fishandolive oil,suchadietwasmoredifficulttorealizethefurthernorthyoulived.Inthewater-rich regionsmostvillageshadtheirownwatermillsandbecauseofdammeduplakesalsofreshwaterfishsupplies.Fromthe11thcenturymonasteriesandliegesstockedtheirownfishpondsandboughtinsaltedherringsandstockfishinresponsetotheregionalshortcomings. Withoutcoolingsystems,freshmarinefishcouldonlybetransportedupto150kminland. Thisledtoanimportantmarketforsaltedherringandstockfish.Inparticular,thecommon crapwasverywellsuitedtothenewcreatedhabitat.Itgrowsfasterthanthenativebream, toleratingloweroxygenlevelsandwasabletosurviveforafewdaysoutofwaterifkept coolanddampduringtransport.ItisstilltraditionallyservedonGoodFridayandNew Year’sEve.Pricesforlocalwildfishroseandtheybecamealuxurygood.Inthe15thcenturyfishintownwasthreetofivetimesmoreexpensivethanbeef.
Beforeandafterfastingperiodspeoplesolemnized.Eastereggswererituallyblessed togetherwiththefirstlamb;theexcessesofCarnivalbeforetheLentarestillpartof today’slife,especiallyalongtheRhine.Inmanycasespaganritualswereadoptedinto Christiantraditions,suchastheCarnivalparadeinCologne,thisoriginatedinRoman SaturnaliaandCelticritualsorthewintersolsticeandChristmas.
BesidetheChristianfoodrules,medicaltraditionswerealsoimportantformedieval meals.Ingredients,spicesandpreparationscamefromthepharmacyintothekitchen sinceculinaryrecipesdevelopedoutofmedicalprescriptions:theGermanwordforboth isstill“Rezept.”TheclassicalmedicalknowledgewaspreservedthroughtheBenedictine orderandtheirmonasteriesrequiredatleastaseparateroomandspecialorderly.Thiswas thebeginningofthemonastichospitals.
Themedievalmedicinewasimprovedwi ththeLorscherArzneibuch,apharmaceuticalandmedicalhandbookwritten inthemonasteryofLorscharound800.
ThebookincludedmanymedicalrecipesbasedontheworksofPlinytheElderand recommendedthatmedicaltreatmentshouldbeaccessibleforeveryone.Physicians wererequiredtoadaptonpatient’secon omicopportunitiesandtouselocaldrugs andherbs.
InSalernoateachinghospitalandlateramedicalschoolforthemonksofMonte Cassinowasfounded.Inthe11thcentury,Constantine,aspicemerchantfromNorth Africa,translatedmedicaltextsfromGreekandArabicintoLatin.AtthistimetheArabs wereestablishedinsouthernSpainandSicily.Theyintroducedmanyinnovationstothe apothecariesandkitchenofEurope.ThisincludedfoodpreservationandtheartofdistillingandthecultivationofsugarcaneintheWesternMediterraneanregionfromwhere itwasexportedtoNorthernEurope.Alltheseelementswiththecloseconnection betweenpreventativemedicineandcookingmadetheirwayslowlynorthwards. Improvedmedicaltreatmentledtoanewunderstandingofnutritionandfinallythe recordingofculinaryrecipes.
Whileryewaspreferredinthenorthandeast,thewestwasdominatedby wheatandthesouthwestspecializedinspelt,alsoharvestedgreenanddriedasgreen spelt.Fieldcrops,fruitsandvineyardscreptuphillsides.WiththeChristianizationof theSlavicpopulationfromabout1100,Slavicinfluencesaddedanotherfacetin Germanfood:Buckwheat,afast-growing pseudo-cerealusedformakinggrueland pancakesratherthanbreadbecauseofitslackofgluten.TheAlsacephysicianMelchiorSebiziusmentionedbuckwheat150timesinhisdietarywork“DeAlimentoriumFacultatibus.”
HildegardvonBingen,the12th-centuryBenedictineabbessrepresentwithhermedicalworksPhysicaandCausaeetCuruethehighpointofmonasticmedicine.Inthe humoralpathologythefourelementsearth(coldanddry),air(hotandbodily),fire (hotanddry)andwater(coldandwet)matchedthefourhumorsphlegmatic,choleric, melancholicandsanguine.Theseconverselycorrespondedtothefourbodilyfluids:black bile,blood,yellowbileandphlegm.Humanwell-beingdependedonabalancedbody status,characterizedaswarmandmoist.Thesystemfocusedoncounteringanimbalance andthebeliefthatanexcessivetemperamentcouldbetemperedthroughdiet.Thisisstill reflectedoncommonideasofnutrition:choppingorpureeingguaranteedagoodblend anddigestibility,cookingchangedthenatureofnourishmentsandcoloringbroughtan additionaloptiontomakesomethingmoresuitableforacertainoccasionorperson.This becamethebasisoffamiliarculinarywisdomandwenowrememberthesourcewhenwe hearHildegard’sadviceonlettuce,whichwasconsideredascoldandsomustbetemperedbyavinegardressing.Hildegardgavemanypreparationsfornumerousingredients, whichwerecopiedandfurtherdisseminatedinfollowingcenturiesbyscribessuchas MeisterEberhardwhotooklongpassagesofthePhysicaintohisownpopularcookbook inthe15thcentury(Weiss-Amer,1992).
Thebeginningsofthefoodindustry
Whiletheoriginsofmodernfoodsciencelieintheearly19thcentury,itsfindings startedtomakearealimpactonfoodindustryinthe1870s.Theoriginofthefood industryisatleastpartlytheneedtofindnewwaysandmeanstofeedthearmies. Militaryrequirementscouldpushupthecostsoffoodbecauseoftheadditionaldemand orcreatingashortageduetouncontrolledforagingbythetroops.TheProductionof Liebig’smeatextract,Germany’sfirstmassfoodproductstarted1864.ItwasthebrainchildofaGermanengineercombinedwithBelgian(andlaterEnglish)capitalandlinked theimmensecattleherdsoftheSouthAmericanprairieswithEuropeancustomers.At first,theyweresoldtothearmyandhospitals,laterprivatehouseholdsincreasinglygave upboilingmeatsoupsandstockandboughtLiebig’sinstead.Inthe1880stheSwiss JuliusMaggiandCarlHeinrichKnorrofWurttembergmarketedproductsthatwere basedongroundlegumes,driedvegetables,pearledsagoandtapiocaandatacheaper price.TheFrench HippolyteMe ` ge-Mourie ` s createdMargarinein1869.Hewas respondingtoachallengeby EmperorNapoleonIII tocreatea butter substitutefor thearmedforcesandlowerclasses.
Inthelate19th-centuryandearly20th-century, Germany and Switzerland propagatedaback-to-naturelifestylereformasareactiontotheindustrialwayoflife.Garden suburbsbegantoappearattheedgeoflargecitiesnamedaftertheLeipzigphysicianDanielSchreber.Theseallotmentswereusedforfoodproductionandrecovery.Maximilan Bircher-Brenner,aSwiss-Germanphysician,wasoneofthestrongestopponentsofJustus vonLiebigandthenewfoodscientists.Heopenedhissanatorium“LivingPower”in Zurichforthewealthywhosufferedfromthelong-termeffectsoftheovereatingand attractedbusinesspeople,writersandartistsfromallovertheworld.Treatmentsincluded longwalksinnearbywoods,gymnasticsandmodestvegetarianmealsthatfavoredraw food.WiththefamousBircher-Brennermuesli(aSwissdiminutiveofMus,mush) weseeaclosedcircletothestone-agedgroats.Itconsistedoffreshfruit,aboveallgrated appleswithskinandcore,soakedoats,groundhazelnutsoralmonds,lemonandsweetenedcondensedmilkwhichthedoctorpreferredoverfreshmilkforhygienicreasons,in spiteoftheprocessinginvolved.
DuringtheWorldWarsofthe20thcenturydifficultiesoffoodsupplywerecountered byofficialmeasures,whichincludedrationing.Thelongtimeuseofsurrogatesandsubstitutesofsurrogateschangedtheeatinghabitssubstantially.Kitchenservantswithtimeto makeelaboratedisheswithmanyingredientswerereplacedwithinstantfoodsincans,or powdersthatthehousewifecouldquicklymix. Urbanization andindustrializationof foodproductionaswellas femaleemancipation haveresultedinahighlymodern consumersociety,stickingtoatraditionalhouseholdrole.Principlesof organic farming arenowwidelyacceptedasanessentialelementofcontemporaryfoodculture. Thelasthalfofthe20thcenturysawanincreaseintheavailabilityofagreaterrangeof
goodqualityfreshproductsandgreaterwillingnesstovarydietsandselectdishesfromall overtheworld.WiththenewMillenniumcamearenaissanceoftheregionalcuisines.
Wehavetoeat;weliketoeat;eatingmakesusfeelgood;itismoreimportantthansex.Toensure geneticsurvivalthesexurgeneedonlybesatisfiedafewtimesinalifetime;thehungerurgemust besatisfiedeveryday…Foodisalsoanoccasionforsharing,fordistributingandgiving,forthe expressionofaltruism,whetherfromparentstochildren,childrentoin-laws,oranyonetovisitors andstrangers Thusfoodbecomesnotjustasymbolof,buttherealityof,loveandsecurity (Fox,n.d.).
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