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NanotechnologyApplicationsinFood Thispageintentionallyleftblank
B.N.Estevinho,F.Rocha
10.NanoemulsificationTechnologyin ImprovingBioavailabilityof LipophilicFunctionalFood-Grade IngredientsandQualityofFood Products
S.Maiti
1.Introduction 203
2.EffectsofFoodMatrixComponents onBioavailability 205
3.BioavailabilityandFoodQuality 207
4.BiologicalFateandToxicity
11.NanoantimicrobialsinFood Industry
H.Hosseini,S.Shojaee-Aliabadi, S.M.Hosseini,L.Mirmoghtadaie
1.Introduction
2.NanoantimicrobialAgents 224
2.1InorganicNanostructured Materials 224
2.2OrganicNanostructuredMaterials 228
3.FoodAntimicrobialNanocarriers 229
3.1Nanoemulsions 229
3.2Nanoliposomes 231
3.3Nanoparticles/BiopolymerBased Nanocarriers/Colloidal Nanocarriers 233
3.4AntimicrobialNanocomposite Packaging 233
3.5AntimicrobialNanoliposomeand NanoemulsionEmbeddedInto FilmsandCoatings 235
4.ApplicationofNanoantimicrobials inFoods 235
4.1FruitsandVegetables 235
4.2DairyProducts
5.Conclusions
12.NanotechnologyinMicrobialFood Safety
C.S.Ranadheera,P.H.P.Prasanna, J.K.Vidanarachchi,R.McConchie, N.Naumovski,D.Mellor
1.Introduction
2.1FoodProcessingandPreservation 247
2.2BiofilmandMicrobial FoodSafety 249
2.3Nano-encapsulation 250
3.ApplicationsofNanotechnology inFoodPackaging 250
3.1NanomaterialsasBarriers 250
3.2NanopackagingMaterialsWith AntimicrobialProperties 252
4.UseofNanotechnologyand NanosensorstoDetectFoodBorne Pathogens
4.1 Escherichiacoli O157:H7
4.3 Listeriamonocytogenes 256
4.4 Mycobacteriumavium Subsp. paratuberculosis 257
4.5 Staphylococcusaureus 257
4.6 Vibrioparahaemolyticus 257
4.7Mycotoxins 258
4.8OtherPathogenicMicrobes 258
5.SafetyIssuesofNanotechnology 258
6.Conclusions 260 References 260
13.RecentAdvancesinMolecular TechniquesfortheDiagnosisof FoodborneDiseases
B.Bal,S.Nayak,A.P.Das
1.Introduction 267
2.FoodPathogens 268
3.SectorsDemandingFoodPathogen DetectionandControl 270
4.DifferentMethodsofFoodPathogen Detection 271
4.1ConventionalMethods 272
5.AdvancedMolecularTechniquesfor FoodPathogenDetection 275
6.Biosensors 275
6.1SurfacePlasmonResonance Biosensors 276
6.2OpticalBiosensors 276
6.3PiezoelectricBiosensors 276
6.4Cell-BasedBiosensors 276
6.5AmperometricBiosensors 277
6.6MicrobialMetabolism Based Biosensors 277
6.7DNA-BasedBiosensors 277
6.8Impedimetricand ConductimetricBiosensors 278
6.9Potentiometry,FET,andLAPS forPathogenDetection 278
ListofContributors S.H.AbdEl-Alim,NationalResearchCentre,Cairo,Egypt
N.Ahmad,DepartmentofChemistry,Universityof Malaya,KualaLumpur,Malaysia
S.C.Andrés,CentrodeInvestigaciónyDesarrolloen CriotecnologíadeAlimentos(CIDCA),CONICET, FacultaddeCienciasExactas,UNLP,CIC,LaPlata, Argentina;InstitutodeTecnologíadePolímerosy Nanotecnología(ITPN),UBA-CONICET,Facultadde Ingeniería,UBA,BuenosAires,Argentina
B.Bal,SikshaOAnusandhanUniversity,Bhubaneswar, Odisha,India
LalitM.Bal,JNAgriculturalUniversity,Collegeof Agriculture,Tikamgarh,MadhyaPradesh,India
A.N.Califano,CentrodeInvestigaciónyDesarrolloen CriotecnologíadeAlimentos(CIDCA),CONICET, FacultaddeCienciasExactas,UNLP,CIC,LaPlata, Argentina;InstitutodeTecnologíadePolímerosy Nanotecnología(ITPN),UBA-CONICET,Facultadde Ingeniería,UBA,BuenosAires,Argentina
P.Cerrutti ,InstitutodeTecnologíadePolímerosy Nanotecnología(ITPN),UBA-CONICET,Facultadde Ingeniería,UBA,BuenosAires,Argentina
A.P.Das,TripuraUniversity,(ACentralUniversity) Suryamaninagar,Agartala,India
T.Dilmaçünal,SüleymanDemirelUniversity,Isparta, Turkey
B.N.Estevinho,FaculdadedeEngenhariadaUniversidade doPorto,Porto,Portugal
D.Futra,UniversitiKebangsaanMalaysia,Bangi, Malaysia
A.Gandhi,GuptaCollegeofTechnologicalSciences, Asansol,India
L.Y.Heng,UniversitiKebangsaanMalaysia,Bangi, Malaysia
H.Hosseini,DepartmentofFoodScienceandTechnology, NationalNutritionandFoodTechnologyResearch Institute,FacultyofNutritionSciencesandFood Technology,ShahidBeheshtiUniversityofMedical Sciences,Tehran,Iran
S.M.Hosseini,DepartmentofFoodScienceandTechnology,NationalNutritionandFoodTechnology ResearchInstitute,FacultyofNutritionSciencesand FoodTechnology,ShahidBeheshtiUniversityof MedicalSciences,Tehran,Iran
K.A.Ishak,InstituteofBiologicalSciences,Universityof Malaya,KualaLumpur,Malaysia
SougataJana,GuptaCollegeofTechnologicalSciences, Asansol,India
SubrataJana,IndiraGandhiNationalTribalUniversity, Amarkantak,India
A.A.Kassem,NationalResearchCentre,Cairo,Egypt
B.Kumar,UniversidaddelasFuerzasArmadasESPE, Sangolqui,Ecuador;TATACollege,Chaibasa,India
P.Kumar,MANIT,Bhopal,India
B.Kuswandi,UniversityofJember,Jember,Indonesia; UniversitiKebangsaanMalaysia,Bangi,Malaysia
S.Lee,KhalifaUniversityofScience,Technology,and Research,AbuDhabi,UnitedArabEmirates
S.Maiti,GuptaCollegeofTechnologicalSciences, Asansol,India
T.Maity,DefenceFoodResearchLaboratory,Mysore, India
L.Marchetti,CentrodeInvestigaciónyDesarrolloen CriotecnologíadeAlimentos(CIDCA),CONICET, FacultaddeCienciasExactas,UNLP,CIC,LaPlata, Argentina;InstitutodeTecnologíadePolímerosy Nanotecnología(ITPN),UBA-CONICET,Facultadde Ingeniería,UBA,BuenosAires,Argentina
F.Masood,COMSATSInstituteofInformationTechnology (CIIT),Islamabad,Pakistan
R.McConchie,UniversityofSydney,Sydney,NSW, Australia
D.Mellor,UniversityofCanberra,Canberra,ACT,Australia
L.Mirmoghtadaie,DepartmentofFoodScienceand Technology,NationalNutritionandFoodTechnology ResearchInstitute,FacultyofNutritionSciencesand FoodTechnology,ShahidBeheshtiUniversityof MedicalSciences,Tehran,Iran
M.S.MohamadAnnuar,InstituteofBiologicalSciences, UniversityofMalaya,KualaLumpur,Malaysia
F.Mohanty,VeerSurendraSaiUniversityofTechnology, Burla,Sambalpur,India
D.M.Mostafa,NationalResearchCentre,Cairo,Egypt
B.Muzzio,CentrodeInvestigaciónyDesarrolloen CriotecnologíadeAlim entos(CIDCA),CONICET, FacultaddeCienciasExactas,UNLP,CIC,LaPlata, Argentina;InstitutodeTecnologíadePolímerosy Nanotecnología(ITPN),UBA-CONICET,Facultadde Ingeniería,UBA,BuenosAires,Argentina
N.Naumovski,UniversityofCanberra,Canberra,ACT, Australia
S.Nayak,SikshaOAnusandhanUniversity,Bhubaneswar, Odisha,India
A.Paliwal,AmityUniversity,Noida,UP,India
K.M.Pandey,MANIT,Bhopal,India
M.Pathak,IndianInstituteofTechnologyPatna,Patna, Bihar,India
P.H.P.Prasanna,RajarataUniversityofSriLanka, Anuradhapura,SriLanka
C.S.Ranadheera,VictoriaUniversity,Werribee,VIC, Australia;UniversityofSydney,Sydney,NSW,Australia
F.Rocha,FaculdadedeEngenhariadaUniversidadedo Porto,Porto,Portugal
S.Sahota,MANIT,Bhopal,India
G.K.Satpute,ICAR-IndianInstituteofSoybeanResearch, Indore,MadhyaPradesh,India
A.Saxena,AmityUniversity,Noida,UP,India
S.Shojaee-Aliabadi,DepartmentofFoodScienceand Technology,NationalNutritionandFoodTechnology ResearchInstitute,FacultyofNutritionSciencesand FoodTechnology,ShahidBeheshtiUniversityof MedicalSciences,Tehran,Iran
J.Singh,MANIT,Bhopal,India
K.Smita,UniversidaddelasFuerzasArmadasESPE, Sangolqui,Ecuador
A.K.Srivastava,JNAgriculturalUniversity,Collegeof Agriculture,Tikamgarh,MadhyaPradesh,India
S.Suresh ,MANIT,Bhopal,India
S.K.Swain,VeerSurendraSaiUniversityofTechnology, Burla,Sambalpur,India
J.K.Vidanarachchi,UniversityofPeradeniya,Peradeniya, SriLanka
S.Wadhwa,AmityUniversity,Noida,UP,India
Yogranjan,JNAgriculturalUni versity,Collegeof Agriculture,Tikamgarh, MadhyaPradesh,India
Foreword Nanoscienceandnanotechnologyareconcernedwiththedesign,fabrication,characterization,andexploitationofthe newlyoccurredpropertiesofmaterialsatnanoscalelevel(i.e.,lessthan100nminsize)tomakethemsuitablefordifferent practicalapplications.Nanotechnologyisemergingtodayinall fieldsofhumanactivity,includingfoodindustry. Nanotechnologybringsanessentialcontributionindifferentstepsofthefoodchain:(1)ensuringfoodqualitythrough contributionstothedevelopmentofnewpesticides;agrichemicaldeliveryandevaluationofsoilquality;identitypreservation;designofdifferentfoodingredientswithimprovedactivityatminimalconcentration;developmentofadvanced formulation,transport,release,andstabilizationnanosystemsfordifferentfoodcomponentsoradditivesthatcould influencetheproductshelflife,texture, flavor,andnutrientcomposition;manipulatingthefoodcontentatnanoscalelevels tomodifyitsorganolepticpropertiesornutritivecompositiontomeetconsumers’ preferences;anddevelopmentofnovel methodsforeliminatingcontaminants(e.g., filtermembranes)withoutaffectingthenutrientcontentofthefood;(2) improvingthefoodproductionyieldbyofferingnanostructuredsupportsfordifferentenzymesusedinfoodtechnology; (3)evaluatingfoodqualityandsafetybythedevelopmentofadvancedmicroscopicmethodsandothertoolstostudythe foodnanostructure;developmentofsamplingsystemsandnanosensorstodetectdifferenttypesofbiologicalorchemical contaminantsinfood;anddevelopmentofself-cleaningmaterialstobeusedinfoodindustry;and(4)infoodprocessing andpackagingbydevelopingfullybiodegradableandnontoxicmaterialstocontrolgasdiffusionandextendthelifetimeof variousfoodproductsbypreventingmicrobialcontaminationoffoodduringprocessing,storage,andtransportorto disinfectfoodprocessingsurfacesandbydevelopingnovelencapsulationandpackagingnanomaterials.
However,therapidprogressofnanotechnologyapplicationsinthefoodindustryrequiresthesimultaneousdevelopmentofappropriateregulationsandmethodsfortestingthesafetyofnanomaterialsandevaluatingthepotentialrisksof exposureinrelationwithhumanhealthandwiththeenvironmentalqualityandreexaminationofgenerallyrecognizedas safe(GRAS)listofnanoscaledfoodcomponents.Thiswillalsocontributetotheconsumers’ trustinsuchnovelproducts.
Throughthecarefulselectionofthechaptersincludedinthisvolume,itwillbringanimportantcontributiontothe understandingoftheimportanceofnanotechnologyfortheagro-foodsector;toimprovetheknowledgeofthepresent resultsandapplicationsalreadydeveloped,particularlyinthefoodpackagingandfoodsafety fi elds;andforhighlighting emergingadvancementsinthefoodindustry.
MarianaCarmenChifiriuc ICUB,TheResearchInstituteoftheUniversityofBucharest,Romania
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Preface xvii
Chapter19, PlantStressSignalingThroughCorrespondingNanobiotechnology,byYogranjanetal.,presentsthe powerofgenomictechnologyinintegrationwithanotherhighlysensitivenanotechnology-basedapproachinelucidationof plantstressadaptationmechanism.Thisstresssensingnanoapproachcouldcontrolvegetalfoodquality.
AlexandraElenaOprea DepartmentofScienceandEngineeringofOxideMaterialsandNanomaterials FacultyofAppliedChemistryandMaterialsScience UniversityPolitehnicaofBucharest
Romania
AlexandruMihaiGrumezescu TheResearchInstituteoftheUniversityofBucharest ICUB
Romania
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AKeyfortheFutureoftheFlavors inFoodIndustry:Nanoencapsulation andMicroencapsulation B.N.EstevinhoandF.Rocha FaculdadedeEngenhariadaUniversidadedoPorto,Porto,Portugal
1.INTRODUCTION Flavorsareconsideredimportantingredientsinanyfoodformula,playingasignificantroleinconsumersatisfactionand influencingfurtherconsumptionoffood(Madeneetal.,2006).Mostavailable flavorsareproducedviachemicalsynthesis orextractionfromnaturalcompounds,beingusuallyexpensive,delicate,andvolatile(Milanovicetal.,2010).Consequently,foodmanufacturersareusuallyconcernedaboutthepreservationofthesepreciousadditives.
Theincreasinginterestonthestabilityof flavorsindifferenttypesoffoodproductshasbeenrelatedtotheirrelation withthequalityandacceptabilityofthefoodproducts.However,itisdif ficulttocontrolandstabilize flavors,mainly becauseofthestorageandmanufacturingprocesses.Packagingingredientsinfoodproductsoftenprovokealterationsin overall flavorbyreducing flavorintensityorbyproducingoff- flavorcomponents(Madeneetal.,2006).
Encapsulation,includingmicroencapsulationandnanoencapsulation,hasbecomeachallengingapproachtodesign newmaterialswithbiotechnologicalapplications.Inthisspecifi ccase,encapsulationcanbeusedtocoveranactive compound(fl avor)withaprotectiveencapsulatingagent,givingprotectionagainstevaporation,chemicalreactions(such as fl avor flavorinteractions,light-inducedreactions,oxidation),ormigrationinafood.Encapsulationcanalsobeusedto retain flavorsinfoodproductsduringprocessingorstorageand/ortoallowforacontrolledrelease(Milanovicetal.,2010). The flavor-encapsulatingprocessesinfoodindustryincreasedinanexponentialformoverthepasttwodecades (ChampagneandFustier,2007;Ghosh,2006),alongwiththenumberofpublicationsrelatedtothem. Fig.1.1 presentsthe numberofpaperspublishedperyearwithoneofthefollowingexpressions: “encapsulation/fl avour,”“microencapsulation/ flavour,” and “nanoencapsulation/ flavour.”
Basedonthenumberofpublications,the flavormicroencapsulationismorerelevantthanthe flavornanoencapsulation thatstartedtobemoredevelopedonlyinthelastyears.Thereareseveralmethodsofmicroencapsulation,suchasspray drying,spraycooling,spraychilling, fluidizedbed,coacervation,alginatebeads,liposomes,andspinningdisk (Gouin,2004;Yoshiietal.,2001).Differentencapsulatingagentscanbeused,includingproteins,carbohydrates,lipids, fats,andgums.Some flavorsaremorestableinwater-solubleencapsulatingagentsandsomearemorestableinlipid-based coating(Milanovicetal.,2010).
Therefore, flavorsareveryimportantfortheacceptanceoffoodproducts;however,therearemanyfactorsthataffectthe overallqualityofthe flavorsandconsequentlyofthefoodproducts.Sotolimit flavordegradationorlossduringprocessing andstorage,itisbeneficialtoencapsulate flavors.Inthefollowingsections,theseconceptswillbediscussedmoredeeply.
2.IMPORTANCEOFFLAVORSINTHEFOODINDUSTRYANDINTHEGLOBALMARKET Tastyornottasty?Thisisthemostimportantquestionforthefoodindustry.Flavorsareextremelyimportantforthe acceptanceofthefoodproductsbytheconsumers.Ifaproductdoesnothaveanacceptabletaste,itwillnotbeacceptedby themarketandwillleadtolossofmoney.
FIGURE1.2 Flavorsglobalmarket2013:distributionofsectors. AdaptedfromIALConsultants,2014.AnOverviewoftheGlobalFlavours& FragrancesMarket,ninthed.Release,Press,London,UK.
the finalpriceoftheproductanditsbenefitsisindispensable.Ifitisanexpensivecompoundtobemicroencapsulated,the cost-in-usemustbelowerthanthatofthenonencapsulatedcompound,butifmicroencapsulationprovidesthecompound withaspecificandspecialproperty,thenthecost-in-usecanbeslightlyhigherthanthatofthenonencapsulatedingredient. Therefore,consideringthecharacteristicsofthefoodproductsandfoodformulationswithmicroencapsulatedcompounds, whichrepresent1 5%ofthe fi nalproduct,themaximumcostforamicroencapsulationprocessinthefoodindustryis approximatelyestimatedat V0.1/kg(Gouin,2004).
3.ENCAPSULATIONINTHEFOODINDUSTRY Theadvantagesandimportanceoftheapplicationofmicroencapsulationinthefoodindustryhavebeendiscussedby severalauthors(ChampagneandFustier,2007;Ghosh,2006;Gouin,2004).Itisemphasizedanddescribedthatmicroencapsulationmayprotectthecorecompound,decreaseitsreactivitywithexternalfactors,reducethetransferratefromthe coretotheoutsideandcontrolthereleaseofthecorecompound,promoteeasierhandling,maskthecoretaste,anddilute thecore(microencapsulatedcompound)inthe finalproductwhenitistoxicinlargequantities(Gharsallaouietal.,2007; PothakamuryandBarbosa-Cánovas,1995).
Thenumberoffoodingredientsorcompoundsthathavebeenmicroencapsulatedorsubmittedtoothercontrolled releasetechniqueshasbeenincreasing,forexample, flavors(deRoos,2003;Yoshiietal.,2001),dyes(Ersusand Yurdagel,2007),stabilizers(Guillardetal.,2009),antioxidants(Gemilietal.,2010),enzymes(SangeethaandAbraham, 2008),probiotics(ChampagneandFustier,2007;Heidebachetal.,2010),lipids(KeoghandO’Kennedy,1999),mineral salts(OnedaandRé,2003),andvitamins(Yooetal.,2006),amongothers(PothakamuryandBarbosa-Cánovas,1995).
Oneofthemostrecentnoveltiesinthefoodindustryisbasedontheincorporationofprobioticsinfoodproducts,which aredefinedbytheWorldHealthOrganizationas “livemicroorganismswhich,whenadministeredinadequateamounts, conferahealthbenefitonthehost” (AnalandSingh,2007;Corona-Hernandezetal.,2013).However,thelossofprobioticsduringprocessingisthemostimportanttechnologicalobstaclethatmustbesolved.Producingenoughamountsof viableandstableprobioticcultureshasbeenatechnologicalchallengefortheindustry(Salemetal.,2013).Theeffi cacyof probioticsismainlyrelatedtotheirviabilityinaproductatthepointofconsumption.Notonlythefoodproduction processesandstorageconditionsbutalsothephysicalcircumstancesofthehumangastrointestinaltract(acidicconditions ofthestomachaswellasenzymesandbilesaltsinthesmallintestine)afteroralapplicationstronglyinfluencethesurvival ofprobioticmicroorganismsandaccordinglytheireffectiveness(SchellandBeermann,2014).Toavoidundesirablelossof probiotics,useofprotectivemicroencapsulationtechniqueswithdifferentmatricesisgenerallyagoodsolution(Burgain
etal.,2014;Corona-Hernandezetal.,2013;Salemetal.,2013;SchellandBeermann,2014).Themicroencapsulation processessolveseveralproblemsandcanbeusedtoenhancetheviabilityduringprocessing,andalsoforthetargeted deliveryingastrointestinaltract(AnalandSingh,2007).
Anotherexampleofapplicationinthefoodindustryisthemicroencapsulationofenzymes.Immobilizedenzymesare generallymorestable,andtherearemanypotentialapplicationsthatrangefromfoodindustrytobiotechnologyand medicine(HaiderandHusain,2008).Morethan70%oftheworldpopulationsuffersfromlactoseintolerancecausedby thelackof b-galactosidaseactivity.Thereareseveralstudiesbasedonthemicroencapsulationof b-galactosidasetoallow thehydrolysisoflactoseinthepresenceofgastric fl uid.Forexample, Rodriguez-NogalesandDelgadillo(2005) microcapsulated b-galactosidaseinliposomes,whicharesimplyvesiclescomposedofamembraneoflipidmolecules. Liposomescanentrapawiderangeofactivecompounds.
Antioxidantsandvitaminsalsohavebenefitswhenmicroencapsulated.
Thelossofvitaminsandantioxidantsisconsiderableduringcooking,theprocessingoffoods(chilling,heating, reheating),andstorage(MurugesanandOrsat,2011).Someauthorsstudiedthepossibilityofmicroencapsulatingthem withthepurposeofincreasingtheirresistancetothecookingprocess,oxidation,orstorage(Abbasetal.,2012).
Finally, flavorshavealargescopeofapplicationsinthefoodindustry.However,someofthemareverysensitiveto ambientorindustrialprocessconditions.Flavorlossduringthestorageprocessoffoodsisacommonoccurrenceinthe foodindustry.Somicroencapsulationisimportanttoprotectandretainthe flavorinthebestconditiontobeingested.This topicwillbediscussedinthenextsection.
4.ENCAPSULATIONOFFLAVORS Theencapsulationtechnology,namely,microencapsulation,hasbeenusedbythefoodindustryformorethan60years (DesaiandPark,2005a,b).Duringtherecentyears,thenumberoffoodcompounds,suchas flavoringagents,thatwere microencapsulatedornanoencapsulatedhasbeenincreasing(deRoos,2003;Yoshiietal.,2001).
Microencapsulationandnanoencapsulationaretechnologiesthatcanbeusedtoincreasetheeffectivenessofmany compoundsintheindustryand,asothertechniquesofcontrolledrelease,allowthereformulationofalargenumberof products,improvingandgivingthembetterandnewproperties(Carvalhoetal.,2016;ChampagneandFustier,2007; DesaiandPark,2005a,b;Ghosh,2006;Gouin,2004;PatelandPatel,2010;Youanetal.,2003).Someheat-,temperature-, orpH-sensitivecompoundscanbeusedmoreconvenientlywhenencapsulated,andthiscanalsoavoidthelossof fl avor, vitamins,proteins,enzymes,essentialoils,mineralsalts,etc.,duringcertainindustrialprocesses(Estevinhoetal.,2014a, 2014b,2012;PothakamuryandBarbosa-Cánovas,1995).Someadvantagesofthemicro-andnanoencapsulationprocesses areusefulespeciallyfor flavors:protectionofthe flavor,reductionofthe flavorreactivitywithexternalfactors,decreasing thetransferratefromthecoretotheoutsideandcontrollingthereleaseofthe fl avor,andpromotingeasierhandling (Gharsallaouietal.,2007;PothakamuryandBarbosa-Cánovas,1995).
Microencapsulationisatechniqueinwhichliquiddroplets,solidparticles,orgasmoleculesareentrappedinan encapsulatingagent.Suchcompoundsaretotallyincorporatedinacoatingmaterialorembeddedinahomogeneousor heterogeneousmatrixtoformsmallcapsules(Ghosh,2006).Thesizeoftheparticlesformedbyencapsulationmaybe classi fiedasmacro(>5000 mm),micro(1.0 5000 mm),andnano(<1.0 mm)(Jafarietal.,2008).Thedifferenttypesof microcapsulesandnanocapsulesareproducedfromawiderangeofencapsulatingagentsandbyalargenumberof differentencapsulationprocesses(Fig.1.3).
The firststepin flavormicroencapsulationprocessesistheselectionofasuitableencapsulatingagent,basicallya filmformingbiopolymer,fromawidevarietyofnaturalorsyntheticpolymers;dependingonthe flavorandthedesired characteristicsofthemicrocapsules,differentmaterialshavebeenused,includingproteins,carbohydrates,lipids,fats,and gums.
Themostcommonmicroencapsulationprocessesarespraydrying,spraycooling,spraychilling,freeze-drying,air suspensioncoating, fluidizedbed,extrusion,centrifugalextrusion,coacervation,rotationalsuspensionseparation, cocrystallization,liposomeentrapment,interfacialpolymerization,andmolecularinclusion(Carvalhoetal.,2016;Desai andPark,2005a,b;Gouin,2004).Thenanoparticlescanbeproduced,ingeneral,bythesemethodswithorwithoutsome speci ficadaptationsorbymorespecializedones,suchasspraydryingwithmicro fluidizationandultrasonication,physical adsorption,complexformation,nanosizedself-structuredliquid,andnanoemulsifi cation(Madeneetal.,2006).
Dependingonthephysicochemicalpropertiesofthecore,theencapsulatingagent,andthemicroencapsulation techniqueused,differenttypesofparticlescanbeobtained,suchasasimplespheresurroundedbyacoatingofuniform thickness(singlecore),particlescontaininganirregularlyshapedcore,severalcoreparticlesembeddedinacontinuous matrixofencapsulatingagent(multicore),severaldistinctcoreswithinthesamecapsule,andmultiwalledmicrocapsules
The flavormicroencapsulationprocesses. AdaptedfromMadene,A.,Jacquot,M.,Scher,J.,Desobry,S.,2006.Flavourencapsulationand controlledrelease areview.Int.J.FoodSci.Technol.41,1 21.
(Gharsallaouietal.,2007).Theparticlesformedwithasinglecorearetypicallyproducedbycomplexcoacervation, fluidizedbeddrying,dropletcoextrusion,andmolecularinclusionandhavehighcoreloading(90%ofthetotalcapsule weight).Themicroparticleswithmulticoreareproducedmainlybyspraydrying.Inthiscasethecorematerialisdispersed throughouttheencapsulatingagentandfrequentlyhasacoreloadingaround20 30%ofthetotalcapsuleweight (Jafarietal.,2008).
Differenttypesofmicroparticlesareproducedfromawiderangeofencapsulatingagentsandbyalargenumberof microencapsulationprocesses(Ghosh,2006).Theselectionofthemicroencapsulationmethodandtheencapsulatingagent isinterdependent(DesaiandPark,2005a,b).
4.1EncapsulationTechniques Theincorporationof flavormoleculesintocapsulesisofgreatinterestinthefoodindustrybecauseencapsulationimproves thechemicalstabilityofthe flavorsandprovidescontrolledrelease.Overtheyears,newencapsulationtechniqueshave beendevelopedandtheoldoneshavebeenimprovedinthefoodindustry(AnalandSingh,2007;Azeredo,2005; ChampagneandFustier,2007;Freitasetal.,2005;Ghosh,2006;Gouin,2004;Krajewska,2004;SinghandO’Hagan, 1998;Sinhaetal.,2004;deVosetal.,2010).Thereareseveralencapsulationtechniques,withdifferentadaptationsand specificities,consideringthetypeofmicrocapsuledesired(sizeandshape),thechemicalandphysicalpropertiesofthe
FIGURE1.3
compoundandtheencapsulatingagent,thetypeofcontrolledrelease,andthescaleofproduction(Ghosh,2006;deVos etal.,2010).Theapplicabilityandspeci ficcharacteristicsofthemostcommonmicroencapsulationtechniquesappliedto flavormicroencapsulationaresummarizedin Table1.1.Thetwomajorindustrialprocessesarespraydryingandextrusion; also,freezedrying,coacervation,andadsorptiontechniquesareusedintheindustry(Madeneetal.,2006).
Physicalandchemicalmethodsareusedfor flavorencapsulation.Chemicalmethods,suchasmolecularinclusion,are distinguishedbythereactivityoftheexternalwallmaterial(encapsulatingagent)surroundingtheencapsulatedcore.The mostfrequentlyusedphysicalmethodsincludeextrusionandspraydrying,whicharecharacterizedbytheuseof temperatureandpressuretodrivetheformationofthewallthatcoatsthecorematerial(ErasoandHerrera,2013).
4.1.1ChemicalTechniques 4.1.1.1Coacervation
Coacervationconsistsoftheseparationofcolloidparticlesfromasolution,whichthenagglomerateintoaseparateliquid phasecalledcoacervate.Normallythecorematerialusedinthecoacervationmustbecompatiblewiththerecipient polymerandbeinsoluble(orscarcelysoluble)inthecoacervationmedium(Madeneetal.,2006).
Coacervationisathree-stepprocess:(1)formationofanoil-in-water(o/w)emulsion(activecompoundisdispersedin theaqueousphaseandpolymerisdissolvedintheorganicphase),(2)depositionoftheliquidpolymercoatingonthecore material,and(3)stabilizationandhardeningofthecoatingmaterialtoformself-sustainingmicrocapsules(Carvalhoetal., 2016;Lazkoetal.,2004).Theformedmicroparticlescanbecollectedbycentrifugationor fi ltrationandthereafterwashed withtheappropriatesolvent,dried,andhardenedbythermal,cross-linking,ordesolvationtechniques(Carvalhoetal., 2016;Pengetal.,2014).
Coacervationcanbesimpleorcomplex.Simplecoacervationinvolvesonlyonetypeofpolymer(asencapsulatingagent) andtheadditionofstronglyhydrophilicagentstothecolloidalsolution,whereascomplexcoacervationinvolvestwoor moretypesofpolymers(Madeneetal.,2006).Gelatinandgumarabicarethemostcommonandextensivelyusedpairof encapsulatingagentsincomplexcoacervation(ÐorC evicetal.,2014).Forexample, Lvetal.(2014) producedheat-resistant nanocapsulesofjasmineessentialoilwithacombinationofgelatin/gumarabicbyacomplexcoacervationtechnique.
Thismethodhassomeproblemsthatneedtobesolved,namely,theoptimizationofwallmaterialconcentrationinthe emulsi fication,theevaporationofvolatiles,thedissolutionofactivecompoundintotheprocessingsolvent,andproduct oxidation.Thecomplexcoacervatesarehighlyunstableandtoxicchemicalagents,suchasglutaraldehyde,arenecessaryto stabilizethem(ÐorC evicetal.,2014;Madeneetal.,2006).
4.1.1.2MolecularInclusion
Molecularinclusionisanothermeansofachievingencapsulationandisdefi nedastheresultofinteractionsbetween compoundsinwhichasmallerguestmolecule fitsintoandissurroundedbytheother(Madeneetal.,2006).
b-Cyclodextrinisacyclicderivativeofstarchpreparedfrompartiallyhydrolyzedstarch(maltodextrin)byanenzymatic process.Cyclodextrinsareagroupofnaturallyoccurringcyclicoligosaccharideswithsix,seven,oreightglucoseresidues linkedby a(1 / 4)glycosidebondsinacylindricalstructurethataredenominated a-, b-,and g-cyclodextrins,respectively(ÐorC evicetal.,2014).Ingeneral, flavorsexhibitmoreaffi nityfor b-cyclodextrin(ÐorC evicetal.,2014).The externalpartofthecyclodextrinmoleculeishydrophilic,whereastheinternalpartishydrophobic.Theguestmolecules, whichareapolar,canbeentrappedintheapolarinternalcavitybyhydrophobicinteraction.Thisinternalcavityofabout 0.65nmdiameterpermitstheinclusionofoneormore flavorvolatilemolecules(DesaiandPark,2005a,b).Therearethree mainmethodstoproducethe flavor cyclodextrincomplex:
l Firstmethod:Cyclodextrinisdissolvedinwatertoformanaqueoussolution,andthe flavorsareaddedtoforman inclusioncomplexincrystallineform.Thecrystalobtainedisthenseparatedanddried.
l Secondmethod:Cyclodextrinisdissolvedinalesseramountofwaterthaninthe firstmethodtoformaconcentrated suspension,andthe flavorsaremixedtoformaninclusioncomplexincrystallineform.Thecomplexthenmustbe separatedanddried.
l Thirdmethod:Cyclodextrinisdissolvedinamuchloweramountofwatertoformapaste,andthe fl avorsaremixed duringkneadingtoformaninclusioncomplex.Thismethodissuperiortotheformertwomethodsbecauseitdoesnot requirefurtherseparationanddrying(DesaiandPark,2005a,b).
Toincreasetheprocessyieldofthemolecularinclusionortoimprovethesolubilityoftheinclusioncomplex,various additivescanbeadded(polymers,acids,orbases)(ÐorC evicetal.,2014).
