Nanomaterials for sustainable energy and environmental remediation (materials today) dr. mu. naushad by Education Libraries

https://ebookmass.com/product/nanomaterials-for-sustainable-

Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) ready for you

Download now and discover formats that fit your needs...

Nanomaterials for air remediation Abdeltif Amrane

https://ebookmass.com/product/nanomaterials-for-air-remediationabdeltif-amrane/

ebookmass.com

Nanostructured Carbon Nitrides for Sustainable Energy and Environmental Applications 1st Edition Shamik Chowdhury

https://ebookmass.com/product/nanostructured-carbon-nitrides-forsustainable-energy-and-environmental-applications-1st-edition-shamikchowdhury/

ebookmass.com

Advanced Materials for Sustainable Environmental

Remediation: Terrestrial and Aquatic Environments

Dimitrios A. Giannakoudakis

https://ebookmass.com/product/advanced-materials-for-sustainableenvironmental-remediation-terrestrial-and-aquatic-environmentsdimitrios-a-giannakoudakis/ ebookmass.com

Pearson Foundation Series Biology class 10 Ten Trishna Knowledge Systems

https://ebookmass.com/product/pearson-foundation-series-biologyclass-10-ten-trishna-knowledge-systems/ ebookmass.com

The Infographic Guide to Medicine Neeral L. Shah

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-infographic-guide-to-medicineneeral-l-shah/

ebookmass.com

Programming for Game Design: A Hands-On Guide with Godot 1st Edition Wang

https://ebookmass.com/product/programming-for-game-design-a-hands-onguide-with-godot-1st-edition-wang/

ebookmass.com

Facilities Design – Ebook PDF Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/facilities-design-ebook-pdf-version/

ebookmass.com

Before and after Babel: Writing as Resistance in Ancient Near Eastern Empires Marc Van De Mieroop

https://ebookmass.com/product/before-and-after-babel-writing-asresistance-in-ancient-near-eastern-empires-marc-van-de-mieroop/

ebookmass.com

First-principles investigation of aluminum intercalation in bilayer blue phosphorene for Al-ion battery Junhua Hao

https://ebookmass.com/product/first-principles-investigation-ofaluminum-intercalation-in-bilayer-blue-phosphorene-for-al-ion-batteryjunhua-hao/

ebookmass.com

Red Star Over the Black Sea. Nâzim Hikmet and his Generation James H. Meyer

https://ebookmass.com/product/red-star-over-the-black-sea-nazimhikmet-and-his-generation-james-h-meyer/

ebookmass.com

Nanomaterialsfor SustainableEnergyand EnvironmentalRemediation

Editedby

Mu.Naushad

DepartmentOfChemistry,CollegeOfScience,KingSaudUniversity, Riyadh,SaudiArabia

R.Saravanan

FacultyofEngineering,DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering, UniversityofTarapaca,Arica,Chile

KumarRaju

EnergyCentre,CouncilforScientiﬁcandIndustrialResearch(CSIR), Pretoria,SouthAfrica

Elsevier

Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands

TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates

Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicor mechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,without permissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthe Publisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearance CenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite: www.elsevier.com/permissions

ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher (otherthanasmaybenotedherein).

Notices

Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthis ﬁeldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroaden ourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecome necessary.

Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingand usinganyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformation ormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhom theyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility.

Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeany liabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceor otherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthe materialherein.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress

BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData

AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary

ISBN:978-0-12-819355-6

ForinformationonallElsevierpublicationsvisitourwebsiteat https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: DeansMatthew

AcquisitionsEditor: SimonHolt

EditorialProjectManager: GabrielaD.Capille

ProductionProjectManager: AnithaSivaraj

CoverDesigner: ChristianJ.Bilbow

TypesetbyTNQTechnologies

ListofContributors

S.Balakumar NationalCentreforNanosceicneandNanotechnology,Universityof Madras,Chennai,Tamilnadu,India

A.Bhardwaj SchoolofPhysicalSciences(SPS),JawaharlalNehruUniversity(JNU), Delhi,India

L.A.Blanco LaboratoryofCatalysisandEnergy,DepartmentofChemical Engineering,Biotechnology,andMaterials,UniversityofChile,Santiago,Chile

RabahBoukherroub UniversityofLille,CNRS,CentraleLille,ISEN,Universityof Valenciennes,Lille,France

MilicaBudimir UniversityofLille,CNRS,CentraleLille,ISEN,Universityof Valenciennes,Lille,France;VincaInstituteofNuclearSciences,Belgrade,Serbia; SchoolofElectricalEngineering,Belgrade,Serbia

D.Durgalakshmi DepartmentofMedicalPhysics,AnnaUniversity,Chennai, Tamilnadu,India

DuncanPaulFagg NanoengineeringResearchGroup,CentreforMechanical TechnologyandAutomation(TEMA),DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering, UniversityofAveiro,Aveiro,Portugal

G.Feijoo DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,SchoolofEngineering, UniversidadedeSantiagodeCompostela,SantiagodeCompostela,Spain

L.Fernández DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,SchoolofEngineering, UniversidadedeSantiagodeCompostela,SantiagodeCompostela,Spain

M.Gamallo DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,SchoolofEngineering, UniversidadedeSantiagodeCompostela,SantiagodeCompostela,Spain

F.Gracia LaboratoryofCatalysisandEnergy,DepartmentofChemicalEngineering, Biotechnology,andMaterials,UniversityofChile,Santiago,Chile

C.Gupta DepartmentofChemistry,UniversityofDelhi,Delhi,India

ArindamIndra DepartmentofChemistry,IndianInstituteofTechnology(BHU), Varanasi,UttarPradesh,India

KumaranKannaiyan DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,TexasA & M UniversityatQatar,Doha,Qatar

SekarKarthikeyan DepartmentofEarthResourcesEngineering,Kyushu University,Fukuoka,Japan

VigneshKumaravel DepartmentofEnvironmentalScience,SchoolofScience, InstituteofTechnologySligo,Sligo,Ireland

ArunaKalasapurayilKunhiraman SriKrishnaCollegeofEngineeringand Technology,Coimbatore,Tamilnadu,India

AdamF.Lee SchoolofScience,RMITUniversity,Melbourne,Australia

ZoranMarkovic VincaInstituteofNuclearSciences,Belgrade,Serbia

PrashanthW.Menezes DepartmentofChemistry:MetalorganicsandInorganic Materials,TechnischeUniversitätBerlin,Berlin,Germany

M.T.Moreira DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,SchoolofEngineering, UniversidadedeSantiagodeCompostela,SantiagodeCompostela,Spain

MuthuchamyNallal DepartmentofChemistry,PusanNationalUniversity,Busan, SouthGyeongsangnam,RepublicofKorea

A.JosephNathanael DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,Yeungnam University,Gyeongsan,Gyeongbuk,RepublicofKorea

Mu.Naushad DepartmentofChemistry,CollegeofScience,KingSaudUniversity, Riyadh,SaudiArabia

KangHyunPark DepartmentofChemistry,PusanNationalUniversity,Busan, SouthGyeongsangnam,RepublicofKorea

JayarajPrithi CentreforFuelCellTechnology,InternationalAdvancedResearch CentreforPowderMetallurgyandNewMaterials,IITMResearchPark,Chennai, Tamilnadu,India

D.Pukazhselvan NanoengineeringResearchGroup,CentreforMechanical TechnologyandAutomation(TEMA),DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering, UniversityofAveiro,Aveiro,Portugal

N.Rajalakshmi CentreforFuelCellTechnology,InternationalAdvancedResearch CentreforPowderMetallurgyandNewMaterials,IITMResearchPark,Chennai, Tamilnadu,India

SaravananRajendran FacultyofEngineering,DepartmentofMechanical Engineering,UniversityofTarapaca,Arica,Chile

K.S.Sandhya DepartmentofAppliedScience,SreeChitraThirunalCollegeof Engineering,Thiruvananthapuram,Kerala,India

KeikoSasaki DepartmentofEarthResourcesEngineering,KyushuUniversity, Fukuoka,Japan

AnanthakumarSoosaimanickam InstitutodeCienciadelosMateriales (ICMUV),UniversidaddeValencia,Valencia,Spain

SabineSzunerits UniversityofLille,CNRS,CentraleLille,ISEN,Universityof Valenciennes,Lille,France

RamanVedarajan CentreforFuelCellTechnology,InternationalAdvanced ResearchCentreforPowderMetallurgyandNewMaterials,IITMResearchPark, Chennai,Tamilnadu,India

AuthorsBiographies

D.Durgalakshmi completedherPhDinmaterialscienceatNationalCentrefor NanoscienceandNanotechnology,UniversityofMadrasin2015.Shehaspublished morethan30researcharticlesininternationaljournalsandﬁvebookchapters.Shealso presentedmorethan60papersinnationalandinternationalconferencesandgotﬁve bestpaperawards.ShealsogotthebestPhDthesisawardbyMaterialResearchSociety ofIndiaduringtheyear2016.SheispresentlyworkingasDST-INSPIREfacultyin DepartmentofMedicalPhysics.Herareaofinterestissynthesisofnanostructured materialsforhealthcare,energy,andenvironmentalapplications.

S.Balakumar completedhisPhDinmaterialscienceatAnnaUniversityin1995,andhe didhispostdoctorateattheUniversityofHongKongandNationalUniversityof Singapore.Later,heworkedasseniorresearchengineerforCharteredSemiconductor Pvt.LtdatSingaporefor4yearsandthenmovedtoA-StarInstituteofMicro/ NanoelectronicsandworkedonvariousprojectsincludingSiGesubstratetechnology, nanotransistorprocessdevelopments,CMP,andwetcleanprocessdevelopmentforIC aswellasforMEMSdevicefabrication.In2008,hereturnedtoIndiaandisworkingin NationalCentreforNanoscienceandNanotechnologyasassociateprofessorandlater appointedasDirectorofthecenter.Hispresentresearcheffortsconcentrateonmetal oxidesemiconductors;multiferroics;magneticquantumdotsforhealth,energy,and environmentalapplications.

SaravananRajendran hasreceivedhisPhDinphysics-materialsciencein2013from theDepartmentofNuclearPhysics,UniversityofMadras,Chennai,India.Afterworking asanAssistantProfessorinDhanalakshmiCollegeofEngineering,Chennai,India, duringtheyearof2013 14,hewasawardedSERCandCONICYT-FONDECYTpostdoctoralfellowship,UniversityofChile,Santiago,intheyearof2014 17.Hehas worked(2017 18)intheresearchgroupofProfessorJohnIrvine,SchoolofChemistry, UniversityofStAndrews,UK,asapostdoctoralresearchfellowwithintheframeworkof EPSRC-GlobalChallengesResearchFundfortheremovalofblue-greenalgaeandtheir toxins.Currently,heisworkingasaresearchassociate,FacultyofEngineering, DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,UniversityofTarapaca ´ ,Arica,Chile,andalso asapostdoctoralresearchfellowinSERC,UniversityofChile,Santiago,Chile.Heis

associateeditorfor InternationalJournalofEnvironmentalScienceandTechnology (Springer).Hisresearchinterestsarefocusedintheareasofnanostructuredfunctional materials,photophysics,surfacechemistry,andnanocatalystsforrenewableenergy andwastewaterpuriﬁcation.Hehaspublished50 þ internationalpeer-reviewedjournals,eightbookchapters,andsixbookspublishedbyrenownedinternational publishers.

Prof.Mu.Naushad ispresentlyworkingintheDepartmentofChemistry,Collegeof Science,KingSaudUniversity(KSU),Riyadh,KingdomofSaudiArabia.Heobtainedhis MScandPhDdegreesinanalyticalchemistryfromAligarhMuslimUniversity,Aligarh, India,in2002and2007,respectively.Hehasavastresearchexperienceintheﬁeldsof analyticalchemistry,materialschemistry, andenvironmentalscience.Heholdsseveral USpatents,over300publicationsintheinternationalJournalsofrepute,twentybook chaptersandseveralbookspublishedbyrenownedinternationalpublishers.Hehas >11000citationswithaGoogleScholarH-Indexof >61.Heistheeditor/editorial memberofseveralreputedjournalslike ScientiﬁcReports (Nature); ProcessSafetyand EnvironmentalProtection (Elsevier); JournalofWaterProcessEngineering (Elsevier), and InternationalJournalofEnvironmentalResearchandPublicHealth (MDPI).He isalsotheassociateeditorfor EnvironmentalChemistryLetters (Springer)and DesalinationandWaterTreatment (Taylor&Francis).Hehasbeenawardedthe ScientistoftheYearaward-2015fromNationalEnvironmentalScienceAcademy,Delhi, India;AlmaraiAward-2017,SaudiArabia,andResearchQualityAward-2019,KSU, SaudiArabia.Prof.NaushadhasbeenincludedinthelistofHighlyCitedResearchers2019.

AnanthakumarSoosaimanickam receivedhismaster’sdegreeinchemistryfromthe UniversityofMadras,LoyolaCollege,Chennai,India,in2006,andhisPhDin2016under theguidanceofDr.S.MoorthyBabuatCrystalGrowthCentre,AnnaUniversity, Chennai,India.Hehasauthoredmorethan20publicationsininternationaljournals.He iscurrentlyworkingasapostdoctoralresearchfellowatInstituteofMaterials(ICMUV), UniversityofValencia,Spain.Hisresearchinterestsincludesynthesisofsemiconductor nanoparticles,heteronanostructuresbycolloidalmethod,surfacetreatmentofsemiconductornanoparticles,etc.

LuzAdrianaBlanco obtainedherBSdegreeandMSdegreeinchemicalengineeringat UniversidadNacionaldeColombia,Colombia.SheiscurrentlypursuingherPhDdegree inchemicalengineeringandbiotechnologyunderthedirectionofProf.Graciaatthe UniversidaddeChile.HerdoctoralresearchinvestigatestheuseoffunctionalizedgrapheneoxidematerialsassupportandtemplateforNisupportedcatalystsforCO2 hydrogenation.

FranciscoGracia receivedaPhDinchemicalengineeringfromtheUniversityofNotre Dame,USA.HeiscurrentlyanassociateprofessorattheChemicalEngineering, BiotechnologyandMaterialsDepartment,UniversidaddeChile,andDeputyDirectorat theMultifunctionalMaterialsMillenniumNucleus(MultiMat).Hisresearchinterestsare relatedtoheterogeneouscatalysis,nanostructuredfunctionalmaterials,gas solid interphasereactivitywithemphasisonCO2 activationandutilization,H2 generation, photocatalysis,andenergy-relatedapplications.Heisacoauthorof55þ researchpublicationsandabookchapter,andeditedbooksinsubjectsrelatedtonanotechnologyand photo-andenvironmentalcatalysis.

ArindamIndra receivedhisPhDin2011fromIITBombay(India)insolidsupported catalysis.AftercompletingpostdoctoralresearchfromTechnischeUniversitatBerlin (Germany),hejoinedinBasCat(Berlin,Germany)andworkedintheﬁeldofsolid supportedmetal metaloxidesystemsforthehydrocarbonoxidation.Hethenjoined HanyangUniversity(Korea)asassistantresearchprofessoranddevelopedselfsupportedcatalystsfortheelectrochemicalwatersplitting.Currently,heisworkingas anassistantprofessorintheDepartmentofChemistry,IITBHU(India).Hismain researchinterestsarebioinspiredwatersplitting,artiﬁcialphotosynthesisandmetal organicframework(MOF),derivedfunctionalmaterialsfortheenergyconversionand storage.

PrashanthW.Menezes receivedhisPhDin2009fromtheMaxPlanckInstitutefor ChemicalPhysicsofSolids(MPI-CPfS,Germany)insolidstateandstructuralchemistry. SoonafterhisPhD,hejoinedtheTechnischeUniversita ¨ tMu ¨ nchenin2010toworkinthe directionofinorganicchemistrywithfocusonnovelmaterials.Since2012,heisworking asagroupheadforinorganicmaterialsattheTechnischeUniversita ¨ tBerlin.Hismain researchinterestsincludethedesign,development,andapplicationofnovelfunctional materialsforheterogeneouscatalysis,especiallyontheredoxoxygencatalysis,photoandelectrocatalyticwatersplittingaswellaselectrochemicalreductionreactions.Heis alsoactivelyinvolvedinuncoveringtheactivesurfacestructureofthecatalystusing advancedinsituspectroscopyforrelevantcatalyticreactions.

Dr.D.Pukazhselvan isauxiliaryresearcherintheDepartmentofMechanical Engineering(NanoengineeringResearchGroup),UniversityofAveiro,Portugal.Hewas graduatedinphysicsfromScottChristianCollege,India,andcompletedPhD(2011)in theﬁeldofhydrogenenergyfromtheDepartmentofPhysics,BanarasHinduUniversity, India.Hiscurrentresearchinterestsarehighcapacityhydrogenstorageandrechargeablebatteries.Pukazhauthoredover40internationalpublicationsandpresentedhis worksinover40national/internationalconferences.

Dr.Sandhya.K.S. iscurrentlyassistantprofessor(FDP)intheDepartmentofChemistry, KaryavattomGovernmentCollege,Kerala,India.Shewasgraduatedinchemistryfrom MarIvaniosCollege,Kerala,andcompletedPhD(2014)intheﬁeldofcomputational chemistry.Shemodelseffectivecatalystsfortriggeringthereleaseofhydrogenfrom water/alcoholsandalsoexploresthemechanismofhydrogenstoragesystems.Shewasa postdoctoralresearcherforabiennium(2014 16)intheDepartmentofComplexSystem Studies,NagoyaUniversity,Japan.Sandhyaauthored16internationalarticlesand attendedmorethan15conferences.

Dr.DuncanFagg iscurrentlyaprincipalinvestigatoroftheCentreforMechanical TechnologyandAutomation(TEMA)intheUniversityofAveiro,Portugal.Hehasover 20yearsofresearchexperiencewithpreviousplacementsinCICECOAveiro,Portugal; InstituteofCeramicsandGlass(CSIC),Madrid,Spain;DepartmentofChemical Engineering,PatrasGreece,SchoolofChemistry,StAndrewsUniversity,Scotland;and RisøDTUNationalLaboratoryforSustainableEnergy,RoskildeDenmark.Atpresent,he istheleaderofateamofsixpostdocsandfourPhDstudents.Thefocusofworkisthe conversionofintermittentrenewableenergiesintochemicalproducts,suchas hydrogenorsynthetichydrocarbons,theirstorage,andtheirlaterreconversionto electricityinfuelcells.Workencompassesthedesignofdevicesandmaterialsfor batteries,solidoxideelectrolyzercells(SOEC),solidoxidefuelcells(SOFC),hydrogen separationmembranes,andhydrogenstorage.Duetohisexpertiseinenergyand hydrogen-relatedtopics,heregularlyparticipatesasanevaluatorandrapporteurfor internationalprograms,JTIFuelCellsandHydrogenJointUndertaking,theMarie Skłodowska-Curieprogram,H2020-MSCA,Spanish“LaCaixa”fellowships,etc.Hehas publishedﬁvebookchaptersandover100publicationsininternationalpeer-review journalswithacurrentH-factorof26.

Webpage http://sweet.ua.pt/duncan/

RamanVedarajan receivedhisdoctoraldegreefromAnnaUniversity,India,intheyear 2006.HewasnominatedasaresearchexchangescholarundertheJapaneseGovernment ScholarshipandcarriedouthisresearchatOsakaUniversityfromtheyear2004.After completionofhisPhD,hestartedhispostdoctoralfellowshipatNationalInstitutefor MaterialScience(NIMS),Tsukuba,Japan,andNagoyaUniversityin2006 10.Intheyear 2010,hejoinedtheCentreforFuelCellTechnology(CFCT),InternationalAdvanced ResearchCentreforPowderMetallurgyandNewMaterials(ARCI),India.Later,from 2012,hejoinedasanassistantprofessoratJapanAdvancedInstituteforScienceand TechnologyinSchoolofMaterialsScience.Hisareaofresearchmainlyfocuseson appliedelectrochemistry.In2017,herejoinedasascientistattheCFCT,ARCI,India.

Currently,hisresearchcomprisesonavarietyofnewenergymaterialsanddevelopment ofnewelectrocatalystsforfuelcells,electrolytesforLi-ionbatteries,andutilizationof TiO2 nanotubesforavarietyofphotoelectrocatalyticapplicationsisonehismajorinterests.Hehascontributedmorethan70publicationsandaltogether8patents (Japansese,US,andEU)throughhisresearchtenure.

PrithiJayaraj graduatedwithbachelorsinengineering(2010)andmastersinnanotechnology(2012).Herresearchcareercommencedasamaster’sprojectstudentat IGCAR(Kalpakkam,India).Aftergraduation,shejoinedasseniorresearchfellowatthe CentreforFuelCellTechnology(CFCT),ARCI,Chennai(India),in2012andstarted workingintheﬁeldofPEMfuelcells.ShestartedtopursueherdoctoralstudiesatIndian InstituteofTechnologyMadras(IITM,India)in2014.Presently,sheiscontinuingher careerasascientistattheCentreforFuelCellTechnology.Sheisbeenworkinginthe ﬁeldoffuelcellsforthepast7years,andherresearchinterestsincludedevelopmentand evaluationofdurableelectrocatalystsandtheirsupportsforprotonexchangemembrane fuelcells.

Dr.N.Rajalakshmi,SeniorScientistandTeamLeader,CentreforFuelCellTechnology, ARCI,IITMadrasResearchPark,Taramani,Chennai600113,India.

AfterobtainingPhDinphysicsfromIIT,Madras,sheworkedaspostdoctoralfellowin THDarmstadt,Germany,andtheUniversityofGeneva,Switzerland,forabout8years. Shehasworkedonvariousaspectsofhydrogeneconomylikeproduction,storage,and utilization.

Shehasgainedvastexperienceinfuelcelltechnologybothinmaterialaspectsand engineeringchallengesfromSPICScienceFoundationandCenterforFuelcell Technologyforthepast20years.ShewasavisitingscientistofKoreaResearchInstitute ofChemicalTechnology,SouthKorea,undertheBrainpoolprogram.Presentlysheisa teamleaderatCFCT,unitofARCI,DSTatChennai.ShehasreceivedtheTechnology awardfromSPICScienceFoundationformakinglargeareaelectrodes,BharatVikas AwardfromInstituteofselfRelianceforcleanenergygeneration,Naturepublishing award,etc.Shehaschairedmanysessionsandgiveninvitedtalksinvariousinternationalconferencesonfuelcellscience,engineeringtechnology,GordonResearch ConferenceonFuelcells,SocietyofAutomobileEngineers,etc.,inIndiaandabroad.She isareviewerformanyjournalsrelatedtohydrogenandfuelcells.

SheisamemberofAmericanChemicalSociety,InternationalAssociationofHydrogen Energy,MaterialsResearchSocietyofIndia,ElectrochemicalSociety,andIndianSociety

ofFuelcellTechnologists.Shehasabout150publicationsinvariousinternational journals,8books,and22patentstohercredit.

MuthuchamyNallal wasborninSivagangai,TamilNadu,India,in1989.Hereceivedhis BScandMScinchemistryfromMaduraiKamarajUniversity;MPhilinchemistrywith goldmedalfromAlagappaUniversity;andPhDinscienceeducationfromDepartmentof ChemistryEducation,KyungpookNationalUniversity,RepublicofKorea.Previously,he hadresearchexperiencesinCSIR-CentralElectrochemicalResearchInstitute,Tamil Nadu,India,andResearchInstituteofAdvancedEnergyTechnology(Kyungpook NationalUniversity,RepublicofKorea).Atpresent(2017 tilldate),heisworkingasa postdoctoralresearchfellowatPusanNationalUniversity,RepublicofKorea.His researchinterestmainlyfocusingonthedesignanddevelopmentofnovelnanostructure and(photo)catalystplatformsforenergy,environmental,andelectrochemical/photoelectrochemicalsensorapplications.

KarthikeyanSekar iscurrentlyworkingasaJSPSfellowatKyushuUniversity,Japan. Previously,heheldtheprestigiousRoyalSocietyNewtonInternationalFellowshipat AstonUniversityandwasfellowofHigherEducationAcademy,UK.HeholdsPhDin chemistryfromUniversityofMadras,andhisresearchinterestsincludethedevelopmentofmetaloxidesandcarbon-basedmaterialsforenvironmentalremediation, especiallycontrollingsizeandmorphologyatmolecularlevelforcleanenergyandclean environment.

KangHyunPark wasborninGyeongju,Korea,in1976.HereceivedhisPhDin2005 underthesupervisionofY.K.ChungatSeoulNationalUniversityandwasworkingonthe synthesisoftransitionmetalnanoparticlesandtheirapplicationinorganicreactions.He didhispostdoctoralworkwithProf.SeungUkSonatSungkyunkwanUniversityin 2006 07.In2008,hewasappointedasanassistantprofessor,associatedprofessor,and professoratPusanNationalUniversity.Hisresearchinterestsincludethedevelopment ofnewtransitionmetal nanoparticlecatalyzedreactions.

KeikoSasaki isprofessorofearthresourcesengineeringatKyushuUniversity.She holdsaBS(chemistry)andPhD(engineering)fromHokkaidoUniversity,andavisiting scientist(EarthScience)atUniversityofWaterloo,Canada,associateprofessorat KyushuUniversityin2004,andfullprofessoratthesameuniversityin2010.Her researchaddressestodevelopadvancedmaterialsusingnaturalandartiﬁcialminerals, socalledas“geo-mimetic,”forenvironmentalremediation,withparticularfocuson sustainablechemicalprocessesandmaterialstostabilizeand/ordecomposemobile

anionicspeciesandtoxicorganicsinaqueousenvironments.Shehasbeenawardedby NEXTprogram(JSPS)in2011andbecameacoalitionmemberinScienceCouncilof Japan(SCJ)in2017.

AdamFLee isprofessorofsustainablechemistryatRMITUniversity,havingpreviously heldaprestigiousEPSRCLeadershipFellowship.HeholdsaBA(NaturalSciences)and PhDfromtheUniversityofCambridgeandfollowingpostdoctoralresearchat Cambridgeandlecturer/seniorlecturerrolesattheUniversitiesofHullandYork, respectively,heldChairappointmentsatCardiff,Warwick,andMonashuniversities.His researchaddressestherationaldesignofnanoengineeredmaterialsforcleancatalytic technologies,withparticularfocusonsustainablechemicalprocessesandenergyproduction,andthedevelopmentofinsitumethodstoprovidemolecularinsightinto surfacereactions,forwhichhewasawardedthe2012BeilbyMedalandPrizebythe RoyalSocietyofChemistry.

Dr.JosephNathanael receivedhisPhDinphysicsatBharathiarUniversity,India,in 2010.From2010to2012heworkedaspostdoctoralfellowinChungnamNational University,RepublicofKorea.In2013,hejoinedasaresearchprofessorinYeungnam University,RepublicofKorea.In2015,hehasbeenawardedtheJSPSfellowshipfrom JapanandworkedinNationalInstituteofAdvancedIndustrialScienceandTechnology (AIST),Tsukuba,Japan.Afterthesuccessfulcompletionofthefellowship,heagain movedtoYeungnamUniversityasaresearchassociateintheDepartmentofChemical Engineering.Hehaspublishedmorethan50researcharticlesininternationalpeerreviewedSCI(E)journalsandactasareviewerformanyreputedjournals.Hisprincipleresearchinterestsincludebiomaterials,sensors,andnanocomposites.

Dr.KumaranKannaiyan holdsaPhDinmechanicalengineeringfromIndianInstitute ofTechnologyMadras(IITMadras).HejoinedTexasA&MUniversityatQatar(TAMUQ) aspostdoctoralresearchassociatein2010,andcurrently,heisaholdingadualposition asvisitinglecturer/assistantresearchscientistinTAMUQ.Hisresearchinterests broadlydealswithalternativeenergysystemswithspeciﬁcfocusontheapplicationof alternativejetfuels,nanoscale-fueladditives,environmentalfriendlyrefrigerantsto highlightafew.Hehasvastexperienceinlaser/opticaldiagnostictechniquesaswellas inusingcomputationaltools.Hehaspublishedmorethan40technicalpublicationsin peer-reviewedjournalsandinternationalconferencesreceivingmorethan300 citations.

Dr.ArunaK.Kunhiraman,obtainedherPhDinNanoscienceandTechnology (InterdisciplinaryPhysics)fromBharathiarUniversity,Coimbatore,TamilNadu,India,

in2018.Currently,sheisassociatedwithSriKrishnaCollegeofEngineeringand Technology,Coimbatore,TamilNadu,asassistantprofessorinphysicsunder DepartmentofScienceandHumanities.Herresearchareafocusesonengineeringand tailoringnovelnanomaterialsforenergystorageandconversionsystemsnamelywater electrolyzers,fuelcells,batteries,andsupercapacitors.Shehaspublishedseveral researcharticlesinpeer-reviewedinternationaljournals.Shealsotakestheprivilegeto beareviewerinElsevierpublicationjournals.Herresearchﬁndingsespeciallyelectrocatalystmaterialsforhydrogenevolutionreactionhasbeenpresentedininternational conferences.ShehadanopportunitytoworkinCINVESTAV,Saltillo,Mexico,fora monthwheresheexploredmaterialsforfuelcellapplications.

Dr.VigneshKumaravel obtainedhisPhDinchemistryfromMaduraiKamaraj University,India,in2013.Then,heworkedasaresearchprofessoratYeungnam University,RepublicofKorea.Afterthesuccessfulaccomplishment,hedesignatedasa postdoctoralfellowinanindustrialprojectatUniversitiSainsMalaysia.Later,hejoined asanassistantresearchscientistatTexasA&MUniversityatQatarinOctober2016. Currently,VigneshisworkinginITSligoasaseniorresearchfellowintheRenewable Engineproject.Hehaspublishedseveralscientiﬁcresearcharticlesininternational peer-reviewedjournalsandpresentedhisresearchﬁndingsinseveralinternational conferences.HehasalsodeliveredtwointernationalinvitedtalksinRepublicofKorea andIndia.Heisactingasacoinvestigatorforthreemajorresearchgrantssponsoredby Malaysianfundingagencies.HeisactingasapotentialreviewerformanyElsevier,ACS, RSC,andWileyjournals.Tohiscredit,hehasreviewedmorethan50researcharticles. Heisactingasaguesteditorfor Catalysts.

MilicaBudimir wasbornin1988inSerbia.ShehasgraduatedfromtheUniversityof Belgrade,SchoolofElectricalEngineering,Department PhysicalElectronics: NanoelectronicsandPhotonics.ShefinishedmasterstudiesattheUniversityofBelgrade, SchoolofElectricalEngineeringandin“Vinca”InstituteofNuclearSciencesinBelgrade, withthemasterthesis“AFMmicroscopyofbacteriatreatedwithnanoparticles.”In2016, shewasgrantedScholarshipoftheFrenchGovernmentforco-tutorialPhDstudiesbetweenUniversityofLille InstituteofElectronics,MicroelectronicsandNanotechnology (IEMN)andUniversityofBelgrade SchoolofElectricalEngineering.Currently,sheison thefinalyearofherPhDstudiesatbothuniversities.Herresearchinterestisinthefield ofcarbonnanomaterials,bothsynthesis,andcharacterization,aswellastheirbiomedical andecologicalapplication.Shewascoauthorof19articles.

Prof.SabineSzunerits (>300papers,h-index:48,8966citations)isfullprofessorof chemistryatUniversityofLille.Hercurrentresearchinterestsareintheareaofthe

developmentofnovelnanostructuresandapproachesforbiomedicalapplicationsas wellassensing-relatedissues.In2018,shegotawardedtheMe ´ dailled’argentofthe CNRSforhercontributiontosensingandnanomedicine.

Dr.ZoranMarkovic wasbornin1967inBelgrade,Serbia.HegraduatedfromtheSchool ofPhysics,UniversityofBelgrade,Serbia,in1995.HisPhDstudiesonSchoolofPhysics, UniversityofBelgrade,Serbiawereﬁnishedin2002.HistitleofPhDdissertationwas “Kineticsoffullereneandmetallofullereneformationinarcplasmareactor.”Major scientiﬁcinterestofZoranMarkovicisexploitationofopticalpropertiesofcarbon nanomaterials(fullerene,carbonnanotube,graphene,carbonquantumdots)and polymercompositesfornanomedicalapplications,photodynamicorphotothermal therapyofcancerandmicrobes.ZoranMarkovicgotfundingfromProgram SASPRO MobilityprogramofSlovakAcademyofSciencescofundedbyMarryCurrie Actions:2015 18Antibacterialgraphene/polymernanocomposite.Shehas2800citationswithahirschindexof23.Hepublished92articlesinpeer-reviewedjournals.Zoran Markovicwasfullprofessorof“Biophysicalmethodsinnanomedicine”onpostgraduate studiesonSchoolofElectricalEngineering,BelgradeUniversity,Serbia,intheperiod 2010 18.Hesupervised11PhDandmasterthesis.Heiscoauthorofpatentsubmittedto WorldIntelectualPropertyOrganization:Manufactureandproductsthereofofnanomaterialswithantibacterialpropertiesandtheiruseinantibacterialtreatment(WO/ 2018/160142).Inthepastthreeyears,hegavefourinvitedlectures.

Dr.RabahBoukherroub receivedaPhDinchemistryfromtheUniversityPaulSabatier inToulouse,France.HeiscurrentlyaCNRSresearchdirectorattheInstituteof Electronics,MicroelectronicsandNanotechnology(IEMN),UniversityofLille,France. Heisassociateeditorfor ACSAppliedMaterials&Interfaces.Hisresearchinterestsarein theareasoffunctionalmaterials,surfacechemistry,andphotophysicsofsemiconductor/metalnanostructureswithemphasisonbiosensors,nanomedicine,photocatalysis,andenergystorage.Heiscoauthorof500þ researchpublicationsandwrote34 bookchaptersinsubjectsrelatedtonanotechnology,materialschemistry,andbiosensors.Hehas12patentsorpatentspending.

Marı´aGamallo,MSc,isachemicalengineerandhasamaster’sdegreeinbiotechnology fromtheUniversityofSantiagodeCompostela(USC).Duringhermaster’sthesis,she focusedonchemicalandbiologicaloxidationprocesses.Sheiscurrentlyapredoctoral researcherandherstudyisrelatedtonano-basedtechnologiesfortheremovalofcontaminantswithintheframeworkofthenationalprojectMODENA(Nanoparticlesand AtomicClustersappliedfortheremovalofemergingcontaminants).

Dr.Lucı´aFerna ´ ndez obtainedherPhDinchemistryatUniversidadedeAveiro(UA)in 2017.Duringherpredoctoralstage,herresearchfocusedonthepreparationandphotocatalyticevaluationofnewphotosensitizersbasedonporphyrinsandphthalocyanines,immobilizedinmagneticnanoparticles.Sheiscurrentlyapostdoctoralresearcher atUniversidadedeSantiagodeCompostela(USC),exploringmagneticallyseparable nanocompositesbasedonmetaloxides,suchasFentonandphotocatalyticmaterialsin wastewatertreatmentapplications.

Prof.GumersindoFeijoo isprofessorofchemicalengineeringandvicechancellorfor strategicplanningatUniversidadedeSantiagodeCompostela(USC).Heistheleaderof theLifeCycleAssessment(LCA)andCarbonFootprintteamatUSC.Hisresearchactivitieshaveproduced15doctoraltheses,5patentsand1registeredtrademark,4books, 24bookchapters,225researcharticlesininternationaljournals,36researcharticlesin nationaljournals,and235presentationsincongresses(71oral).

Prof.MarıáTeresaMoreira isprofessorofchemicalengineeringatUniversidadede SantiagodeCompostela(USC).Sheworksintworesearchtopics:Environmental Biotechnology,withspecialinterestinenzymaticoxidativesystemsandadvanced oxidationprocesses,andLifeCycleAssessment(LCA).ShehasparticipatedandcoordinatedvariousprojectsatnationalandEuropeanlevelinthefieldofnanotechnologies forpollutantremoval,fermentationprocesses,andLCA.Theseresearchactivitiesare reflectedinmorethan240SCIpublications,2books,15bookchapters,andshehas supervised16PhDtheses,h-index:48,withherparticipationin41researchprojectsand 29researchcontractswithdifferentcompanies.

Dr.ChanchalGupta currentlyservesasprestigiousDr.D.S.Kotharipostdoctoralfellow inDepartmentofChemistry,UniversityofDelhi,India.ShehascompletedherPhDin chemicalsciencesfromCSIR-NationalPhysicalLaboratory(NPL),NewDelhi,India.She haskeeninterestindevelopmentofviableandinnovativecarbon-basednanomaterials forfuelcellandLi-ionbatteriesenergyapplications.Shehaspublishedmanyresearch articlesinthefieldofenergystorageandconversionandpresentedherworkinmore than15internationalandnationalconferences.ShehasoneUSpatentgrantedinthe fieldofflexibleanodeforLi-ionbatteries.

Dr.AmanBhardwaj ispresentlyworkingasaDST-SERB-NationalPostdoctoralFellow (NPDF)inSchoolofPhysicalSciences(SPS),JawaharlalNehruUniversity(JNU),Delhi, India.HeisavisitingprofessorinNationalUniversityofScienceandTechnology(NUST) MISiS,Moscow,Russia.HeobtainedhisPhDfromCSIR-NationalPhysicalLaboratory

(NPL),NewDelhi,India.Hehas12researchpublicationsininternationallyreputed journalsintheﬁeldofthermoelectricandorganicsuperconductorforenergyconversion andstorage.Hehasreceivedmanynationalandinternationalawardsandcontributedin morethan10internationalandnationalconferencesacrosstheworld.

Preface

Buildingasustainablefuturewithzerocarbonfootprintsisapotentialchallengethat humankindisfacingintheeraoffast-growingglobalindustrializationandpopulation.The pressingenergycrisesandnegativeenvironmentalissuesthatdepletenaturalresourcesand threatenlivelihoodsanticipatetheinnovativetechnologiesforexploitingcleanenergyand dealingthepollutantsefﬁciently.Modernizedtechnologiesbuildwithnanomaterialsbeginto acceleratetheenactmentofsustainableenergystorageandconversionsystems,electrocatalyticreactions,photocatalyticwatersplitting,andefﬁcientenvironmentalremediation, essentiallythedetectionandremovalofgases,bacteriaandviruses,andsoilcontaminants. Despitetheadvancedtechnologiesadoptingamorecomprehensiveapproachforamelioratingtheemergingissuesinenergyandenvironmentalobjectives,designingthestate-ofthe-artnanomaterialscoupledwithkeyintrinsicpropertiesremainessential.Nanomaterials playakeyroleinsettingupinnovativetechnologyandcontinuallypayinghugeglobal attentiontohastenthedeploymentofpioneeringtechnology.Thisbookcertainlydescribes theimportantaspectsofdifferentdimensionsofnanostructuredmaterialsandtheirrolein energyandenvironmentalremediationtechnologiesinaninclusivemannerfromthe eminentresearchers.Asthetopicsarethecornerstoneofmodernsociety,wehavechosenthe chapterswiselytosummarizetheadvancesofnanomaterialsinenergyandenvironmental scienceanditsfutureperspectives.

Acknowledgments

WewouldliketoﬁrstandforemostthankGodforgivingusgoodhealthtocompletethisbook successfully.

WeacknowledgeoursinceregratefulnesstotheElsevier,foracceptingthisbookaspart oftheseries“Materialstoday.”Furthermore,weextendourheartfeltthankstoserieseditor andadvisoryboardforacceptingourbookasapartofthisseries.Weareverythankfultothe contributingauthorsfortheirvaluableinvolvementthroughoutthisbook.Wewouldliketo expressoursincerethankstotheresearchersandpublisherforpermittingusthecopyrightto usetheirﬁguresandtables.Wewouldstillliketoofferourdeepapologiestoanycopyright holderifunknowinglytheirrightisbeinginfringed.

Dr.SaravananRajendranthanktheEngineeringandPhysicalSciencesResearch Council,UK(EPSRC)forfundingEP/P029280/1.

Dr.SaravananRajendranwouldliketothankProf.FranciscoGracia(DIQBT,University ofChile),Prof.LorenaCornejoPonce(Limza,Arica),andProf.RodrigoPalma(Director, SERC)fortheirconstantsupport,encouragement,andvaluablesuggestionthathelpedto completethetask.Furthermore,heextendshisgratefultotheGovernmentofChile (CONICYT-FONDECYT-ProjectNo.:11170414)andSERC Chile(CONICYT/FONDAP/ 15110019)fortheﬁnancialsupport.Finally,heexpresseshissincerethankstoFacultyof EngineeringintheDepartmentofMechanicalEngineeringatUniversityofTarapaca ´ ,Arica, Chile.

Prof.Mu.NaushadextendshisappreciationtotheDeanshipofScientiﬁcResearchat KingSaudUniversity,SaudiArabiaforthesupport.

Functionalnanomaterialinenergy andenvironmentalscience

D.Durgalakshmi1,S.Balakumar2,SaravananRajendran3, Mu.Naushad4

1 DEPARTMENTOFMEDICALPHYSICS,ANNAUNI VERSITY,CHENNAI,TAMILNADU,INDIA; 2 NATIONALCENTREFORNANOSCEICNEANDNA NOTECHNOLOGY,UNIVERSITYOFMADRAS, CHENNAI,TAMILNADU,INDIA; 3 FACULTYOFENGINEERING,DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICAL ENGINEERING,UNIVERSITYOFTARAPACA,ARICA,CHILE; 4 DEPARTMENTOFCHEMISTRY, COLLEGEOFSCIENCE,KINGSAUDUNI VERSITY,RIYADH,SAUDIARABIA

1.1Introduction

Breakingdownthematerialsatthenanoregimeisoneofthefascinatingareaofresearch inscienceandtechnologyforpotentialapplicationswithimprovedpropertiesthanthat ofbulkmaterials [1,2].Itinfluencesthedrasticnotablechangeinphysical,chemical, electrical,mechanical,andmagneticpropertiesofnanomaterials [3 6].Someofthe nanomaterial-basedproductsarecommerciallyavailableinthemarket,forexample, usageofTiO2 forantibacterialorself-cleaningpaintsandZnOinthefacecreamsasUVprotectiveproducts.Nanostructuredmaterialshaveahugesurfacetovolumeratiosand hencepossessfavorablechargecarrierstransport,haveenhancedphysicalandstructural confinementeffectsensuingfromthenanoscaledimensions [7],andhavebeenbroadly deliberatetowardpotentialapplicationinthefieldenergy,suchassupercapacitors, hydrogenfuels,batteries,solarcells,andphotocatalysis [8].Owingtothesetremendous andversatileapplications,thenanotechnologyzonehasreachedamultibillionmarket worldwide.Withreferencetotheglobalmarketonnanotechnology,itispredictableto produceataCAGR(CompoundAnnualGrowthRate)withanapproximate17%during theforecastedperiodof2018 24[www.researchandmarkets.com].

Thewelcomingapplicationsandusageofnanomaterial-basedproductsforcommercialapplicationscreateanurgeformanufacturingnanoscaleparticlesatalarge quantity.Metaloxidenanomaterials(e.g.,ZnO,Fe3O4,TiO2,andAl2O3),differentpolymericnanomaterials,andpolymericnanocompositeareproducedintonesofquantity andbeingappliedinvariouscommercialsectorsinthepastdecade [9].Comparedto metaloxide,themanufacturingandapplicationsofcarbon-basedmaterialsareusedina widespectrum.Tomeetthisneed,considerableindustrialsectorsaremanufacturing

carbon-basednanostructures.FrontierCarbonCorporationopenedbyMitsubishi Corporation,Japanforthelarge-scaleproductionoffullerenesworldwide,whichusesa combustionprocesstechnique,yields40tons/yearby2005 [10].Carbon NanotechnologiesInc.utilizesatechniquecalledhigh-pressurecarbonmonoxide, whichhasbeenusedfortheproductionofsingle-walledcarbonnanotubes(SWCNTs)in largerquantity [11].TheGlobalNanotechnologyMarketOutlookgivesaperiodicalsurvey onthecurrenttrend,manufacturerdetails,applications,andfutureviewsofnanomaterials [12].Further,theapplicationofnanomaterialsectioncoversthefieldssuchas energy,environment,healthcare,cosmetics,foodpackaging,andagriculturaldivisions. Italsoconfirmsthat,infuture,theconstituentsegmentcoversuptheseparationofthe nanotechnologymarketintonanotools,nanomaterials,andnanodevices [13].Someof thecommerciallyavailablenanomaterialproductsinthemarketareTiO2 nanoparticles insunscreensandpaints [14],andcarbon-basednanostructuresinwaterpurification [15] systemswillfavortheproductionofnanomaterialsinlargequantities.

Inthefieldofappliedresearch,thedevelopmentofefficientnanoparticlescontinues toconspiretheresearchersandscientists,inthefieldofappliedresearchforthe developmentofahealthyandsustainableworld.Therecentworksofnanomaterialsin thefieldofhealthcare,environment,andenergyincludehybridnanoassembliesforbone andtissueregeneration,biomolecularsensors,waterpurification,andsolarcells.The propertiesofthefunctionalmaterialsdependonthebasicpropertyofthenanomaterials,thechoiceofthefunctionalgroups,thesynthesisoffunctionalnanomaterials, anddesigningofthenanomaterialstoappropriatedeviceapplications.

1.2Theappliedfunctionalmaterialenergyapplication

Amaterialwithnanoregimehelpstoprovidealargersurfaceareawithexcellentelectron transportcapability,unusualphysiochemicalproperties,andmechanicalstrength.With thesespecialfeatures,nanomaterialshavebeencomprehensivelyconsideredforenergy andenvironmentalapplicationssuchassupercapacitors,fuelcells,solidstatebatteries, photocatalysisandlight-emittingdiodes.Thedimensionofthenanomaterialswillalter thepropertiesofthenanomaterials [16,17].Briefly,oncethecharacteristicsizeordimensionsofthesemiconductorisreducedbelowadefinitesize,thebandgapofthe semiconductorwillincreaseduetoquantumconfinementeffect.Opticalpropertiessuch asabsorption,emission,andexcitationcanbetunedbyalteringthedimensionof semiconductingnanomaterialsforapreferredapplication.Forexample,thesizeofgold nanoparticlesreducestofewnanometersindicatingthatthecolorofthesolution changesfromyellowtopinkduetotheeffectoflocalizedsurfaceplasmonresonance, anddiscoversthepotentialapplicationinsurface-enhancedRamanscattering [18]. Further,itreducesthesizeofthegoldnanoparticlestobelow3nm,therebydemonstratingtheoutstandingcatalyticperformance.Thesurfaceenergyandthesurfacearea ofthenanomaterialsdeliveranimprovedperformanceincertaincharacteristics.For

example,theoxidationandreductioncapabilitychangeexponentiallywiththesurface energyofthenanomaterials.Whenthesizeofthegoldparticledecreasestothenanoregime,themeltingpointofthematerialcanbesignificantlylower [19].Magneticscan turnouttobesuperparamagneticnaturewhenthesizeoftheparticlecutsdownto thenanosize,consequenttoparticlesconsistingoflessthan100nanometers;incontext, thesurfaceenergyturnsintosatisfactorilyhugetoconquertheforcethatmaintainsthe alignedmagneticmoments [20].Thedimensionalcharacteristicorsizeeffectprovidesa bigarrangementofbenefitsandhelpstotheprogressionofaccessiblenewtechnologies. Forinstance,noblematerialsmakethenanoparticlesmoreviabletransporterstodeliver thedrugsataspecificsiteofthetargetregion [21].Duetotheminimalsurfacedefects,the nanomaterialshowsexcellentmechanicalstrengththanthebulkmaterial.Forexample, carbon-basednanomaterialshaveminimalsurfacedefects,andtherebyareusedasan alternatematerialforstainlesssteelandironintermsofmechanicalstrengthandstability.

1.3Importanceofallotropesofcarbon

Carbonisoneoftheversatileelementsintheperiodictablethatcanchangeitsstructure andpropertiesbyhybridization(sp3 hybridizeddiamondtosp2 hybridizedgraphite)and canfunctionalizeforvariousapplications(Fig.1.1).Someotherformsofcarbonarealso possibleinthemixedstatessuchasnanocrystallinediamond,graphiticcarbon,and

FIGURE1.1 Preparationmethods, functionalproperties,andmajor applicationsofgraphenenanostructures. H.D.Abruña,Y.Kiya,J.C.Henderson, Batteriesandelectrochemicalcapacitors, Phys.Today61(2008)43 47 [24]

amorphouscarbon.Amostimportantallotropeofcarbonisdiamond.Thismaterial possessesametastablestatewitha3DcubicstructureandaC Cbondlengthof1.54A ˚ andalatticeconstantof3.57A ˚ [22,23].Anotherimportantallotropeofcarbonisgraphite, whichisthemostthermodynamicallystableatroomtemperaturewith2D-layered material.Eachlayerhasansp2 hybridizedhexagonalhoneycombstructurewitha C Cbondlengthof1.42A ˚ .Asingle-atomthicklayeroftheselayersiscalledgraphene, whichisformedbynoncovalentvanderWaalsforcesandaninterlayerspacingof3.35A ˚ . Thisweekforcebetweentheinterlayerbondingingraphite,makesthepossibilitytopeel outasinglelayerofgrapheneeasilyviachemicalexfoliationormechanicaltechniques. Theprocessofrollingandcurlingthetwo-dimensionalstructureofgraphenecanbe usedtoformcarbonnanotubesandfullerenes,respectively.Fullerenesaremadeupof graphiticcarbonwithzero-dimensionalstructure.Thosedistortedformsofgraphene canbemodiﬁedasaspherebycurlingtoformazero-dimensionalstructure.Various formsoffullerenesarebeingmadewithcarbonatomsrangingfrom30to3000carbon atoms.Carbonnanotubesarefabricatedbyelongatingthefullerenesinonedimension withacylindricalformofsingleandfewlayersofgraphene.Thephysiochemical propertiessuchasstructure,thediameterofthetubes,andelectronictypesare demonstratedbythechiralvector,whichdescribestheouterdiameteroftheSWCNT relatingtothegraphenelattice.Multi-walledcarbonnanotube(MWCNT)hasnested, concentricwallswith3.4A ˚ distancebetweeneachshellofSWCNTs.

1.3.1Preparationandprocessofcarbonnanomaterials

Krotoetal.hasﬁrstusedthelaserablationtechniquetoseparateC60 fromthegraphitic carbonnanomaterialwithaheavyﬂowofhelium [25].Carbonclustersarefabricatedby thepreviousmilestoneofC60 article;theseclusterswerepreparedinwide-sizedistributionsandthuswereunabletocharacterizetheproperties.Sincefromthisbreakthrough,lotsofresearchgroupshavebeeninvolvedinthefabricationprocessof fullerenesbydifferentsynthesisroutessuchaslaserablation,arcdischarge,andvapor depositiontechniques [26 28].Mostofthesesynthesisroutesusegraphiteelectrodesas thecarbonsource.Sometechniquerequiresmetaloxideandgraphiteinthecomposite form,whichareusedastargetstoproducefullerenes.Researchersnoticedthatfullereneshavebeenproducedfromcombustionrouteaswellaswetchemicalreduction methods [29].Iijimaandcoworkersynthesizedlarge-scaleproductionofCNTsusingarc dischargetechniques [30].LaserablationtechniquewasshortlyestablishedasasubstitutemethodforproducingCNTsbySmalleyandhiscoworkers [31].Chemicalvapor depositiontechniqueisusedtogrowtheSWCNTandMWCNTinaverticallyaligned mannerwiththehelpoftransitionmetal-embeddedgraphitetargets.Expandingthe conceptofusingmetalnanomaterialsasacatalyst,pyrolyzingthemetalcarbonylsinthe existenceofhydrocarbons,helpstosynthesizehigh-qualitycarbonnanotubes.Many researchstudiesreportedthatpyrolizingmetalcarbonylsinthehydrocarbonenvironmentcanproducebothSWCNTsandMWCNTs [32,33].CNTsarecommerciallyavailable 4NanomaterialsforSustainableEnergyandEnvironmentalRemediation

inlargequantityandaresynthesizedbyusingchemicalvapordepositionandarc dischargetechniques.Geimandhiscoworkersintroducedgrapheneintheyear2004, oftenconsideredasthemotherofallgraphiticcarbonmaterials,anditpossesses excellentphysiochemicalproperties [34].“Scotchtape”routeisamethodofproducing graphenelayer,butthestabilityofthismethodisverypoorformanyapplications [35]. Toresolvethisproblem,graphenenanomaterialhasbeengrownonsiliconcarbide(SiC) wafersusinganepitaxialgrowthprocessathightemperature.Moreover,thisreported literaturehasgeneratedconsiderableattentionintheepitaxialtechniqueofgrowing grapheneonSiC [36].Inaddition,itkeepsthemonolayerofgraphiteinepitaxialrouteon metalcarbidesathightemperatureswiththehydrocarbonprecursorsthathavebeen demonstratedintheearly1990s.However,fewreportsonsiliconcarbidehaveestablishedtheformationofgraphenewithsuperiorperformanceforelectronicapplications [37].Incontrast,theepitaxialgrowthofgraphenehassometrickywaytoobtainuniform monolayerascomparedtoothertechniquessuchasmechanicalandchemicalexfoliationroutes.HummersandOffemanhavedevelopedawetchemicalreductiontechnique forthefabricationofgrapheneoxide(GO),andthisworkhasbecomeatrackrecordfor manymoreresearchersongraphenematerial [38].Ruoffetal.havedemonstratedthe analogoustechniquesintheyear2006toformamonolayeredGO [39].Theearlier synthesisroutesoftenresultedwithcolloidaldispersionanditwasconvertedintothe thinfilmsofGOinastrongoxidizingmedium.Thisfacilitatestheformationoffunctionalgroupsatthegraphenebasalplanes.Theobtainedgrapheneoxidecanbesubjectedtoreductionmediumsuchaschemicalreductiontechniques,exposureoflaser radiation,andanotherreductionmedium,toproduceareducedgrapheneoxide(rGO). Althoughchemicalreductionisapotentialrouteforsynthesizinggraphenenanomaterial onalargerscale,theusageofstrongoxidationagentscreatesaworseeffectonits propertiesbydamagingthebasalplanes.Toresolvethisissue,thesonochemicalsynthesisroutehasbeenadoptedtoexfoliatethegraphiteflakesinanappropriatechemical agenttomakeagraphenematerial [40,41].Overall,thewetchemicalsynthesisrouteof preparinglayeredgrapheneshowscomparativelyflake-likestructure,notascontinuous 2Dsheets.Tofabricatealargeareaofgraphene,achemicalvapordepositiontechnique ishighlysuitable.Withtheassistanceofmetallicsubstrates,suchascopperandnickel,a largeareaofgraphenecanbeeasilygrownwithhigherquantity.Withtheexposureof gasessuchashydrogen,hydrocarbon,ornoblegasesinthechemicalvapourdeposition (CVD)growthofgraphenecreatestheformationofhomogenousandfew-layeredmaterials [42].Optimizingparameterssuchas,concentrationofprecursors,ratioofcarrier gasconcentrationandchoiceofmetallicsubstrateimprovesthepropertiesofthegraphenenanomaterialforsuitableelectronicapplications [43,44].Variousmethodsof preparingcarbonquantumdotsaredepictedin Fig.1.2.

Synthesisofnanoparticlesfromplantextractsandmicroorganismisanotherpotentialapproach,bywhichnanoparticlescanbeproducedatgreensyntheticrouteatlow costandalsohighlytunable.Theapplicationofthenanomaterialspreparedbythis methodshowsvalidapplicationsasinorganicantimicrobialsagents,nanomagnets,and

FIGURE1.2 CategorizedillustrationsonvariouspreparationmethodsofGrapheneQuantumDots(GQDs). H.D. Abruña,Y.Kiya,J.C.Henderson,Batteriesandelectrochemicalcapacitors,Phys.Today,61(2008)43 47 [24]

alsosuitableforelectronicandopticaldevices.Alotmorepapershavebeenreportedon thesynthesisofstableAuandAgnanoparticlesproducedfromawiderangeofplant extractsunderambienttemperaturesthatresultedindifferentmorphologiesfromrodsto trianglesofsizerangingfrom50to500nm [45 47].ThebiologicalwayofsynthesizingAg andAunanomaterialshavealsobeenstudiedforbacterial-andfungal-relatedapplications.Bacteriasuchas GeobacterSulfurreducens [48], TrichodermaViride [49], Shewanella Oneidensis [50], StaphylococcusAureus [51], Magnetospirillum [52], VeillonellaAtypic [53], ShewanellaOneidensis [50],and BacillusSubtilis [54] aresomeofthespeciesusedforAu, Ag,S,Fe,Se,andTe-basednanoparticleandquantumdotssynthesis [53].Fungalsystems suchas AlternariaAlternate [55], CandidaAlbicans [55], AspergillusClavatus [56], AspergillusOchraceus [57],and AspergillusNiger [58] arealsoreportedinthesynthesisof metalnanoparticles.Thisﬁeldshowsalotoffuturisticscopeindevelopingnewproducts thatincludemorecomplexdesigns.Thiscouldbehighlyhelpfulforfabricatingnanomaterialswiththebiologicalagentsinthenearfuturehealthcaredevicesandapplications.

1.4Applicationoffunctionalnanomaterials

1.4.1Surfacefunctionalizationinlithium-ionbatteries

Inlithium-ionbatteries,highenergyandlongcycliclifethatcanbeachievedusing nanostructuredelectrodeswithanamorphousmaterialarehighlychosenthanits crystallinematerials.Theseelectrodeswithpoorcrystallinenaturehaveahugevacant

positiontoputupadditionalguestionsandthenpermittheionstodisperseefficiently. Toachievethis,functionalizednanostructuredelectrodematerialsareofthehighareaof interestinthefieldoflithium-ionbatteries.Itoffersextraordinaryfunctionalcharacteristicssuchasrapidcarriertransportproperty,hugesurfacearea,excellentinsertion, andextractionofLiionsduetothelowerdimensionalpropertyofthematerial [24,59,60].Thefaradaicreactioncanalsobeenhancedwhenthenanostructuredmaterial coatedwithnanocarbon,useofintercalationcompounds,andinducingdefectsonthe surfaces,whichsupportandinfluencethereactionsattheinterfaceofthematerial, enhancetheelectricalconductivityandphasetransitions.Coatingtheelectrodematerial withthesuitablenanostructureisafundamentaltechniqueforimprovingpropertiesof theelectroactivematerial [61,62].Coatingofcarbonnanostructuresbyorganiccompoundsonthesurfaceofcrystallineelectrodematerialisoneofthemostpopular techniquesusedtoenhancetheconductivityoftheelectrodematerials,whichstabilize thesolidelectrolyteinterfacefilms [63].Lithium-basedcathodematerialssuchas LiMnO4, LiCoO2,andLiNiO2,areusedforsurfacecoatings [64 66].Thiswillessentially shieldthecathodebasesurfacetoavoidtheundeviatingcontacttotheelectrolytesolution,andalsoimprovesthestructuralstabilitywiththeelectrolyte.Similarly,forthe anodesurface,thecharacteristicsofthesolidelectrolyteinterfacecanbemanipulatedby changingthechemicalpropertyoftheelectrodebygettingintouchwiththeelectrolyte solution.Taoetal.reportedthatChitosan-coatedN-dopedcarbonenhancesthestorage capacityoflithium-ionbatteriesbyincreasingthecapacityoflithiumstorage [67] Chitosanactsasprecursorsfornitrogenandcarbon,whicharecoatedontheLi4Ti5O12 crystallinestructuretoproduceaspinelstructureofaverageparticlesize w50nm,and thusresultsshowenhancedspecificsurfaceareaandhigherperformanceinlithium storage [67].Adoublecarbonsourcesuchasglucoseandpolyurethaneconfined Li4Ti5O12 batteriescameoutfrom200to300nmrangeofparticlesizesandshowed higherdischargecapacityof131mAhg 1,andthegreaterColumbicefficiencycloseto 100% [68].Youjieetal.’sworkonLi4Ti5O12 withoctadecylamineandfolicacidcofunctionalizedgrapheneoxideshowsthebestanodematerialforhigh-performancelithiumionbatteries.TheyhavedevelopedultrathinLi4Ti5O12 nanoflakes-embeddedgraphene sheets,whichhavelargespecificsurfaceandgoodconductivity [68].Parketal.reported themodificationofsurfacechemistryandthestructuralpropertiesbyutilizingthe nitridationprocesstoenhancetheelectrochemicalpropertiesofLi4Ti5O12 duetothe formationofNH3 coreonthesurfaceLi4Ti5O12, thusformingacore/shellstructure.The modifiedLi4Ti5O12 establishedgreatercyclingperformanceascomparedtopure Li4Ti5O12 andshowedanenhancedcurrentrate [69].

1.4.2Supercapacitor

Withtheincreasingdemandinglobalenergyneeds,anelectrochemicalenergystorage deviceplaysavitalroleinthenext-generationﬂexibleandportableenergystoragedevices.Amongvariouselectrochemicalenergystoragedevices,supercapacitorshavepaid