MultifunctionalHybrid Nanomaterialsfor SustainableAgri-food andEcosystems
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KamelA.Abd-Elsalam
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Contributors
KamelA.Abd-Elsalam
PlantPathologyResearchInstitute,AgriculturalResearchCenter(ARC),Giza, Egypt
M.EvyAliceAbigail
DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,HindustanInstituteofTechnologyand Science,Chennai,India
ShaguftaAfreen
CASKeyLaboratoryofBio-basedMaterials,QingdaoInstituteofBioenergyand BioprocessTechnology,ChineseAcademyofSciences,Qingdao,China
FarahK.Ahmed
BiotechnologyEnglishProgram,FacultyofAgriculture,AinShamsUniversity, Cairo,Egypt
FanelwaR.Ajayi
SensorLab,DepartmentofChemistry,UniversityofWesternCape,CapeTown, SouthAfrica
MousaAlghuthaymi
DepartmentofBiology,ScienceandHumanitiesCollege,ShaqraUniversity, Alquwayiyah,SaudiArabia
HassanAlmoammar
ETHZ € urich,DepartmentofBiology,InstituteofMicrobiology,Z € urich,Switzerland; NationalCentreforBiotechnology,KingAbdulazizCityforScienceand Technology(KACST),Riyadh,SaudiArabia
MohammadAshfaq
MultidisciplinaryResearchInstituteforScienceandTechnology,IIMCT, UniversityofLaSerena,LaSerena,Chile;SchoolofLifeScience,BSAbdur RahamanInstituteofScienceandTechnology,Chennai,India
Asim-Mansha
DepartmentofChemistry,GovernmentCollegeUniversityFaisalabad, Faisalabad,Pakistan
AninditaBehera
SchoolofPharmaceuticalSciences,Siksha‘O’AnusandhanDeemedtobe University,Bhubaneswar,Odisha,India
DivyaChauhan
DepartmentofChemicalandBiomedicalEngineering,UniversityofSouthFlorida, Tampa,FL,UnitedStates
XuanChen
CollegeofHorticulture,NanjingAgriculturalUniversity,Nanjing,China
Joa ˜ oVinı´ciosWirbitzkidaSilveira
LaboratoryofGreenMaterials,FoodEngineering,InstituteofScienceand Technology,UniversityofJequitinhonhaandMucuri,Diamantina,MinasGerais, Brazil
KhemchandDewangan
DepartmentofChemistry,IndiraGandhiNationalTribalUniversity,Amarkantak, MadhyaPradesh,India
SayanDebDutta
DepartmentofBiosystemsEngineering,CollegeofAgricultureandLifeSciences, KangwonNationalUniversity,Chuncheon,RepublicofKorea
AhmedM.ElHamaky
DepartmentofMycologyandMycotoxins,AnimalHealthResearchInstitute, AgricultureResearchCenter,Cairo,Egypt
Farid-Un-Nisa
DepartmentofChemistry,UniversityofAgricultureFaisalabad,Faisalabad, Pakistan
DanielleCristineMotaFerreira
LaboratoryofFoodMaterialsStudies,DepartmentofFoodTechnology,University ofVic ¸osa,Vic ¸osa,MinasGerais,Brazil
MohamedAmineGacem
LaboratoryofEcosystemsProtectioninAridandSemi-AridArea,Universityof KasdiMerbah,Ouargla;DepartmentofBiology,FacultyofScience,Universityof AmarTlidji,Laghouat,Algeria
MohamedA.Gad
PlantPathologyResearchInstitute,AgriculturalResearchCenter(ARC),Giza, Egypt;InstituteofAgriculturalEnvironmentandResources,YunnanAcademyof AgriculturalSciences,Kunming,China
KeyaGanguly
DepartmentofBiosystemsEngineering,CollegeofAgricultureandLifeSciences, Kangwon;NationalUniversity,Chuncheon,RepublicofKorea
GinaAlejandraG.Giraldo
DepartmentofBiochemistryandBiotechnology,CenterofExactSciences,State UniversityofLondrina,Londrina,Parana ´ ,Brazil
AyatF.Hashim
FatsandOilsDepartment,NationalResearchCentre,Cairo,Egypt
AtefA.Hassan
DepartmentofMycologyandMycotoxins,AnimalHealthResearchInstitute, AgricultureResearchCenter,Cairo,Egypt
TajamalHussain
InstituteofChemistry,UniversityofthePunjab,Lahore,Pakistan
SiavashIravani
FacultyofPharmacyandPharmaceuticalSciences,IsfahanUniversityofMedical Sciences,Isfahan,Iran
JosefJampı´lek
DepartmentofAnalyticalChemistry,FacultyofNaturalSciences,Comenius University,Bratislava,Slovakia
S.EmmanuelJoshuaJebasingh
DepartmentofBiotechnology,ManonmaniamSundaranarUniversity,Tirunelveli, TamilNadu,India
AnuKalia
ElectronMicroscopyandNanoscienceLaboratory,DepartmentofSoilScience, CollegeofAgriculture,PunjabAgriculturalUniversity,Ludhiana,Punjab,India
KatteshV.Katti
InstituteofGreenNanotechnology,DepartmentofRadiology,SchoolofMedicine; InstituteofGreenNanotechnology,UniversityofMissouriCancer NanotechnologyPlatform,UniversityofMissouri-Columbia,Columbia,MO, UnitedStates
HarleenKaur
DepartmentofMicrobiology,CollegeofBasicSciencesandHumanities,Punjab AgriculturalUniversity,Ludhiana,Punjab,India
HarsimranKaur
DepartmentofMicrobiology,CollegeofBasicSciencesandHumanities,Punjab AgriculturalUniversity,Ludhiana,Punjab,India
Katarı´naKra ´ l ˇ ova ´
InstituteofChemistry,FacultyofNaturalSciences,ComeniusUniversity, Bratislava,Slovakia
RamsinghKurrey
SchoolofStudiesinChemistry,Pt.RavishankarShuklaUniversity,Raipur, Chhattisgarh,India
HuanLi
InstituteofLeisureAgriculture,JiangsuAcademyofAgriculturalScience, Nanjing,China
Ming-juLi
InstituteofAgriculturalEnvironmentandResources,YunnanAcademyof AgriculturalSciences,Kunming,China
XinghuiLi
CollegeofHorticulture,NanjingAgriculturalUniversity,Nanjing,China
Ki-TaekLim
DepartmentofBiosystemsEngineering,CollegeofAgricultureandLifeSciences, KangwonNationalUniversity,Chuncheon,RepublicofKorea
MuhammadIrfanMajeed
DepartmentofChemistry,UniversityofAgricultureFaisalabad,Faisalabad, Pakistan
SuzanaMali
DepartmentofBiochemistryandBiotechnology,CenterofExactSciences,State UniversityofLondrina,Londrina,Parana ´ ,Brazil
S.Mangalanagasundari
DepartmentofChemistry,ManonmaniamSundaranarUniversity,Tirunelveli, TamilNadu,India
MogdaK.Mansour
DepartmentofBiochemistry,AnimalHealthResearchInstitute,Agriculture ResearchCenter,Cairo,Egypt
Janaı´naMantovan
DepartmentofBiochemistryandBiotechnology,CenterofExactSciences,State UniversityofLondrina,Londrina,Parana ´ ,Brazil
BeatrizM.Marim
DepartmentofBiochemistryandBiotechnology,CenterofExactSciences,State UniversityofLondrina,Londrina,Parana ´ ,Brazil
BhartiMittu
NationalInstituteofPharmaceuticalEducationandResearch,Mohali, Chandigarh,India
K.Murugan
DepartmentofBiotechnology,ManonmaniamSundaranarUniversity,Tirunelveli, TamilNadu,India
K.Muthu
DepartmentofChemistry,ManonmaniamSundaranarUniversity,Tirunelveli, TamilNadu,India
NimraNadeem
DepartmentofChemistry,UniversityofAgricultureFaisalabad,Faisalabad, Pakistan
SyedAliRazaNaqvi
DepartmentofChemistry,GovernmentCollegeUniversityFaisalabad, Faisalabad,Pakistan
PatrickB.Njobeh
DepartmentofBiotechnologyandFoodTechnology,FacultyofScience, UniversityofJohannesburg,Johannesburg,SouthAfrica
NohaH.Oraby
DepartmentofMycologyandMycotoxins,AnimalHealthResearchInstitute, AgricultureResearchCenter,Cairo,Egypt
SantwanaPadhi
KIITTechnologyBusinessIncubator,KIITDeemedtobeUniversity, Bhubaneswar,Odisha,India
PritiParaliker
DepartmentofBiotechnology,SGBAmravatiUniversity,Amravati,Maharashtra, India
FahmidaParvin
DepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences,JahangirnagarUniversity,Savar,Dhaka, Bangladesh
DineshK.Patel
TheInstituteofForestScience,KangwonNationalUniversity,Chuncheon, RepublicofKorea
TarunKumarPatle
SchoolofStudiesinChemistry,Pt.RavishankarShuklaUniversity,Raipur, Chhattisgarh,India
NabanitaPatra
SchoolofPharmaceuticalSciences,Siksha‘O’AnusandhanDeemedtobe University,Bhubaneswar,Odisha,India
K.Paulkumar
DepartmentofBiotechnology,ManonmaniamSundaranarUniversity,Tirunelveli, TamilNadu,India
FrancieleMariaPelissari
LaboratoryofGreenMaterials,FoodEngineering,InstituteofScienceand Technology,UniversityofJequitinhonhaandMucuri,Diamantina,MinasGerais, Brazil
MahendraRai
DepartmentofBiotechnology,SGBAmravatiUniversity,Amravati,Maharashtra, India
P.Rajiv
CollegeofHorticulture,NanjingAgriculturalUniversity,Nanjing,China; DepartmentofBiotechnology,KarpagamAcademyofHigherEducation, Coimbatore,TamilNadu,India
T.JesiReeta
DepartmentofBiotechnology,ManonmaniamSundaranarUniversity,Tirunelveli, TamilNadu,India
SumayyaRehaman
DepartmentofBiotechnology,KarpagamAcademyofHigherEducation, Coimbatore,TamilNadu,India
SharminYousufRikta
DepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences,JahangirnagarUniversity,Savar,Dhaka, Bangladesh
SergioRuffoRoberto
AgriculturalResearchCenter,DepartmentofAgronomy,LondrinaState University,Londrina,Brazil
RashaM.SayedElAhl
DepartmentofMycologyandMycotoxins,AnimalHealthResearchInstitute, AgricultureResearchCenter,Cairo,Egypt
SatPalSharma
DepartmentofVegetableScience,CollegeofAgriculture,PunjabAgricultural University,Ludhiana,Punjab,India
Woo-ChulShin
DepartmentofBiosystemsEngineering,CollegeofAgricultureandLifeSciences, KangwonNationalUniversity,Chuncheon,RepublicofKorea
KamleshShrivas
SchoolofStudiesinChemistry,Pt.RavishankarShuklaUniversity,Raipur, Chhattisgarh,India
JagvirSingh
FacultyofEngineering,UniversityofAlberta,Edmonton,AB,Canada
AmandaLelisdeSouza
LaboratoryofGreenMaterials,FoodEngineering,InstituteofScienceand Technology,UniversityofJequitinhonhaandMucuri,Diamantina,MinasGerais, Brazil
NoorTahir
DepartmentofChemistry,UniversityofAgricultureFaisalabad,Faisalabad, Pakistan
NeetuTalreja
MultidisciplinaryResearchInstituteforScienceandTechnology,IIMCT, UniversityofLaSerena,LaSerena,Chile
ShafiMohammadTareq
DepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences,JahangirnagarUniversity,Savar,Dhaka, Bangladesh
MaxwellThatyana
DepartmentofOralBiologicalSciences,SchoolofOralHealthSciences, UniversityofWitwatersrand,Johannesburg,SouthAfrica
VelaphiC.Thipe
InstituteofGreenNanotechnology,DepartmentofRadiology,SchoolofMedicine, UniversityofMissouri-Columbia,Columbia,MO,UnitedStates
P.Vanathi
DepartmentofBiotechnology,KarpagamAcademyofHigherEducation, Coimbatore,TamilNadu,India
KhamisYoussef
PlantPathologyResearchInstitute,AgriculturalResearchCenter(ARC),Giza, Egypt
MuhammadZahid
DepartmentofChemistry,UniversityofAgricultureFaisalabad,Faisalabad, Pakistan
Preface
Nanoagribusinessisanemergingfieldtobroadencropyield,rejuvenatesoilhealth, presentsmartagriculture,andactivateplantimprovement.It’sawaythatnanotechnologymightpropelagribusinesstonearly $3.4trillionby2020.Thisvolume, MultifunctionalHybridNanomaterialsforSustainableAgri-foodandEcosystems,collects theknow-how,discoveries,andfruitfulfindingsregardinghybridnanomaterials (HNMs)andtheirapplicationsinagriculture,food,andtheenvironment.Thisbook contains25chapterspreparedbyoutstandingauthorsfromAlgeria,Bangladesh, Brazil,Canada,China,CzechRepublic,Egypt,Germany,India,Korea,Pakistan, Slovakia,Swaziland,Turkey,andtheUnitedStates.Theprimarythreechaptersfrom theproposedbookofferthesynthesisandphysicochemicalcharacterizationof HNMs,includingorganic-inorganicHNMs,nanocomposites,core@shellstructured hybridnanoparticles,chitosanorsilica-basednanosystems,andbimetallicnanoparticles.Theother22chaptersarefocusedonagri-foodsandenvironmentalapplications.CurrentstatusapplicationsofnovelHNMsfortherecognitionandseparation ofheavymetalions,thedegradationandsensingofdiversepesticides,thecontrolled releaseoffertilizerandpesticideproducts,plantdiseaseandpestmanagement,and plantpromotionaswellasthepurification,detection,andcontrolofmycotoxinswas investigated.Somenewsubjectmatterwillprobablybeintegratedcoveringthe applicationofhybridnanotechnologyinantimicrobialagents,foodpackaging,environmentalbioremediation,genedelivery,sensors,antimicrobialeffects,pesticide delivery,veterinarymedicine,andbiodeteriorationherbicides.Also,currentvolume focusedonchitosan-basednanosystemsinfoodpackaging,silica-basedtotalnanosystems,carbonnanotubes-primarilybased,nanocellulose-basedpolymernanohybridsforagriculturalandbiologicalapplications.Othertopicsincludeusing cellulose-basedhydrogelsforthree-dimensionalbioprintingfortissueengineering; humicacidanditsfunctioninenhancingsoilhealthandplantgrowthpromotion; multipleextrafunctionsformixednanomaterialsreminiscentofveterinarymedication;andelectrochemicaldetectorsforenvironmentalsensingofpollutants.This bookincludeafewexcellentsummariestoexaminethepresentdiscoveries,which canincludereviewedarticlesand/orbooks.Thisisanapplicablebookforgraduate students,researchers,andthoseinindustrialsectorsthatincludemorethanafew fieldsofscienceandtechnologywhoarealsointerestedinstudyingHNMs.Thecurrentbookdiscussedtheeffectsofahugetypeofcombined,matched,conjugated,and exceptionalnanocompositesintheagri-foodandenvironmentsectorsapplictions, aswellasdealingwiththemostvitalpotentialchallanges,risksandopportunities. Moreandmorepeople,bothinacademiaandindustrialsectors,arerediscoveringthe opportunitiesthatnanotechnologycanprovide.Thus,theagri-foodandenvironmentalsectorsareconsistentlyonthelookoutforscientificknowledgetofacilitate creativityandinnovation.Arecentbookmightachievenewinvestigationperspectives,whichisimportantformanyresearchers.Identicalresearchcouldpossiblybe
supportive,whichrequiresadatabasetoformalizenanotechnology.Thereare afewuniversitiesthathavespecializedcoursesinnanotechnology.Nanoscience researchersneedaspecificbookthatbringsthissignificantbodyofdatacollected inanorganizedandusablewayinasingleplace.
Iamtrulythankfultoalltheauthorswhocontributedchaptersandprovidedtheir beneficialsuggestionsandexpertisetothiseditedbook.Withouttheircommitment andassistance,thecompilationofthisbookmaypossiblyneverhavebeenfeasible. Elsevier’spublisher,whoalsoprovidedanextremelygreatlevelofprofessionalism, reliability,andtoleranceduringtheentireprocedure,islikewisesignificantlycommended.IwishtothankElsevierofficials,inparticular,SimonHolt,SeniorAcquisitionsEditor,MicroandNanoTechnologies;NirmalaArumugam;MarianaC. Henriques;andNarmathaMohan,fortheirgeneroussupportandeffortsinaccomplishingthisvolume.Furthermore,Ithankallthereviewerswhodedicatedtheirusefultimetomakesignificantcommentsoneverychapter.Iwouldliketoexpressmy honestappreciationtomyfamilymembersfortheirongoingsupportandassistance.
KamelA.Abd-Elsalam AgriculturalResearchCenter,Giza,Egypt
Multifunctionalhybrid nanomaterialsforsustainable agri-foodandecosystems:
Anotefromtheeditor
KamelA.Abd-Elsalam*
PlantPathologyResearchInstitute,AgriculturalResearchCenter(ARC),Giza,Egypt
1.1 Introduction
Thecombinationofnano-sizedinorganicororganicfillerssuchasclay,metalions, metaloxides,nitrides,chlorides,cellulose-basedmaterials,silica,andbiopolymers thatincludechitosan,pectin,alginate,chitin,etc.,aswellasbioantimicrobialagents suchasnisinandthymolhavebeenredesigned,inadditiontoenzymes.Becauseof thesuperbmechanical,physical,andtribologicalcharacteristicsofhybridnanomaterialsoverbroadlengthscales,studiesonhybridnanomaterialsprovideanamazing outcomeintheareaoffoodpackaging,plantprotection,electrochemistry,and variousadditionalapplicationsintheenvironmentalandagri-foodsectors (BalasubramanianandJawahar,2019).Producedhybridnanocompositessuchas core-shellNPsareemployedinecosystembioremediationforwastewaterpollution aswellastheprotectionofplant,animal,andhumanhealthfromdangerousand unsaferesources,whichincludepharmaceuticals,dyes,oils,andheavymetals (Songetal.,2019).Hybridnanomaterialsanduniquenanoformswereproduced toenhancetheirapplicationinthebiotechnologicalandagriculturalsectors.Because oftheirgreatinbuiltcharacteristics,theyworkasexcellentcarriers/vectorsand encapsulatorsformultipleshort-lived,fickle,andriskysubstancessuchaspesticides, fertilizers,enhancers,andhormones.Therefore,thisenhancestheirstabilityand reactivitywhileboostingtheirmechanisms(MannaandBandyopadhyay,2018). Distincttypesoforganoclaysandothertypesofhybridsystemsarecompletelyshowinghighefficiencyinwatertreatmentandremediationofpollutedareasaswellasthe developmentoflessharmfulproductsofagrochemicals(Arandaetal.,2018; Mukhopadhyayetal.,2020).Hybridmetallicnanoparticlessuchascarbonand polymer-metalhybridsprovidespecificprospectsfordevelopingpracticalelectrochemicalbioassaysandbiosensorsandcreateaninnovativeaspecttosuchassays
*Correspondingauthor
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821354-4.00001-7
andtechniques.Polymernanocomposite-basedchemicalsensorshaveemergedasa comprehensiveresearchprocedureforsensingapplicationsinessentialaspectssuch asagriculture,medicine,andthedetectionofenvironmentalcontaminantspresentin theair,soil,andwater.Inthefoodsector,currentsensorscanbeappliedtodiagnose differentelementssuchasfoodfreshness,spoilage,toxicity,andquality(Pavase etal.,2018).Thecombinationsbetweennanofiller/matrixandbioactivematerials providesextensiveoptionsformechanical,thermal,optical,electrical,barriercharacter,andmultifunctionalitytodevelopgoodfoodpackagingmaterials(Vasile, 2018).Lipid-basednanoparticles,includingliposomes,nanoemulsions,solidlipid nanoparticles(SLN),andnanostructuredlipidcarriers(NLC),haveappearedas promisingnanoparticulatesystemsandaregenerallyidentifiedamongthemost appealingencapsulantsinthenanobiotechnologyfield(Tamjidietal.,2013). Lipid-polymerhybridnanoparticles(LPHNPs)arenext-generationcore-shellnanostructures,conceptuallyderivedfrombothliposomeandpolymericnanoparticles (NPs)whereapolymercoreissurroundedbyalipidlayer.Lipidpolymerhybrid nanomaterialscouldpossiblybeutilizedtoinsertDNAorRNAmaterialsaswell asadiagnosticimagingagent(Zhaoetal.,2018).However,thedesignandpreparationofmultifunctionalhybridnanomaterialsremaindifficultandtheirintroduction intofunctionalapplicationsisnotyetadequate.Consequently,itisextremelydesirabletodiscovermodernnanomanufacturingandscale-upnanotechnologytodesign andproducecomplexmultifunctionalhybridnanomaterialswithsuperiorfunctionality(Zhouetal.,2019).Theobjectiveofthisbookistodiscoversynthesisandcharacterizationmethodsandtheapplicabilityofuniquehybridmaterialsformulated withorganic-inorganicsuchasbi/multimetallic,hybridmetallicnanoparticles, andcarbonorpolymer-metalhybridsintheenvironmental,food,andagriculturesectors.Thisbookwillofferthetargetaudienceageneralviewofthemostup-to-date applicationsandprospectsofmultifunctionalhybridnanomaterialsforsustainable agri-foodandecosystems.
1.2 Whatarehybridnanomaterials?
Thetermhybridinaneasydesigninvolvesfusion,joining,ormixingthefeatures intoonemonolithicidentitytochangethepositiveaspectsofconjugatedproductfeaturesandtoreversethedisadvantagesofthesinglecomponents(SailorandPark, 2012).Inchemistry,thistermwillsignifythefusionofcharacteristicsatthemolecularlevel,whichwillgenerateahybridmaterialowningtheeffectivefunctionalityof eachmainpartwhilenotinheritingthedisadvantageousfeaturesofthepartycomponent.Basically,thedesigningofhybridmaterialstriggersacombinationofthe expectedpropertieswiththeeliminationofundesirabletendencies,offeringaninterestingpropertydetailforsuchproducts.Thisisduetohybridmaterialsthatmay locateapplicationsinvariedareas,althoughtheirfirstelementsmaywellnothave beenregardedforthoseapplications.Thesehybridmaterialsincorporatetheexclusivepropertiesoforganicandinorganicelementsinaspecificpartandareusedasa
sensorsandinphotocatalytic,antimicrobial,electronic,agricultural,environmental, andbiomedicalapplications.Inorganicnanoparticleshaveasolidpropensitytoform aggregates.So,toimprovethestablenessofdispersionsandthecompatibilityconditionsofinorganicnanofillerswithorganicsolventsorpolymermatrices,thesurfacesofinorganicnanofillersmustbemodified,bygraftingpolymersontothem. Surfaceamendmentenhancestheinterfacialrelationshipsamongtheinorganicnanofillerandpolymermatrix,whichleadstospecificpropertiessuchasphysicalcharacteristicsatlowloadingsofinorganicreinforcement,andadditionalopticaland electronicproperties.Thisbookcoversmajorhybridnanomaterials,including core@shellstructuredhybridnanoparticles,bio-basedhybridpolymernanocomposites,organic-inorganichybridnanoparticles,bimetallicnanoparticles,conjugated nanomaterials,hybridupconversionnanoparticles,silica/chitosan-basednanosystems,carbonnanotube-basednanohybrids,cellulose-basedhydrogels,and cellulose-basednanocrystals.Thisvolumedeliverscompletedetailsregardingthe productionofhybridnanomaterials,thesurfacefunctionalizationofinorganicnanoparticles,andapplicationsoforganic-inorganicnanocompositeandothernanohybridsintheagri-foodandenvironmentalfields(Fig.1.1).
1.3 Hybridnanomaterialapplicationsinagri-foodand ecosystems
Hybridnanomaterialshaveinnovativepotentialfunctionsintheenvironmentand agri-foodsectors.Theirapplicationsincludeagrochemicalsappliedforplantpromotion,postharvestdiseasemanagementandplantprotection,nanosensor/nanobiosensorapplicationinpollutantandpesticidesensing,plantpathogendiagnosisandfood safety,andnanodeliverydevicesforgeneorDNAtransferplants.Theirapplications inthefoodsectorinvolvefeedandfoodingredientsaswellasintelligentpackaging andquick-detectionsystemsforfood-bornepathogens.Hybridmaterialsaregrowing systemsforveterinaryapplicationssuchasanimalhealth,foodadditives,drugand vaccinedelivery,mycotoxindetectionanddegradation,andpoultryproduction. Finally,theyhaveapplicationsinthetreatment,preservation,andpurificationof wastewater.Promisingapplicationsofhybridnanomaterialsintheagri-foodandecosystemsectorsareillustratedin Fig.1.2.Thesenewhybridnanosystemsofferbenefitsforsustainableenvironmentalandagriculturaldevelopmentstrategies.
1.3.1 Plantgrowthpromotion
Morethan50%oftheemployedfertilizerandpesticideisusuallylostinsidethesoil ecosystemduetoleachinganddecomposition,thereforecontaminatingtheenvironment.Todefeatthesedifficulties,researchershaveformulatedmultiplehybridnanocomposites,whichusuallycontributesignificantlytoplantgrowthpromotionand protection.Mostrecently,appliedhybridnanomaterials(NMs)havebeengenerally confirmedtobemoreeffectiveselectionsofstandardfertilizersandpesticides. 3 1.3 Hybridnanomaterialapplicationsinagri-foodandecosystems
FIG.1.1
Thisbookcanbedividedintosixbroadcategoriesofnanohybrids:(1)thehybridsNMsgeneratedbythefusionoforganiccomponents,(2) nanohybridsgeneratedbyconjugatedofinorganiccomponents,(3)nanohybridsgeneratedbycombinedofbimetallic,(4)nanohybrids generatedbythefusionofmultimetallic,(5)hybridsarisingduetothefusionofmetallicandpolymercomposites,and(6)lipid-polymerhybrid nanoparticle(HNPs).
Pesticides
Thepotentialapplicationsofhybridnanomaterials(HNMs)intheagri-foodsectorand environmentalremediationaremanifold:thedevelopmentofantimicrobialsand agrochemicalsforcroppromotionandprotection(e.g.,nanopesticidesornanofertilizers); foodandfeedbiosecurity(e.g.,sensorsfordetectingpathogens);monitoringthe environment,thetreatmentofwastewater;andveterinaryapplications.HNMscanbeapplied forthedetectionandseparationofheavymetalions,thedestroyingandsensingof insecticides,managedreleasefertilizerandpesticideformulations,plantprotection,and plantpromotionaswellasthepurification,detection,andcontrolofmycotoxins.Other applicationsincludesensorimprovement,geneshipping,applicationsofsilica/nanocellulose orchitosan-basednanosystemsinediblecoatings,foodpackaging,andplantprotection. OneofthemostimportantenvironmentalapplicationsofHNMshasbeeninthetreatment ofwater,whetherinthepurification,reservation,andremediationofwastewaterand groundwaterorthroughthenanocompositeseparationand/orsensingofcontaminants presentinvariousaqueoussystems.Nanoscopicmaterialssuchashybridnanoparticles, carbonnanotubes,andgraphenenanosheetsmodifiedwithnano-filtermaybeusedfor waterdesalinationandnanofiltration.
HNMs,specificallythecompositeformandmetaloxidesofNMs,havethepotential toboostseedgermination,growth,andplantprotectionwhileenhancingphotosynthesisandthusmaximizingplantgrowth(Katariaetal.,2019; Polischuketal.,2019). Furthermore,nanocomposite-layeredfertilizersworkasslow-releasefertilizersby avoidingthedeclineofmacronutrientsinsoilandwaterwhileemployingthemas fertilizersintheplantsoil(Girotoetal.,2017)andalsodisplayingwaterretention tendenciesinthesoil(Oladetal.,2018).Theenhancementoftheperformanceof slow-releasefertilizers(nanocomposite-coated)mayalsoreducetheburdenof
FIG.1.2
fertilizersandmitigatetheundesirableimpactoffertilizersontheenvironment (AlShamailehetal.,2018).Theliteratureontheroleofnanobiofertilizersinplant andsoildevicesrevealedthattheyactsproficientlyfortheimprovementofagriculturalproductivity.Theymayperformsynergistically,providingmoresignificant preservationofsoilmoistureandessentialplantnutrientsduetothenanomaterial coatingaswellasthemicrobialinhibitiontriggeredbythebioorganicingredientthat containsplantgrowthpromotersbyusingdirectandindirectinteractionssuchasbiofertilization,rhizoremediation,diseaseresistance,etc.Nanobiofertilizercanboosta numberofpositivefactorsinplants,thatis,slow-releasecharacteristics,raisedstabilityofpracticalingredients,useoftinydosages,minimalnutrientsharmedbydegradationandleaching,maskingsoilnutrientdestruction,andincreasingcropyield quantityandquality(KumariandSingh,2019).
1.3.2 Plantprotection
Theuseofhybridnanomaterialsinfoodpackagingcanhelptoboostfoodsafety, decreasefoodspoilagethroughsuppressingthegrowthofpathogenicmicrobes, andconsiderablyenhancethequalityoffruitsandtheirshelflifethroughtheharvest andpostharveststage.Anumberofnanostructuredchemicals,designatedfrominorganicmetallic,metallicoxides,andtheirnanocompositeswithbioactivematerials, havebeenputonthefoodmarket.Nanocompositessymbolizeagrowingtypeof hybridcomponentthatiscreatedbyacombinedmixoforganicpolymersandinorganicsolidsanddisplaysstructuralimprovementandpracticalcharacteristicsof greatcuriosityfordiverseapplications.Curcumin-loadedelectrospunzeinnanofibers(CLZN)wereusedtocoatapplescontaminatedwith Penicilliumexpansum and Botrytiscinerea.CLZNmatsstartanewdirectionforinnovativeapplications ofedibleandbiodegradableantifungalprotectivematerial,havingtheabilityto reducethefungaldevelopmentofcoveredapplesduringthestorageperiod (Yilmazetal.,2016).Mostcurrentplantdiseasediagnostictechniquescanoffer rapid,correct,andreliabledetectionofplantdiseasesinthefirststagesforpreventing economicyieldlossesaswellasbeneficialelementsforcropproduction.Nanodiagnosticmethodsusingconjugatedfunctionalizedhybridnanomaterialsmaysoon identifytheprobableseverityofplantpathogens,helpingexpertstogreatlysupport growersinpreventinghighincidencediseasesinavarietyofcrops(Khiyamietal., 2014; Shoala,2019).Varioustypesofbiosensors,includingoptical,electrical,fluorescence,piezoelectric,surfaceareaplasmonresonance(SPR),andtotalinnerreflectionellipsometry(TIRE),areconstructedofhybridnanomaterialsconstitutedbya biorecognitioncomponent(antibody,DNA,enzyme,etc.)thatisdefinitelyimmobilizedontonanomaterials(dendrimers,carbonnanotubes,magnetic,goldnanoparticles,grapheneoxide,andquantumdots)forthedetectionofmycotoxinsanda transducerforconvertingthebiochemicalresponseintoapoweroropticaltransmission(Santosetal.,2019). JiandXie(2020) appliedMGOadsorbentstodetoxify AFB1-contaminatedoils;thecurrentabsorbentsarecomprisedofMGOandmagneticdecreasedgrapheneoxides(MrGO)allcombinedwithFe3O4 nanoparticles.
TheoutcomesshowedthatMGOexperiencedanadsorptioneffectiveness(AE)of 86.33%from16.1 μg/Lto2.2 μg/LandMrGOhadanAEof88.82%from 16.1 μg/Lto1.8 μg/L,bothat37°Cfor40minwithadsorbentdosageof10mg/ mL.MrGOandMGOwererecyclableevenaftersevencycleswithoutacriticallesseningoftheadsorbentprocess.Hybridnanomaterialsmayperformanessentialrole forasynergisticstrategyintacklingtheconcernsinmycotoxicologyinthe21stcentury(Abd-ElsalamandRai,2020).Carbonnanotubewasappliedasanelectrochemicalsensorsduetotheirsubstantialsensitivityandselectivitycharacteristicsoffering effectiverecognitionofpesticidetracesinenvironmentalsamples.Lately,nanomaterial/nanocompositescomprisingthree-dimensional(3D)graphenecanbeadistinctive,reputableprocessforonsiteanalysisandbioremediationofpesticidesor herbicideswithgreatfeatures(Alietal.,2019; Zhangetal.,2019a,b).
1.3.3 Bio/hybridnanosensors
Hybridnanostructuredmaterialsconsistingofthinfilmsofconjugatedpolymers, nanofibers,bi-ormetallicnanoparticles,carbonnanotubes,andenzymespossess attractivefeaturessuchasahighsurfacearea/volumeratioandsize-dependentopticalandelectronicproperties,whicharehighlydesiredfordesigningchemicalsubstancesensorswithoptimizedproperties(Fig.1.3).Reliable,inexpensive,and sensitiveportablechemicalsensorshavebeenpursuedhighlyforapplicationsinfood analysisandfoodsecurity,permittingmonitoringofthechemicalsubstancecomposition,smell,andtasteaswellascontaminationbymicroorganisms,includingbacteriaandfungi,amongadditionalapplications(Andreetal.,2018; Correaetal., 2017).Theuseofhybridnanomaterialsinsensorconstructionallowssinglemoleculedetection,anappealingcharacteristicformultiplexmycotoxindetection inthesamesamplematrixcocontaminatedwithseveralmycotoxins(Anfossi etal.,2019).Theuseofhybridnanomaterialsinmycotoxicologyisininitialstage, however,andmanymultifunctionalnanomaterialsmaybeappliedforimprovement sensorsefficiencyintheidentificationofseveralmycotoxins(Almoammar etal.,2019).
1.3.4 Hybridnanomaterialsforwaterpurification
Theanalysisofphotocatalyticpossibilitiesofthesehybridnanomaterialsinwater treatmentandpurificationhasbeenoutlinedindetail.Theeffectivenessofvarious supportssuchasbiomass,grapheneoxide,reducedgrapheneoxide,flyash,polymer, etc.,hasbeenexaminedfortheirparticularutilityinwastewaterremedies.Bionanocomposites(BNCs)wereappliedintheadsorptiveand/orcatalyticreductionofpollutantsfromwastewater.Likewise,bionanocompositesaregenerallyefficiently employedtoeradicatenumerousorganic,inorganic,radioactive,pharmaceutical, andheavymetalcontaminantsfromsewagewater.BNCscouldbeemployedfor theadsorptiveand/orcatalyticremovalofpollutantsunderdifferentpHdegrees. Hybrid-magneticnanoparticles(HMNPs)wereproducedasironoxidecombined
FIG.1.3
Theimprovedcombinationsofelectrical,mechanical,andthermalpropertiesofhybrid inorganic-organicnanomaterialshaveresultedinmajorinterestinvariouselectronic applicationswithuniqueproperties.Nanostructuredmaterialsandthemolecular architecturesareemployedasactivelayersforchemicalsensors,includingthinfilmsof conductivepolymernanofibers,metallicnanoparticles,carbonnanotubes,andenzymes. Themultiplesynergisticeffects,properties,andinteractionsofnanocompositesare highlightedfortheimprovedperformanceinbioanalytical,environmental,andagri-food applications.Electrochemicalsensorscanbeemployedforthedetectionofcations,anions, andorganiccompoundsinfoodwhilevariousaptamersareusedforthedetectionof pesticides,antibiotics,heavymetals,microbialcells,andmycotoxins.
withmultiwalledcarbonnanotubes(MWCNTs-Fe3O4)obtainedfromMWCNTs oxidizedwithHNO3.TheobtainedHMNPswereusedinaparticularexamination toeliminatearsenicfromtoxifiedgroundwater(BavioandLista,2013).Incontrast, themagneticactionofthesenanoparticlesmakespossibletheirseparationfromthe samplesolutionafterthetreatment.
1.3.5 Genedelivery
Pollenmagnetofectioncombinedwithn anomaterialsisaninnovativetoolfor enhancingandtargetinggenedeliveryi nplantstoproducegeneticallymodified crops.Theengineeredcropsmaybeused insomeimportantapplicationslike
theproductionofnewantimicrobialsan drecombinantproteininplantcells,for enhancementyieldproduction,cleanerbiofuels,andbio fertilizers.Nevertheless, alltheseinnovationsareimprovingourapproachtodesigndesiredplantsforthe future(Zhangetal.,2019a,b).Hybridexosomesthatcanbeemployedasdrug deliveryagentsaremainlylinkedtosmallnucleicacidssuchasmiRNAsand siRNAs,orlowmolecularmedicinesthatareusuallymuchlowerthantheCas9 expressingplasmidswithaminimalsizeof5– 6kb. Linetal.(2018) insertedthe CRISPR-Cas9systemintoexosomesandidentifiedthattheproposedhybrid exosomeviaincubatingwithliposomescouldbeanewstrategyfordrugencapsulatinganddeliveringtheCRISPR-Cas9systeminvivoorintransfection-resistant cellsinvitro.Thepracticalandintensiveapplicationsofnovelhybridnanomaterialsinmoleculargeneticnanotechnology dependsignificantlyonrobustnanoparticlesynthesisandengineeringstrategie s.Theuseofnaturalvesiclesinnately producedinplantandanimalcellssuchashybridexosomesastransportagents wouldpossiblyeliminatemostchallengeslinkedtothecurrentnanodelivery system( Akumaetal.,2019 ).
1.3.6 BimetallicNPs
Bimetallicandmetaloxidenanoparticleshavehadintensiveusageinbiomedical applications.Recently,somebiologicalapplicationsforbimetallicnanoparticlesthat aretargetedhaverevealedtheiropticalormagneticcharacteristics.Bimetallicnanomaterialshavealargenumberoffunctionssuchascatalysts,stainingpigments,antimicrobials,insecticides,groundwaterremediation,sensors,biosensors,bioimaging, andDNAdetection(Srinoietal.,2018).Inaddition,theapplicationsofbimetallic nanoparticlestogroundwater,soilremediation,andorganophosphoruspesticide detectionareessentialexamplesofthemostrecentdevelopmentsinenvironmental nanotechnology(HanandYan,2014; Wuetal.,2019).Thedevelopmentofgreen techniquesforproducingbimetallicNPsusingsafebiomaterialsasasubstrateprovidesagreatcapabilityforfast-developing,innovative,andecofriendlyelectrocatalystsandbiosensorsforagrosystemapplications.
1.3.7 Chitosan-basednanosystems
Chitosanprovidestremendousfeaturessuchasanediblepackagingmaterial, owingtoitsgoodfilm-formingcharacteristicsandlowleveloftoxicity.Also,it maybeappliedasanexcellentvehicleforcombiningalargerangeofingredients. Moreover,chitosanhasantibacterialactivityagainstseveralfood-bornepathogens andisoftensuppliedtoproductpackagi ngtoboostthepostharvestlifeoffresh foods.ThegreatpotentialofchitosanfilmsisrecognizedwithAgNPs(Kadam etal.,2019),nano-ZnO(Indumathietal.,2019 ),nano-MgO( DeSilvaetal., 2017),nano-TiO2 ( Zhangetal.,2019a,b),andnano-SiO2 (Tianetal.,2018)asefficientantimicrobialagents.Novelchitosanblendswithspecificpropertiescanbe produced,particularlyforplantgrowthpromotionanddiseasemanagement,that
is,improvedencapsulation,effectivereleaseoftargetsubstances,andincreased inductionproperties. Karimiradetal.(2018) discoveredtheremarkablefunctionalityofRutaceaearomaticandmedicinalplantssuchas Citrusaurantium L.essentialoilherbalantioxidant-loadedchitosannanoparticlestoincreasetheshelflifeof awhitebuttonmushroom.Alayer-by-layer Lactobacilluspentosus encapsulation approachthatemployedchitosanandsodiumphytatewasidentifiedtohavegreat capabilityfortheprotectionandtransportoftheprobiotic L.pentosus infoodand nutraceuticalproducts( Wangetal.,2019 ).Severalapplicationsofnanochitosan suchasafertilizerwhennanosizingmicronutrientshybridwithchitosan, chitosan-functionalizednanofibers andnancompositeswereemployedtofood technology,includingnanoencapsulationofbioactivefoodcomponentsandtheir delivery,foodpackaging,inadditiontofoodpathogenbiosensing.Certainly,chitosanperformsasignificantroleinnanofoodsandmaypossiblyofferanewerain healthandenvironmentalbenefitsconnectedtofoodsustainability.Multiplepossibleapplicationsofnanochitosansinplantnutrition,abioticstresscontrol,pesticidebiodegradation,genedelivery,andpostharvestapplicationarealsopresented ( Al-Dhabaanetal.,2018).Severalapplicationsforchitosannanosystemsinthe foodindustry,forexample,antioxidantapplication,probiotics,preservativeedible coatings,smartpacking,barr iersandshelflifeextension, carriersandnutraceutical enrichment,andchitosannanofibers,are appliedforfoodpreservation,foodcolor, andfood-bornepathogendetection.In addition,nanohybridswereemployedin someplantprotectionapplicationssuchaspestandmanagement,plantpromotion, slow-releasepesticides,andfertilizers.
1.3.8 Multifunctionalnanocellulose
Cellulosenanosystemsareconsideredpreferredbiomaterialsforseveralapplications becauseoftheirexcellentphysicochemicalcharacteristics.Theyareusually extractedfromdiverseresourcesconsistingofwoods,agri-waste,andindustrial wastes.Agriculturalwastes,whichincludericehusk,wheatstraw,sugarcane bagasse,etc.,areessentialsourcesfortheproductionofsmartnanocrystalsfordifferentapplications.Thisvolumehighlightsmoderninformationonthesynthesis, properties,andpromisingapplicationsofmultifunctionalnanocellulose-based hybridmaterialswithmetalormetaloxides.Cellulose-basedsmartnanocrystals haveimportantadvantagessuchasgoodbiocompatibility,lowdensity,largesurface area,opticaltransparency,andadvancedphysicalproperties.Theymaybeappliedin uniquefieldssuchasbiomedical,cosmetic,fertilizerdelivery,biopharmaceutical, antimicrobialagentcarrier,environmentalremediation,andfoodpackaging.For instance, α-Fe2O3/CNChasbeencommonlyutilizedasananocatalysttoreduce phosphatefromaquaticmediaandthereforehaseffectiveapplicationsinwastewater treatmentandthestrongreductionofeutrophication(Liangetal.,2017).Bionanofungicidematerialssuchashexadecyltrimethylammoniumbromide(CNC/CTAB) havebeenrevealedtohaveantifungalactivityagainst Phytophthoracapsici,both invivoandinvitro(Xiangetal.,2019).Nanocellulose-basedpolymershave
significantorganicfarmingapplicationsforthecontrolledreleaseofvariousagrochemicalssuchasinsecticides,herbicides,andfungicides.Despiteallthesetypes ofspecificfeatures,therearestillafewimportantissuesthatusuallycommonlyminimizenanocellulose-basedmaterialsforindustrialapplications.Wehopethatthe acceptablechargeofformulation,highyield,anddecreaseofenvironmentaltoxicity willvoidtheaboveproblemsassociatedwiththenanocellulose-basedmaterialsfor professionalapplications.
1.4 Environmentalrisks
Thereareproblemswithnanomaterials,includingpotentiallyhazardousoutcomesin agri-food,ecosystems,andhumanhealth.Untilnow,thesekindsofengineered nanomaterialshavegenerallybeeninvestigatedformanyfunctionsinvarious sectors,includingcatalysis,sensing,photovoltaic,food,environment,andagriculture(Kabiretal.,2018).Furthermore,nanomaterialsmaypossiblyprovide effectiveorsmartpropertiestofoodpackagingtoensurethattheycanprotectthe foodfromexteriorfactorsandenhancefoodsecuritybyusingantimicrobialpropertiesand/orrespondingtoenvironmentalvariations.Regardlessofthedifferentpositiveaspectsofcombinednanomaterials,theirparticularuseinfoodpackagingmay welltriggersafetyconcernsforanimalorhumanhealth,merelybecausetheyshow diversephysicochemicalpropertiesfromtheirmacroscalechemicalcounterparts (Honarvaretal.,2016).Thepotentialeffectforindividualbasicsafetyisthe migrationofnanoparticles.Theymayenterthebodyusingintake,breathing,ordermalcontact,resultinginthehealtheffectsofexposuretosomeinsoluble,persistent nanoparticles.Manyofthesehealthissuesarepresentlynotknown.Nanoparticles alsomigratetofoodproductswithfeasiblenegativeeffectsonfoodquality.Another challengeisthedegradabilityofbiopolymersandtheformationofdegradationproductswithpossibleundesirableeffects.Likewise,theremaypossiblybepotentialecologicaleffectsofnanopolymercompositesandafewproblemswithend-of-life treatmentssuchasrecycling,reuse,anddisposal.Thereisnodoubtthattheparticular characteristicsofnanoscaleobjects,whenconjugatedwithbiomolecules,canradicallyimprovetheircellularreactivity.Consequently,thereisasuperbneedtounderstandthedifficultiesandconcernsofthemoderntoxicologyofdeveloped bionanocompositesandaneedforcontinuedharmonizationforriskassessment. ThereareextremelyminorornodetailsregardingthenanotoxiceffectsofHNMs onfoodproducts,agriculturalcommodities,andecosystems.Therearealsonointernationalmethodologiesorcriteriaregardingnanomaterialcharacterizationorexaminingtheirramificationsonhumanhealthandagroecosystems(Farhoodi,2016). Therefore,itisveryessentialtocarryoutproperlifecycleanalysisandriskassessmentstudiesforHNMspriortoextensiveapplicationinthemostvitalsectors.Additionalresearchisrequiredinthisfieldasbenignbulkcomponentscouldbecome toxic,reactivesubstancesathybridnanomateriallevels.
1.5 Futureperspectives
Forthcomingresearchontheproductionofhybridnanomaterialsmustbeconcentratedoninnovationsinnanohybridssuchasnewnanohybridresources,exactcontroloverparticlesizebiocompatibility,mechanicalproperties,biostability,and morphologyforpotentialrelevance.Upcomingresearchfromthebiologicalaspect requiresfocusingonthecomplexinteractionsamongsuchmaterials.Topredictthe biologicalresult,eachnanocompositemixtureoughttobemeasuredseparately. NovelformsofnanohybridsmightleadtothecommercializationofHNMsfor high-efficiencyapplicationsinnumerousindustrysectors(Fig.1.4).
Eventually,optimizingtestmethodstoensurethesecuremanufacturinganduse ofHNMsisurgentlyneeded.Hybridnanoparticlesareusuallyconstructedfromat leasttwodifferentnanoparticlestoconquerthelimitsofsingle-componentnanoparticles,toimproveproperties,toaccomplishnewpropertiesnotpossibleforsingle nanoparticles,and/ortoattainmultiplefunctionalitiesforsinglenanoparticles. Lately,varioustypesofhybridnanostructuressuchascore-shell,yolk-shell,heterodimer,Janus,dotinnanotube,dotonnanorod,nanobranches,etc.,havealreadybeen described(Ma,2019).Photoactivehybridnanoparticlescouldbeusedindifferent agri-foodandenvironmentalapplicationssuchasantimicrobial,foodpackaging, biocides,fertilizers,etc.Bioinspiredmaterialsareawidetermandmayinclude
FIG.1.4
Noveltypesofhybridnanomaterialsthatmaybeapplicableinagri-foodandecosystem sectorsinthenearfuture,whichincludeshybridnanoparticles,bioinspiredapproaches, three-dimensionalorfour-dimensionalbioprinting,peptide-oligonucleotideconjugates,metal ormetaloxidenanozymes,multilayerednanomaterials,nucleicacid-templatedorganicor inorganicnanomaterial,etc.
anytypeofmaterialattainedusingbiomaterialsorinfluencedbybiologicalsystems innature.Theseinvolvebiopolymers,naturalgums,proteins,peptides,enzymes, plantextracts,naturaloils,biodots,andbiochar-basednanomaterials(Kumar etal.,2019).Bioinspiredmethodsmaybeappliedforavastrangeofapplications includingplantgrowthpromotionandprotection,pollutantdetectionandremediation,wastewatertreatment,etc.Plant-derivedbiomaterialsshowimpressivepromise inharnessingboththenaturaldurabilityofplantmicroarchitecturemergedwiththeir naturalbiologicalfunctionsassupportersofcellgrowth.Thegoalofthisreviewarticleistosummarizethemostbroadlyusedbiomaterialsextractedfromlandplants andmarinealgae:nanocellulose,pectin,starch,alginate,agarose,fucoidan,andcarrageenan,within-depthconcentrationonnanocelluloseandalginate.Theproperties thatrenderthesematerialsasencouragingbioinksfor3Dbioprintingarehereindiscussed,alongwiththeirpotentialin3Dbioprintingfortissueengineering,drugdelivery,woundhealing,andimplantablemedicaldevices( Jovicetal.,2019).The complicatedstructureofcellulosecrystalsatthenanoscaleimpactstheproperties ofcellulosematerialsatthemacroscalelevel.Consequently,afundamentalunderstandingofnanoscalemechanismsthroughoutmultiscalemodelingpresentsrecommendationsforthebottom-uplayoutofcellulose-basednanomaterials,basedon structure-propertyrelationshipsandupcomingadjustmentandshapingofcellulose (Martin-Martinez,2018)(Fig.1.5).Plantbioprintingmightstrengthenresearchers’
Bottom-up design
Cellulose-based nanomaterials
Structure-property relationships Multiscale modeling
FIG.1.5
(Right)Schematicrepresentationofthehierarchicalstructureoflignocellulosebiomassdown tothecellulosenanocrystals.(Left)Thediagramshowshowtheatomisticmodelofcellulose nanocrystalsisthestartingpointforthebottom-updesignofcellulose-basednanomaterials. ReprintedfromreferenceMartin-Martinez,F.J.,2018.Designingnanocellulosematerialsfromthemolecular scale.PNAS115(28),7174–7175withpermissionfromPNAS,underOpenAccessJournalLicense.
Cellulosenanocrystals Lignin
Cellulose
