https://ebookmass.com/product/modern-spacecraft-guidancenavigation-and-control-from-system-modeling-to-ai-andinnovative-applications-vincenzo-pesce/
Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) ready for you
Download now and discover formats that fit your needs...
An Introduction to System Modeling and Control 1st Edition John Chiasson
https://ebookmass.com/product/an-introduction-to-system-modeling-andcontrol-1st-edition-john-chiasson/
ebookmass.com
Fault-Tolerant Attitude Control of Spacecraft Qinglei Hu https://ebookmass.com/product/fault-tolerant-attitude-control-ofspacecraft-qinglei-hu/
ebookmass.com
Power System Operation, Utilization, and Control John Fuller
https://ebookmass.com/product/power-system-operation-utilization-andcontrol-john-fuller/
ebookmass.com
Growth and Development Planning in India K. L. Datta https://ebookmass.com/product/growth-and-development-planning-inindia-k-l-datta/
ebookmass.com
(eBook PDF) Landmarks in Humanities 5th Edition
https://ebookmass.com/product/ebook-pdf-landmarks-in-humanities-5thedition/
ebookmass.com
Principles of General Organic & Biological Chemistry 2nd Edition, (Ebook PDF)
https://ebookmass.com/product/principles-of-general-organicbiological-chemistry-2nd-edition-ebook-pdf/
ebookmass.com
Cambridge International IGCSE Complete Physics 4th Edition Stephen Pople
https://ebookmass.com/product/cambridge-international-igcse-completephysics-4th-edition-stephen-pople/
ebookmass.com
Cybercrime Investigations: A Comprehensive Resource for Everyone 1st Edition John Bandler
https://ebookmass.com/product/cybercrime-investigations-acomprehensive-resource-for-everyone-1st-edition-john-bandler/
ebookmass.com
HBR's 10 Must Reads on AI (True PDF) [Team-IRA] 1st Edition
https://ebookmass.com/product/hbrs-10-must-reads-on-ai-true-pdf-teamira-1st-edition/
ebookmass.com
https://ebookmass.com/product/bringing-back-emily-joanne-hill/
ebookmass.com
MODERN SPACECRAFT GUIDANCE, NAVIGATION,AND CONTROL Thispageintentionallyleftblank
MODERN SPACECRAFT GUIDANCE, NAVIGATION,AND CONTROL FROMSYSTEMMODELINGTOAIAND INNOVATIVEAPPLICATIONS
Editedby
VINCENZOPESCE
AirbusD&S,AdvancedStudiesDepartment,Toulouse,France
ANDREACOLAGROSSI
PolitecnicodiMilano,AerospaceScienceandTechnology Department,Milan,Italy
STEFANOSILVESTRINI
PolitecnicodiMilano,AerospaceScienceandTechnology Department,Milan,Italy
Elsevier
Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates
Copyright 2023ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyany means,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformation storageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailson howtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspolicies andourarrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandthe CopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite: www.elsevier.com/permissions . Thisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyright bythePublisher(otherthanasmaybenotedherein).
Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthis fieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchand experiencebroadenourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professional practices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary.
Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgein evaluatingandusinganyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribed herein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafety andthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessional responsibility.
Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,or editors,assumeanyliabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasa matterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofany methods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein.
ISBN:978-0-323-90916-7
ForinformationonallElsevierpublicationsvisitourwebsite at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher: MatthewDeans
AcquisitionsEditor: ChiaraGiglio
EditorialProjectManager: SaraGreco
ProductionProjectManager: SuryaNarayananJayachandran
CoverDesigner: ChristianJ.Bilbow
TypesetbyTNQTechnologies
VincenzoPesce,AndreaColagrossiandStefanoSilvestrini
ModernspacecraftGNC:what,why,how,forwhom?3
AbriefhistoricalreviewofclassicalspacecraftGNC10
GNCterminology13
GNCarchitecture:fromrequirementstopreliminarydesign15 Notationrules38 References42
PART1FundamentalGNCtools 2.Referencesystemsandplanetarymodels 45
AndreaColagrossi,StefanoSilvestriniandVincenzoPesce
Earthandplanetarymodels46
Coordinatereferencesystems53 Coordinatetransformations63 Time69
WhatisrelevantforGNC?73 References75
3.Thespaceenvironment 77
AndreaCapannolo,EmanuelePaolini,AndreaColagrossi,VincenzoPesce andStefanoSilvestrini
Perturbationsources78
Externalperturbations79
Externalperturbationsmodelingguidelines97
Internalperturbations100
Internalperturbationsmodelingguidelines123
WhatisrelevantforGNC?124 References126
4.Orbitaldynamics
AndreaCapannolo,StefanoSilvestrini,AndreaColagrossiand VincenzoPesce
Two-bodyproblem132
Three-bodyproblem161
Irregularsolarsystembodies170
Relativeorbitaldynamics174 References204
5.Attitudedynamics
AurelianoRivolta,AndreaColagrossi,VincenzoPesceand StefanoSilvestrini
Attitudekinematics208
Attitudedynamics227
Three-bodyproblemattitudedynamics248
Relativeattitudedynamics249
Multibodyspacecraftdynamics250 References252
6.Sensors
AndreaColagrossi,VincenzoPesce,StefanoSilvestrini, DavidGonzalez-Arjona,PabloHermosinandMatteoBattilana
SensormodelingforGNC254 Sensorfaults275 Orbitsensors276 Attitudesensors286
Inertialsensors306
Electro-opticalsensors322 Altimeters330 References334
7.Actuators
AndreaColagrossi,LisaWhittle,VincenzoPesce,StefanoSilvestriniand MatteoBattilana
ActuatormodelingforGNC338 Thrusters344 Reactionwheels354
Controlmomentgyros366 Magnetorquers369 References375
PART2SpacecraftGNC 8.Guidance 381
ThomasPeters,StefanoSilvestrini,AndreaColagrossiandVincenzoPesce
Whatisguidance?381
On-boardversusground-basedguidance382 Guidanceapplications385 Guidanceimplementationbestpractices438 References438
9.Navigation
VincenzoPesce,PabloHermosin,AurelianoRivolta,ShyamBhaskaran, StefanoSilvestriniandAndreaColagrossi
441
Whatisnavigation?441 On-boardversusground-basednavigation443
10.Control
FrancescoCavenago,AurelianoRivolta,EmanuelePaolini, FrancescoSanfedino,AndreaColagrossi,StefanoSilvestriniand VincenzoPesce
543
Whatiscontrol?543
Controldesign545
Reviewofcontrolmethods592
Controlbudgets618
Controlimplementationbestpractices626 References629
11.FDIRdevelopmentapproachesinspacesystems 631
MassimoTipaldi,StefanoSilvestrini,VincenzoPesceandAndreaColagrossi
FDIRinspacemissions,terms,anddefinitions633
CurrentFDIRsystemdevelopmentprocessandindustrialpractices637
FDIRsystemhierarchicalarchitectureandoperationalconcepts639
FDIRsystemimplementationinEuropeanSpacemissions641
FDIRsystemverificationandvalidationapproach642
FDIRconceptandfunctionalarchitectureinGNCapplications:ashortoverview642 References645
12.GNCverificationandvalidation 647
FrancescoPace,EmanuelePaolini,FrancescoSanfedino,DanielAlazard, AndreaColagrossi,VincenzoPesceandStefanoSilvestrini
Whyitisimportant?648
13.On-boardimplementation 685
DavidGonzalez-Arjona,VincenzoPesce,AndreaColagrossiand StefanoSilvestrini
Spacecraftavionics686 On-boardprocessingavionics694
On-boardimplementationalternatives700 On-boardimplementationandverification705 References711
PART3AIandmodernapplications 14.ApplicativeGNCcasesandexamples
StefanoSilvestrini,AndreaColagrossi,EmanuelePaolini, AurelianoRivolta,AndreaCapannolo,VincenzoPesce,ShyamBhaskaran, FrancescoSanfedinoandDanielAlazard
AOCSdesign717
Orbitalcontrolsystem730
Attitudecontrolsystem742
RelativeGNC775
On-boardsensorprocessing791
Irregularsolarsystembodies flyaround803
GNCforplanetarylanding806 References814
15.ModernSpacecraftGNC 819
StefanoSilvestrini,LorenzoPasqualettoCassinis,RobertHinz, DavidGonzalez-Arjona,MassimoTipaldi,PierluigiVisconti,FilippoCorradino, VincenzoPesceandAndreaColagrossi
AIinspace Introduction821
Artificialintelligenceandnavigation867
ValidationofAI-basedsystems883
Reinforcementlearning890
AIusecases906
AIon-boardprocessors923
InnovativetechniquesforhighlyautonomousFDIRinGNCapplications925
Smallsatellites/CubeSats938 References971
Furtherreading981
16.Mathematicalandgeometricalrules
AndreaCapannolo,AurelianoRivolta,AndreaColagrossi, VincenzoPesceandStefanoSilvestrini
983
Matrixalgebra983
Vectoridentities991
Quaternionalgebra994
Basicsofstatistics1000
ECI-ECEFtransformation1002 References1006
17.Dynamicalsystemstheory 1007
FrancescoCavenago,AndreaColagrossi,StefanoSilvestriniand VincenzoPesce
State-spacemodels1007
Discrete-timesystems1009
Transferfunctions1011 References1015
Contents
18.Autocodingbestpractices
FrancescoPace,VincenzoPesce,AndreaColagrossiand StefanoSilvestrini
Listofmainarchitecturalandimplementationrules1017 Reference1026 Index1027
Listofcontributors DanielAlazard
ISAE-SUPAERO,Toulouse,France
MatteoBattilana
OHBItaliaS.p.A.,Milan,Italy
ShyamBhaskaran
NASAJetPropulsionLaboratory,Pasadena,CA,UnitedStates
AndreaCapannolo
PolitecnicodiMilano,Milan,Italy
LorenzoPasqualettoCassinis
TUDelft,Delft,theNetherlands
FrancescoCavenago Leonardo,Milan,Italy
AndreaColagrossi
PolitecnicodiMilano,Milan,Italy;AirbusD&SAdvancedStudies,Toulouse,France
FilippoCorradino
TyvakInternational,Turin,Italy
DavidGonzalez-Arjona
GMVAerospace&Defence,Madrid,Spain
PabloHermosin
DeimosSpace,Madrid,Spain
RobertHinz
DeimosSpace,Madrid,Spain
FrancescoPace
GMVAerospace&Defence,Madrid,Spain
EmanuelePaolini
D-Orbit,FinoMornasco,Italy
VincenzoPesce
AirbusD&SAdvancedStudies,Toulouse,France
ThomasPeters
GMVAerospace&Defence,Madrid,Spain
AurelianoRivolta
D-Orbit,FinoMornasco,Italy
FrancescoSanfedino
ISAE-SUPAERO,Toulouse,France
StefanoSilvestrini
PolitecnicodiMilano,Milan,Italy
MassimoTipaldi
UniversityofSannio,Benevento,Italy
PierluigiVisconti
TyvakInternational,Turin,Italy
LisaWhittle
AsteroidExploration,Leiden,theNetherlands
Biography Dr.VincenzoPesce isaguidance,navigation,andcontrol(GNC) engineeratAirbusD&SAdvancedStudiesDepartmentinToulouse Prior tojoiningAirbus,heworkedforGMV,Spain.HeholdsaPhDinAerospace EngineeringfromPolitecnicodiMilanowithathesistitled “Autonomous NavigationforCloseProximityOperationsaroundUncooperativeSpace Objects.” Duringhisstudies,hespentaresearchperiodatNASA Jet PropulsionLaboratory(2017)andattheUniversityofFlorida(2015).He isauthororcoauthorofabout30scientificpublicationsonGNC,autonomousnavigation,small-bodyexploration,andmicrogravityexperimentsin internationaljournalsandconferenceproceedings.Hereceivedthe prestigiousLeonardoCommitteeGraduationAwardandtheGuidoHorn D’ArturoAwardforhisresearchonvision-basedautonomousnavigation. Hehasbeeninvolvedinseveralinternationalprojectsincollaboration withEuropeancompaniesandagencies.Recently,hehasbeenworking onthedevelopmentofGNCalgorithmsfortheMarsSampleReturn missionandfortheESA’sEuropeanLargeLogisticsLanderproject.HiscurrentresearchinterestsincludeautonomousGNCforproximityoperations, rendezvousandlanding,vision-basednavigation,andGNCinnovative methods.
Dr.AndreaColagrossi isanassistantprofessorof flightmechanicsat theAerospaceScienceandTechnologyDepartmentofPolitecnicodi Milano.HeholdsaPhDinAerospaceEngineeringwithathesison “AbsoluteandRelative6DOFDynamics,GuidanceandControlforLargeSpace StructuresinCislunarEnvironment.” HeearnedhisMScdegreeinSpace Engineeringin2015fromPolitecnicodiMilano,withadoubledegree fromPolitecnicodiTorino.In2012,heobtainedhisBScdegreeinAerospaceEngineeringatPolitecnicodiTorino.Hewasavisitingresearcherat DeimosSpace(Spain)andPurdueUniversity(Indiana,USA).Hehas beeninvolvedinseveralnationalandinternational-fundedprojects,collaboratingwithItalianandEuropeancompanies,institutions,andagencies, workingondevelopmentstudiesaboutGNCformodernapplications, suchasnanosatconstellationsforastrophysicalobservations,rendezvousin cislunarenvironment,andproximityoperationsforactivedebrisremoval. Heisauthorandcoauthorofabout30scientificpublicationsininternational journalsandconferenceproceedingsonGNC,smallspacesystems,and non-Kepleriandynamics.HismainresearchinterestsarespacecraftGNC
andsystemengineeringforadvancedsmallsatelliteapplications,withafocus oneffectiveGNCimplementationwithlimitedhardwareresources,innovativeGNCtechniques,andautonomousfailureandcontingencymodes management.
Dr.StefanoSilvestrini isapostdoctoralresearcherattheAerospace ScienceandTechnologyDepartmentofPolitecnicodiMilano.Heobtained hisPhDcumlaudewithathesistitled “AI-augmentedGuidance,NavigationandControlforProximityOperationsofDistributedSystems.” He earnedhisMScdegreeinAerospaceEngineeringin2017fromTUDelft. In2016,heworkedasatraineeforAirbusD&SinMunich.In2015,he earnedhisBScdegreeinAerospaceEngineeringattheUniversitadegliStudi diPadova.DuringhisBSc,hespentasix-monthresearchperiodattheCollegeofAerospaceEngineeringofBostonUniversityunderawardedscholarship.HehasbeeninvolvedinnationalandEU/ESA-fundedprojectsfor developingnanosatconstellationforscienceobservation,missionanalysis, andsystemdesignforfractionatedspacearchitectureandartificialintelligence(AI)forspacecraftGNC.Hehasworkedasateachingassistantfor severalcoursesthroughouthisMScandPhDcareer.Hisresearchinterests includethedevelopmentofAIalgorithmsforautonomousGNCindistributedspacesystemsandproximityoperations,particularlytailoredfor embeddedapplicationsinsmallplatforms.
Introduction Thispageintentionallyleftblank
VincenzoPesce1,AndreaColagrossi2,StefanoSilvestrini2
1AirbusD&SAdvancedStudies,Toulouse,France
2PolitecnicodiMilano,Milan,Italy
ModernspacecraftGNC:what,why,how,forwhom? Eversincethebeginningofhumanexistence,humanshadtorelyon basictools,orsimplyontheirintuition,to “guide” themselvesthroughout theirhabitat,developinginstrumentto “determinetheirlocation” andto “act” accordingly.TheconceptofGuidance,Navigation,andControl (GNC),evenifinadifferentfashion,wasfamiliartothe firstnomadictribes andtothefollowingpioneersofhumanexploration.Still,itistruethat everyoneapproachedtheGNCprobleminhisownlife,bysimplygoing outsidehomeandwalking.
Spaceflighthasbeenoneofthemostrevolutionaryshadesofhuman exploration,allowingmenandautomatedvehiclestoescapeEarth’sgravity, turningimaginationandwonderintoreality.Thetechnologyofsatellites andspacevehicleshasrapidlyevolvedsincethe firstsignalreceivedfrom theSputnik1(Спутник 1)orthe firstawe-inspiringimagesfromthe Moonsurface,becomingnowcapabletolandman-madeobjectsonplanets, comets,andasteroids,ortodeployconstellationsoforbitingbodies,orto maketwospacecraftencounterwhiletravelingthousandsofkilometers persecond.
Inperformingalltheseactivities,oneoftheoriginalproblemsofhumanitycamebackunderanewperspective:spacecraftGNC.Eveninspace,one needstoknowthepath,thecurrentlocation,andthestepstostayonthe righttrack.Intheseregards,spacecraftGNChasfollowedaquicktechnologicalevolution,drawinginspirationfromthe firstEarth-basedmethods, suchassextants,chronometers,andlandmarks,torapidlyevolveacquiring thepeculiaritiesofthespaceenvironment.Then,withthearisingofpowerfulcomputersandadvancedtechniques,thisbranchofspacecrafttechnology madegiantleapstowardautonomyandhighperformances.Nowadays,itis atthedawnofanewera,withartificiallyintelligentmachinesstartingto helpspaceexplorerstotravelacrossthesolarsystem.
ModernSpacecraftGuidance,Navigation,andControl
ISBN:978-0-323-90916-7
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90916-7.00001-9
ThisbookaimsatpresentinganupdatedandcomprehensivesetoftheoryandapplicationsaboutspacecraftGNC,fromfundamentalstoadvanced concepts,includingmodernartificialintelligence(AI)-basedarchitectures, withfocusonsoftwareandhardwarepracticalapplications.Infact,oneof themainpurposesofthisbookistodiscussupdatedGNCdesignandvalidationprocesses,fromrequirementsto finalsystemimplementation.This bookisfocusedondeliveringacoherentpathtodesignaspacecraftGNC system,startingfromtheoryanddiggingthecriticalstepstowardimplementation.Inotherwords,thebookisintendedtoprovidethenecessarytheory, omittingredundantderivations,alreadypresentinliterature,fromthespecificperspectiveofspacecraftsystems.
Thetopicsdiscussedinthebookaretypicallyfoundscatteredinavast poolofliterature;ortheyarelimitedtoacademictheoreticalmanuals,which havebeenpublishedquitefewyearsago;ortheyareavailablefromdocumentationandtechnicalnotes,retrievedfrominternationalstandards,which arenoteasytobeunderstoodmaintainingageneraloverlookonthewhole problem.Moreover,GNCistypicallyregardedastheconvergenceofthe threeindividualentities:Guidance,Navigation,andControl.Thisis partiallyvalid;nevertheless,aholisticapproachinthedesignofthesystem islackinginbook-typeliterature.
Thebookstartsfromarevisionofthebasictoolsandtheoreticalbackgroundrequiredtounderstandhowaspacecraftmovesinspaceandwhat aretheelementsaGNCsystemrequirestobeoperative.Then,themain GNCblocksareintroduced,describingtheirrolewithintheoverall ensemble,andexplainingsometheoreticalfoundationstounderstandthe methodsandtechnologiesofspacecraftGNC.Thediscussionbeginsfrom thebasicknowledgeneededtounderstandtheGNCsystemdesignprocess, anditisintegratedwiththestepsdrivingfromtherequirementstothesystemimplementationandverification.Finally,spacecraftGNCapplications andexamplesarediscussed,togetherwithabroadsurveyonmoderntechniques,methods,andscenario,includinganextensivechapterontheroleof AIinmodernspacecraftGNC.
Thisbookdoesnotwanttoprovideanin-depththeoreticaldescription ofGNCfoundations,butitoffersauniqueperspectiveondesignandverificationprocesses,practicalapplications,andnovel,cutting-edge, techniques.
Auniquetexttounderstandthefundamentalsofmodernspacecraft GNCdesign,fromtheorytoapplications,whichcanguidebothstudents, youngprofessionals,andexperts,iscurrentlymissing.Thepracticaland
applicativefocusofthebookmakesisappealingtojuniorandgraduateaerospaceengineers.Moreover,thediscussiononmodernandadvancetechniquesshouldmakeitareferenceupdatedhandbook.Infact,spacecraft systemengineersandattitudeandorbitcontrolsystem(AOCS)/GNCspecialistsmaywanttouseittobeupdatedonthelatestpromising advancements.
Insummary,thebookmayaddressdifferentcategoriesofreaders:developers,researchers,youngprofessionals,Ph.D.students,designersinthe field ofspacecraftGNC;AOCSandsystemengineers;AssemblyIntegrationand Verification/AssemblyIntegrationandTest(AIV/AIT)technicians;professionalsinthe fieldofestimationandcontrolscienceswhowanttoapproach thespacesector;expertswhoarelookingforanupdateddiscussiononmodernproblemsandapplications.
Bookcontent Followingthisintroductorypart,thebookhasthreemainpartsplusanappendixsection.
The firstPart1 BasicTools offersanoverviewofthemaintheoretical andfundamentalconceptssupportingspacecraftGNC.Inparticular,the usedreferencesystemsandplanetarymodelsaredetailedalongwiththe mostimportantelementsofthespaceenvironment.Anoverviewofthe mainorbitalandattitudedynamicalmodelsisprovided.Subsequently, sensorsandactuatorsaredescribed,withparticularfocusoncommon GNC-relatedissuesandonthemostrelevantmodelingprinciples.With moredetails:
ReferenceSystemsandPlanetaryModels containsthemodelstodescribe planetarygeometry,withabriefintroductiontopositionrepresentation methods;themaincoordinatereferencesystems;themethodstotransform thecoordinatesfromonereferencesystemtoanotherone;theprimarytime conventionsandscales,includingtheconceptofJuliandates;a finalsection summarizingthemostrelevantaspectsfortheGNCsystem.
The SpaceEnvironment chapterdescribesthemainperturbationsources influencingthespacecraftdynamics,dividingbetweenexternalperturbations(i.e.,nonsphericalgravitational,magnetic field,atmosphericdrag,solar radiationpressure,andthird-body)andinternalones(i.e., flexibilityand sloshing,electromagneticdisturbances,internalvibrations,thermalsnap, parasiticforcesandtorquesduetothruster firingandplumeimpingement); themainguidelinestomodeltheperturbationcontributions;theconcepts relatingexternalandinternalperturbationswiththeGNCdesign.
Thechapteron OrbitalDynamics introducesthetwo-bodyproblemand thethree-bodyproblem,withthemostusefulelementsforaGNCengineer;thegravitationalenvironmentaroundirregularsolarsystembodies; therelativeorbitaldynamics.
The AttitudeDynamics chapterpresentsthefundamentalrulesand methodstodealwithattitudekinematics;attitudedynamics,includingadiscussionontheinertiapropertiesofthespacecraftandonthemainequations todealwithsignificantattitudemotions;relativeattitudedynamics;multibodyspacecraftdynamics.
Thechapterabout Sensors discussesthemainsensormodelingconcepts forspacecraftGNC,includingsomeelementsofmetrology,andthebasic principlesaboutstatisticsandrandomvariables;orbitsensors;attitudesensors,inertialsensors;electro-opticalsensors;altimeters.
Thechapterabout Actuators discussesthemainactuatormodelingprinciplesforspacecraftGNC;thrusters;reactionwheels;controlmomentgyros; magnetorquers.
Part2 SpacecraftGNC representsthecoreofthebook,inwhichthe maintechniquesandmethodsforspacecraftGNCarepresentedanddeeply analyzed.Faultdetectionisolationandrecoverymethods,GNCverification andvalidationtools,andon-boardpracticalimplementationaredetailed withparticularemphasis.Specifically:
The Guidance chaptercontainsthedifferentimplementationphilosophiesofon-boardandground-basedguidance,theformaldiscriminantbetweenAOCSandGNCsystems;theguidancesystemdesignprocess, includingtwoapplicativecasesofrendezvousguidanceandattitudeguidance;themostrelevantguidanceimplementationbestpractices.
The Navigation chapterdescribesthemainnavigation filteringtechniques,includingsequentialandbatch filters;absoluteorbitnavigation, includingthebasicsofGNSS,pulsars,ground-basedorbitdetermination techniques;absoluteattitudenavigation;relativenavigation;imageprocessingtechniques;theinfluenceofnavigationbudgetsontheoverallGNC chain;themostrelevantnavigationimplementationbestpractices.
The Control chapterdiscussesthecontroldesignprocess,includingboth thedesigninthestatespaceandinthefrequencydomain;anintroductionto nonlinearcontroldesign;Proportional-Integral-Derivativecontrol methods;LinearQuadraticRegulatormethods;robustcontrolfundamentals,includingModelPredictiveControlandSlidingModeControl;the controlbudgets;themostrelevantcontrolimplementationbestpractices.
Thechapterabout FDIRDevelopmentApproachesinSpaceSystems presents technicalsolutionsandindustrialprocessesusedbythespaceengineersto design,develop,test,andoperatehealthmanagementsystems,alsoknown asFailureDetection,Isolation,andRecovery(FDIR)systems.
The GNCVerificationandValidation chapterintroducesthemainindustrialprocesstoverifyandvalidateaGNCsystem,includingModel-in-theLoop,Software-in-the-Loop,Processor-in-the-Loop,Hardware-in-theLoop,In-Orbittestingactivities.
The On-boardImplementation chapterpresentsabriefoverviewonthe finalimplementationoftheGNCalgorithmsandfunctionsintheonboardavionics’ modules,withtheassociateddatainterfaces;themaintechnologiesformodernprocessingdevices,suchasgeneral-purposeProcessors/ Microcontrollers,DigitalSignalProcessors,GraphicalProcessingUnits, FieldProgrammableGateArray,orspecificad-hocelectroniccircuits.
ThelastmainPart3 AIandModernApplications introducesthemost advancedsolutionsforspacecraftGNC.ThefundamentalsofAItheory andsomecutting-edgespacecraftGNCapplicationsaredescribedinthis part.Astrongfocustothespaceenvironmentisimposed,andthemainalgorithmsthatcanbenefitfromAIorothermoderncomputingtechniques areconsidered,withoutanextensive,generaltreatmentasaclassicalAIor computersciencetextbook.ThispartisdifferentfromagenericAIorcomputersciencebooktostressonlythepeculiaralgorithmsandaspectsofmodernspacecraftGNCthatareapplicableinthespacecontext.Inparticular:
The ApplicativeGNCCasesandExamples chapterpresentsasetofapplicativeGNCexamplesandusecasescoveringthetopicsofGNCthatareof relevanceforpracticalandmodernapplications.Itcontainsexampleson AOCSdesign;orbitalcontrolsystems;attitudecontrolsystems;relative GNC;on-boardsensorprocessing;irregularsolarsystembodies flyaround; planetarylanding.
The ModernSpacecraftGNC chaptergivesanoverviewonmodernGNC techniquesandmethods,includinganoverviewonAItechniquesforspacecraft,ontheinnovativemethodsforGNCFDIR,andontheemerging topicofCubeSatsandnanosatellites.ItcontainsanintroductiontoAIin space;AItechniquesforspacecraftnavigation;validationofAI-basedsystems;reinforcementlearning;AIusecases;AIon-boardprocessors;innovativetechniquesforhighlyautonomousFDIRsystems;smallsatellitesand CubeSatsGNC.
Finally,anappendixsectionprovidesasummaryofthefundamentalsof mathematicalandgeometricalrules;dynamicalsystemstheory;Automated CodeGeneration(ACG)orautocoding.
Howtousethebook? ThisbookisintendedtocovertheentirespacecraftGNCdomain,withthe mostupdateddevelopments,tryingnottoleaveanyconceptorapplication unexplored.However,thetopicscannotbetreatedwiththe finestdetailsof aspecializedbook.Thus,thebookpresentsthemaintoolsandmethodsto dealwiththecoveredcontentsandsupportthediscussionwithseveralliteraturereferencestofurtherexplorethetopics.Thereadershouldeitherhave asufficienttheoreticalbackgroundonthematter,oritshoulddeepenand reviewthoseconceptsthatarenotcompletelyclearaftera firstreadingof thebookcontent.
Thebookisdesignedandstructuredtosupportthepracticalworkand thedailylifeofmodernspacecraftGNC/AOCSengineers,aerospaceengineers,avionicdevelopers,andAIV/AITtechnicians.Thus,itcanbeusedas ahandbook,withouttheneedofreadingitfromthebeginningtotheend. TheapplicativeexamplesandthemodernGNCpresentedinPart3aresupportedbythefundamentalsofspacecraftGNCdiscussedinPart2,whichare developedstartingfromthebasictoolsintroducedinPart1.Hence,reading itbottom-upcanbeusefulforanexperiencedGNCengineerwhowantto updatehisknowledge,whileastudentorayoungprofessionalissuggested toreaditfollowingthenormal flow.
MostofthechaptersinPart1andPart2areenrichedwithsectionsdedicatedinsummarizingthechapter’saspectsrelevantforGNCapplicationsor tolisttipsandbestpracticestodesignandpracticallyimplementtheGNC functionsintothespacecraftsystem.Similarly,somemodelingguidelinesare clearlyoutlinedtobettersupporttheGNCdesignprocess.Thechapters aboutFDIRsystems,verificationandvalidationprocesses,andon-board implementationareself-contained,andtheyshouldbeusedtohaveaclear preliminaryoverviewontheseimportantconcepts,oftenoverlookedin classicaltextbooksaboutspacecraftGNC.
Part3containsdiverseandvariousapplicativeandmodernconcepts, spanningtheentireapplicativespectrumofspacecraftGNC.Thus,itisnot uncommonthatthedifferentsectionsofthispartbelongtodifferentdomains andhaveabroadvarietyofterminologyandtheoreticalconcepts.Thus,Part 3couldbereadconsideringeachsectionasanautonomousblock,performing thenecessarylinkstothepreviouspartsandtotheappendicesofthebook.
Whatisnotcontainedinthisbook? Thebookisintendedtobeapracticalandusefulsupporttotheworkandto theknowledgeofspacecraftGNC/AOCSengineers,aerospaceengineers, avionicdevelopers,andAIV/AITtechnicians.Thus,itisnotdesignedto provideallthebasicandtheoreticalconceptsbehindeachofthecovered contents.Moreover,thereaderisexpectedtohaveasolidknowledgeon mathematics,physics,dynamics,andbasicsofspacesystems.
Thedescriptionoforbitalandattitudedynamicsisconstrainedtothe mostrelevantaspectsusefulfortheGNCdesign.Consequently,fewtopics aboutorbitandattitudedynamicshavebeenomitted,mainlybecauseof lengthrestrictions.AllthelandmarksandmilestonesoftheGNCdesign andverificationareincluded,butthedetailsaresometimesjusthintedinordertoavoidalengthyandcumbersomediscussionthatwouldnot fitwith thehandbookpurposesofthisbook.Inallthesecases,invitationforthe readertodeepenthoseaspectsonexistingliteraturereferencesisincluded.
Thebookdoesnotcontainextensivediscussionontheoreticalaspectsof spacecraftdynamicsandenvironmentmodeling.Furthermore,itoverlooks thetheoreticaldetailsonsensorsandactuators,focusingmoreonthepracticalaspectsabouttheirintegrationintheGNCdesign(e.g.,calibration, testing,andnumericalmodeling).Inotherwords,inthisbook,environmentalterms,dynamicalequations,sensorsandactuatorsaremoreintended asmathematicalmodels,ratherthanasthephysicalprinciplestheyrepresent.
TheGNCdescriptiondirectlyappliesthemethodstothespacecraft design;hence,noextensivediscussionaboutgeneralGNCmethodsis included.Moreover,mathematicalderivationsandproofsarelimitedto thosecaseswheretheyaredirectlyapplicableinthedesignandverification processes.
Theexampleandapplicativecasesarelimitedtothosewithinterestin presentandfuturemissionscenario.Moreover,thefocusisdedicatedto modernapplicationsthataresomehowlesscommoninclassicliterature aboutspacecraftGNC.Eveninthiscase,properreferencestoclassicliteratureexamplesareincluded.TheAIsectiononlyconsiderstechniquesand methodologiesthataremoreconsolidatedinspacecraftGNCdesign.As alreadysaid,AIisspecificallylimitedtospacecraftGNC;thus,anextensive, generaltreatmentasaclassicalAItextbookisnotcontainedinthisbook. Furthermore,giventhecloserelationtoresearchaspects,somedetailson themostinnovativeapplicationsaregiven,highlightingtheircurrentdevelopmentstatusandtheirapplicativelimitations.
Thelistofcoveredapplicationsisobviouslynotexhaustive,butcontains thoseexamplesthataredeemedtobemorerelevantforthemodernchallengesfaced,onaday-by-daybasis,bythespacecraftGNCengineers. Theeditorsapologizefromnowforanymissingcontentthereaderwould havedesiredto findinthisbook;theinterestedreaderisinvitedtocontact themtodirectlyaskforspecificsuggestionsonhowto findanddeepenits knowledgeaboutthemissingtopics.
AbriefhistoricalreviewofclassicalspacecraftGNC DespitetheconceptsofGNCareintrinsicwiththehumanmovementsacrosstheglobe,thetrueancestorofspacecraftGNCistheancient mariner,whohadtoexploretheworldbyguiding,navigating,andcontrollingthemotionofanartificialobjectthroughavastenvironment,stillunexplored,withoutreferencesandlandmarks.Indeed,tomastertheartof drivingashipacrossthesea,humansoutlinedfundamentalconcepts, inventedmethodsandtoolsthatarenowadaysstillapplicabletothewhole fieldofGNC.Threethousandyearsago,PolynesiansandPhoeniciansmarinerswerecapabletosailonthehighseas,andeversincethehumanshave beendevelopingcelestialnavigation,compassbearing,landmarkranging, routetracing,andsoon.Theyalsoinventedavarietyofinstrumentsand methodstoaccomplishthesetasks.The firstmagneticcompassusedinnavigationapplicationsisdatedbacktothe11thcentury,themariner’sastrolabe tothe14thcentury,themarinechronometerandthesextanttothe17thand 18thcentury.Similarly,therhumblineorloxodromenavigationmethod wasformulatedandappliedinthe16thcentury.Moreover,alsotheetymologyoftheword “navigation” belongstotheseaandtothemariners:itwas firstusedinthe1530s,fromLatin “navigationem,” whichderivesfrom “navigatus” meaning “tosail,sailover,gobysea,steeraship,” from “navis” (i.e.,ship)andtherootof “ agere ” (i.e.,todrive).Notehowatthattime,and sometimesalsoinpresentdays,thewordnavigationwasencompassingthe entireGNCdefinition.
Thedirectevolutionofmaritimenavigation(i.e.,maritimeGNC)was theaircraftGNC,whichsharedseveralcommonelementswithhisprogenitor.Indeed,airplanesmoveinvastregionsfollowingroutesbymeansof navigationinstrumentsandcontrolsystems,suchasthepilotortheautopilot.Infact,asfortheships,the firstaircraftswerecontrolledbymen, whoreadtheinformationofon-boardinstruments(e.g.,altimeter,compass, attitudeindicator,etc.)tofollowthepaththeycomputedbeforethetake-
off.Namely,the firstaircraftGNCwashumanintheloop.Averysimilar evolutionhappenedinspaceforspacecraftGNC.
Asobvious,spacecraftmovinginspacesharemostofthefundamental characteristicswiththeshipsandairplanestravelingacrosstheseasandin theskies,eventhoughtheorbitalconditionsareevenmoreharshanddifficult.The firstspacecraftwereindeedonlypassivelycontrolled:launched intoballistictrajectories(i.e.,thenaturalorbits)andwithpassiverotational stabilization.The firstman-madeobjectorbitingaroundtheEarthwas theSputnik1,launchedbytheSovietUniononthefourthofOctober 1957.Itwasasimplepolishedmetalspherewithadiameterof58cm,but ithadnoorbitalandattitudecontrolcapabilities.The firstAmericansatellite wastheExplorer1,launchedonthe firstofFebruary1958.Ithadnotorbital control,anditsrotationalstatewasdesignedtospinthespacecraftaroundits elongatedaxistoachieveapassiveattitudestabilization.However,soonafter therelease,thespacecraftenteredina flatspindynamics,anundesirablerotationaboutanaxisperpendiculartothepreferredaxis.Lateritwasdiscovered thatthiswasduetoenergydissipationfrom flexiblestructuralelements,and thissmallaccidentmotivatedfurtherdevelopmentsofthetheoryofrigid bodydynamicsafternearly200yearsfromthe firstEulerianformulation. Thespacecraftdynamicswasnotcompletelyunderstoodyettocorrectly developaGNCsystem.
TheunmannedLuna-3sovietspaceprobe,whichtookpicturesofthefar sideoftheMoonin1959,wasthe firstguidedspacecraft,havingaverybasic attitudecontrolsystem.Itwasspin-stabilizedformostofits flight,butits three-axisattitudecontrolsystemwasactivatedwhiletakingphotos.However,theneedtocontrolthespacecraftmotionincreasedwiththeadventof mannedspacecraftandmorecomplexorbitaloperations.
The firsthumaninspacewastheSovietcosmonautYuriGagarin, launchedwithaVostok1ontheApril12,1961.Despitehewasatrained airforcepilot,carefullyselectedtoaccomplishhistask,themissionwas designedtobeautomaticallycontrolledorcontrolledfromground.In fact,themedicaldoctorswerenotsurehowahumanmightreacttospace environment,andthereforeitwasdecidedtolockthepilot’smanualcontrols.Thisprimitivespacecraftcontrolsystemwasonlypartiallytrustedby thespacecraftengineersthemselves,andthusacodetounlockthecontrols wasplacedinanon-boardenvelopetobeusedincaseofemergency.The codewas “1-2-5,” andGagarinwasanywaytoldaboutitbeforelaunch. Anyhow,thissun-seekingattitudecontrolsystem,inheritedfromthe Luna-3mission,wascorrectlyactivatedat06:51UTCtoorienttheVostok
