Medicinal plants in asia and pacific for parasitic infections: botany, ethnopharmacology, molecular

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MedicinalPlantsinAsia andPacificforParasitic Infections

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MedicinalPlantsinAsiaand PacificforParasiticInfections

Botany,Ethnopharmacology,Molecular Basis,andFutureProspects

CHRISTOPHEWIART

SchoolofPharmacy,UniversityofNottinghamMalaysia

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Dedication

InmemoryofmygrandmotherRenéeMonllor, TomymotherFloraMonllor, TomywifeShirleyPita, TomysonChristophePita-Wiart

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Ifyouseewhatneedstoberepairedandhowtorepairit,thenyouhavefoundapieceofthe worldthatG-dhasleftforyoutocomplete.

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Contents

ForewordbyRobertVerpoortexxv

ForewordbyBrunoDavidxxix

ForewordbyMariadeLourdesPereiraandVeeranootNissapatornxxxi

ForewordbyVuThiThomxxxiii

Preface xxxv

1.AntiparasiticAsianmedicinalplantsintheCladeProtomagnoliids1

1.1 OrderNymphaealesSalisbexBercht.&JPresl.(1820)1

1.1.1 FamilyNymphaeaceaeR.A.Salisbury(1805)1

1.1.1.1 Nymphaeapubescens Willd.1

1.2 OrderAustrobaileyalesTakht.exReveal(1992)2

1.2.1 FamilySchisandraceaeBlume(1830)2

1.2.1.1 Schisandrachinensis (Turcz.)Baill.2

1.3 OrderChloranthalesR.Br(1835)2

1.3.1 FamilyChloranthaceaeR.BrownexSims(1820)2

1.3.1.1 Chloranthuseliator R.Br.exLink3

1.3.1.2 Chloranthusspicatus (Thunb.)Nak.3 References 3

2.AntiparasiticAsianmedicinalplantsintheCladeMagnoliids5

2.1 OrderPiperalesBercht.&Presl.(1820)5

2.1.1 FamilyAristolochiaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)5

2.1.1.1 Aristolochiabracteata Retz5

2.1.1.2 Aristolochiaindica L.6

2.1.1.3 Aristolochiadebilis Siebold&Zucc.6

2.1.2 FamilyPiperaceaeGiseke(1792)7

2.1.2.1 Piperbetle L.7

2.1.2.2 Piperchaba Hunter9

2.1.2.3 Pipercubeba L.f.10

2.1.2.4 Piperlongum L.11

2.1.2.5 Pipernigrum L.12

2.1.3 FamilySaururaceaeMartynov(1820)13

2.1.3.1 Houttuyniacordata Thunb.13

2.1.3.2 Saururuschinensis (Lour.)Baill.14

2.2 OrderLauralesJuss.exBercht.&Presl.(1820)15

2.2.1 FamilyLauraceaeA.LdeJussieu(1789)15

2.2.1.1 Cassythafiliformis L.15

2.2.1.2 Cinnamomumbejolghota (Buch.-Ham.)Sweet17

2.2.1.3 Cinnamomumeugenoliferum Kosterm.17

2.2.1.4 Cinnamomumjavanicum Blume18

2.2.1.5 Cinnamomumsintoc Blume18

2.2.1.6 Cinnamomumtamala (Buch.-Ham.)T.Nees&Nees19

2.2.1.7 Litseaglutinosa (Lour.)C.B.Robinson20

2.2.2 FamilyAnnonaceaeA.LdeJussieu(1789)20

2.2.2.1 Annonamuricata L.20

2.2.2.2 Annonareticulata L.21

2.2.2.3 Annonasquamosa L.22

2.2.2.4 Artabotryshexapetalus (L.f.)Bhandari23

2.2.2.5 Canangaodorata (Lamk.)Hook.f.&Thoms.24

2.2.2.6 Cyathostemmaargenteum (Blume)J.Sinclair25

2.2.2.7 Desmoschinensis Lour.26

2.2.2.8 Polyalthialongifolia (Sonn.)Thwaites27

2.2.2.9 Xylopiavielana Pierre28

2.2.3 FamilyMagnoliaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)28

2.2.3.1 Liriodendronchinense (Hemsl.)Sarg.29

2.2.3.2 Micheliachampaca L.29 References 31 Furtherreading 36

3.AntiparasiticAsianmedicinalplantsintheCladeMonocots37

3.1 SuperorderLiliids37

3.1.1 OrderAcoralesLink(1835)37

3.1.1.1FamilyAcoraceaeMartynov(1820)37

3.1.2 OrderAlismatalesR.BrexBercht&Presl.(1820)38

3.1.2.1FamilyAlismataceaeVentenat(1799)38

3.1.2.2FamilyAraceaeA.LdeJussieu(1763)39

3.1.3 OrderDioscorealesR.Brown(1835)43

3.1.3.1FamilyDioscoreaceaeR.Brown(1810)43

3.1.4 OrderLilialesPerleb(1826)44

3.1.4.1FamilyColchicaceaeA.P.deCandolle(1804)44

3.1.4.2FamilyMelanthiaceaeBatsch(1802)45

3.1.5 OrderAsparagalesLink(1829)47

3.1.5.1FamilyAmaryllidaeaeJ.Saint-Hilaire(1805)47

3.1.5.2FamilyAsparagaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)49

3.1.5.3FamilyOrchidaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)51

3.1.5.4FamilyAsteliaceaeDumortier(1829)54

3.1.5.5FamilyXanthorrhoeaceaeDumortier(1829)55

3.2 SuperorderCommelinids56

3.2.1 OrderArecalesBromhead(1840)56

3.2.1.1FamilyArecaceaeSchultz-Schultzenstein(1832)56

3.2.2 OrderCommelinalesMirb.exBercht.&J.Presl.(1820)59

3.2.2.1FamilyCommelinaceaeMirbel(1804)59

3.2.3 OrderPoalesSmall(1903)60

3.2.3.1FamilyBromeliaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)60

3.2.3.2FamilyCyperaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)61

3.2.3.3FamilyPoaceaeBarnhart(1895)65

3.2.4 OrderZingiberalesGriseb.(1854)71

3.2.4.1FamilyCostaceaeNakai(1941)71

3.2.4.2FamilyMusaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)72

3.2.4.3FamilyZingiberaceaeMartynov(1820)73

4.AntiparasiticAsianmedicinalplantsintheCladeEudicots97

4.1 OrderRanunculalesJuss.exBercht.&J.Presl.(1820)97

4.1.1 FamilyBerberidaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)97

4.1.1.1 Berberislycium Royle97

4.1.1.2 Berberisthunbergii DC.98

4.1.2 FamilyLardizabalaceaeR.Brown(1821)98

4.1.2.1 Sargentodoxacuneata (Oliv.)Rehder&E.H.Wilson98

4.1.3 FamilyMenispermaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)99

4.1.3.1 Arcangelisiaflava (L.)Merr.99

4.1.3.2 Cissampeloshirsuta DC.100

4.1.3.3 Cosciniumfenestratum Colebr.101

4.1.3.4 Cycleabarbata Miers101

4.1.3.5 Cycleapeltata Diels.102

4.1.3.6 Limaciatriandra Hook.f.&Thomson103

4.1.3.7 Stephaniajaponica (Thunb.)Miers103

4.1.3.8 Tinosporacordifolia (Willd.)MiersexHook.f.&Thomson103

4.1.3.9 Tinosporacrispa (L.)Hook.f.&Thoms.104

4.1.3.10 Tinosporasinensis (Lour.)Merr.105

4.1.4 FamilyFumariaceaeBerchtoldetJ.Presl(1820)105

4.1.4.1 Fumariaindica Pugsley106

4.1.5 FamilyRanunculaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)106

4.1.5.1 Aconitumheterophyllum Wall.exRoyle107

4.1.5.2 Anemonechinensis Bunge107

4.1.5.3 Cimicifugafoetida L.108

4.1.5.4 Clematischinensis Osbeck108

4.1.5.5 Coptischinensis Franch.109

4.1.5.6 Delphiniumvestitum Wall.exRoyle110

4.1.5.7 Naraveliazeylanica (L.)DC.110

4.1.5.8 Nigelladamascena L.111

4.1.5.9 Ranunculussceleratus L.111

4.2 OrderProtealesJuss.exBercht.&Presl(1820)112

4.2.1 FamilyPlatanaceaeT.G.Lestiboudois(1826)112

4.2.1.1 Platanusorientalis L.112

References 113

Furtherreading 115

5.AntiparasiticAsianmedicinalplantsintheCladeCoreEudicots117

5.1 OrderSaxifragalesBercht.&Presl(1820)117

5.1.1 FamilyHalogaraceaeR.Brown(1814)117

5.1.2 Myriophyllumspicatum L.117

Reference 118

6.AntiparasiticAsianmedicinalplantsintheCladeRosids119

6.1 OrderVitalesJuss.Bercht.&Presl(1820)119

6.1.1 FamilyLeeaceaeDumortier(1829)119

6.1.1.1 Leeaaequata L.119

6.1.1.2 Leeamacrophylla Roxb.exHornem120

Reference 120

7.AntiparasiticAsianmedicinalplantsintheCladeFabids121

7.1 OrderZygophyllalesLink(1829)121

7.1.1 FamilyZygophyllaceaeR.Brown(1814)121

7.1.1.1 Fagoniaindica Burm.f.121

7.2 OrderCelastralesLink(1829)122

7.2.1 FamilyCelastraceaeR.Brown(1814)122

7.2.1.1 Celastruspaniculatus Willd.122

7.2.1.2 Euonymusalatus (Thunb.)Sieb.123

7.3 OrderOxalidalesBercht.&J.Presl(1820)123

7.3.1 FamilyConnaraceaeR.Brown(1818)123

7.3.1.1 Cnestispalala (Lour.)Merr.124

7.3.1.2 Roureaminor (Gaertn.)Alston125

7.3.2 FamilyOxalidaceaeR.Brown(1818)125

7.3.2.1 Oxaliscorniculata L.125

7.4 OrderMalpighialesJuss,exBercht.&J.Presl.(1820)126

7.4.1 FamilyClusiaceaeLindley(1836)126

7.4.1.1 Garciniamangostana L.127

7.4.1.2 Garciniamorella Desr.128

7.4.1.3 Garciniaxanthochymus Hook.f.exT.And.129

7.4.1.4 Mesuaferrea L.129

7.4.2 FamilyEuphorbiaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)130

7.4.2.1 Acalyphaindica L.130

7.4.2.2 Alchorneavillosa (Benth.)Muell. Arg.131

7.4.2.3 Aleuritesmoluccanus (L.)Willd.131

7.4.2.4 Euphorbiaantiquorum L.132

7.4.2.5 Euphorbiahirta L.132

7.4.2.6 Euphorbiathymifolia L.134

7.4.2.7 Euphorbiaroyleana Boiss135

7.4.2.8 Jatrophacurcas L.135

7.4.2.9 Macarangatanarius (L.)Müll.Arg.136

7.4.2.10 Mallotusphilippensis (Lamk.)Muell.Arg.137

7.4.2.11 Pedilanthustithymaloides (L.)Poit.138

7.4.2.12 Ricinuscommunis L.139

7.4.2.13 Tragiainvolucrata L.140

7.4.3 FamilyHypericaceaeLindley(1836)141

7.4.3.1 Hypericumerectum Thunb.141

7.4.3.2 Hypericumjaponicum Thunb142

7.4.4 FamilyMalpighiaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)143

7.4.4.1 Lophantheralactescens Ducke143

7.4.5 FamilyOchnaceaeA.P.deCandolle(1811)143

7.4.5.1 Ochnaintegerrima Merr.143

7.4.6 FamilyPassifloraceaeA.L.deJussieuexRoussel(1806)144

7.4.6.1 Passifloraquadrangularis L.144

7.4.7 FamilyPhyllanthaceaeMartynov(1820)145

7.4.7.1 Brideliaretusa (L.)A.Juss145

7.4.7.2 Flueggeavirosa (Roxb.exWilld.)Royle146

7.4.7.3 Glochidionlittorale Bl.147

7.4.7.4 Phyllanthusemblica L.148

7.4.7.5 Phyllanthusniruri L.149

7.4.7.6 Phyllanthusreticulatus Poir.150

7.4.8 FamilyRhizophoraceaeC.H.Persoon(1806)151

7.4.8.1 Bruguieraparviflora Wight151

7.4.8.2 Caralliasuffruticosa King152

7.4.8.3 Rhizophoraapiculata Bl.152

7.4.9 FamilySalicaceaeMirbel(1815)153

7.4.9.1 Flacourtiaindica (Burm.f.)Merr.153

7.4.9.2 Flacourtiarukam Zoll.&Moritzi154

7.4.9.3 Salixbabylonica L.155

7.4.9.4 Xylosmalongifolia Clos155

7.5 OrderCucurbitalesJuss.exBercht.&J.Presl(1820)156

7.5.1 FamilyAnisophylleaceaeRidley(1922)156

7.5.1.1 Anisophylleadisticha Baill.156

7.5.2 FamilyCucurbitaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)156

7.5.2.1 Benincasahispida (Thunb.)Cogn.157

7.5.2.2 Bryoniagrandis L.157

7.5.2.3 Cucurbitamoschata Duchesne158

7.5.2.4 Gymnopetalumchinense (Lour.)Merr.159

7.5.2.5 Momordicacharantia L.159

7.5.2.6 Momordicacochinchinensis (Lour.)Spreng.160

7.5.2.7 Trichosanthesanguina L.161

7.6 FabalesBromhead(1838)162

7.6.1 FamilyFabaceaeLindley(1836)162

7.6.1.1 Abrusprecatorius L.162

7.6.1.2 Acaciaarabica (Lam.)Willd.163

7.6.1.3 Acaciaconcinna (Willd.)DC.164

7.6.1.4 Acaciafarnesiana (L.)Willd.165

7.6.1.5 Adenantherapavonina L.165

7.6.1.6 Albizialebbeck (L.)Benth.166

7.6.1.7 Astragalusmongholicus Bunge.167

7.6.1.8 Atylosiascarabaeoides (Baill.)Benth.168

7.6.1.9 Bauhiniaglauca Bth.169

7.6.1.10 Bauhiniapurpurea L.170

7.6.1.11 Bauhiniavariegata L.170

7.6.1.12 Buteamonosperma (Lam.)Taub.171

7.6.1.13 Caesalpiniabonduc (L.)Roxb.172

7.6.1.14 Caesalpiniamajor (Medik.)Dandy&Exell173

7.6.1.15 Caesalpiniapulcherrima G.Don174

7.6.1.16 Caesalpiniasappan L.175

7.6.1.17 Cassiafistula L.176

7.6.1.18 Cassiasiamea Lam.177

7.6.1.19 Cassiatora L.178

7.6.1.20 Dalbergiapinnata (Lour.)Prain179

7.6.1.21 Dalbergiasissoo Roxb.exDC.180

7.6.1.22 Delonixregia (BojerexHook.)Raf.180

7.6.1.23 Derristrifoliata Lour.181

7.6.1.24 Desmodiumgangeticum (L.)DC.182

7.6.1.25 Desmodiumtriflorum (L.)DC.183

7.6.1.26 Desmodiumtriquetrum (L.)DC.185

7.6.1.27 Entadaphaseoloides (L.)Merr.186

7.6.1.28 Erythrinaorientalis (L.)Murr.186

7.6.1.29 Indigoferasuffruticosa Mill.187

7.6.1.30 Leucaenaleucocephala (Lamk.)deWit189

7.6.1.31 Lupinusalbus L.189

7.6.1.32 Millettiasericea (Vent.)Benth.190

7.6.1.33 Mimosapudica L.191

7.6.1.34 Moghaniastrobilifera (L.)J.St.-Hil.exO.Kuntze192

7.6.1.35 Mucunapruriens (L.)DC.193

7.6.1.36 Parkiaspeciosa Hassk.195

7.6.1.37 Pithecellobiumdulce (Roxb.)Benth.195

7.6.1.38 Pongamiapinnata (L.)Pierre196

7.6.1.39 Pterocarpusindicus Willd.197

7.6.1.40 Saracaindica L.198

7.6.1.41 Sesbaniagrandiflora (L.)Poir.199

7.6.1.42 Tamarindusindica L.201

7.6.1.43 Tavernierapersica BoissandHausskn202

7.6.1.44 Tephrosiapurpurea (L.)Pers.202

7.6.1.45 Urariacrinita (L.)Desv.204

7.6.1.46 Urarialagopodioides (L.)Desv.exDC.205

7.7 OrderFagalesEngl.(1892)206

7.7.1 FamilyBetulaceaeGray(1822)206

7.7.1.1 Alnusglutinosa (L.)Gaertn.206

7.7.2 FamilyCasuarinaceaeR.Br.(1814)206

7.7.2.1 Casuarinaequisetifolia L.206

7.7.2.2 Casuarinasumatrana Jungh.exdeVriese207

7.7.3 FamilyJuglandaceaeA.P.deCandolleexPerleb(1818)208

7.7.3.1 Juglansmandshurica Maxim.209

7.7.4 FamilyMyricaceaeA.RichardexKunth(1817)209

7.7.4.1 Myricarubra (Lour.)Siebold&Zucc.209

7.8 OrderRosalesBercht.&Presl.(1820)210

7.8.1 FamilyCannabaceaeMartinov(1820)210

7.8.1.1 Cannabissativa L.210

7.8.1.2 Humulusscandens (Lour.)Merr.211

7.8.2 FamilyMoraceaeLink(1831)212

7.8.2.1 Antiaristoxicaria Lesch.212

7.8.2.2 Artocarpusheterophyllus Lamk.212

7.8.2.3 Ficusbenghalensis L.213

7.8.2.4 Streblusasper Lour.214

7.8.3 FamilyRhamnaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)215

7.8.3.1 Scutiamyrtina (Burm.f.)Kurz215

7.8.4 RosaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)216

7.8.4.1 Amygdaluspersica L.216

7.8.4.2 Brayeraanthelminthica Kunth.217

7.8.4.3 Rubusglomeratus Bl.217

References 218

Furtherreading 231

8.AntiparasiticAsianmedicinalplantsintheCladeMalvids233

8.1 OrderMyrtalesJuss.exBercht.&J.Presl(1820)233

8.1.1 FamilyCombretaceaeR.Br.(1810)233

8.1.1.1 Combretumtrifoliatum Vent.233

8.1.1.2 Terminaliaarjuna (Roxb.exDC.)Wight&Arn.234

8.1.1.3 Terminaliabellirica (Gaertn.)Roxb.235

8.1.1.4 Terminaliachebula Retz.236

8.1.1.5 Quisqualisindica L.237

8.1.2 FamilyLythraceaeJaumeSaint-Hilaire(1805)238

8.1.2.1 Lagerstroemiaspeciosa (L.)Pers.238

8.1.2.2 Punicagranatum L.239

8.1.2.3 Sonneratiagriffithii Kurtz240

8.1.2.4 Woodfordiafruticosa (L.)Kurz.242

8.1.3 FamilyMelastomataceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)242

8.1.3.1 Melastomacandidum D.Don.242

8.1.3.2 Melastomasanguineum Sims243

8.1.3.3 Osbeckiachinensis L.244

8.1.3.4 Medinillaradicans Bedd.244

8.1.3.5 Phyllagathisrotundifolia (Jack.)Bl.245

8.1.4 FamilyMyrtaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)246

8.1.4.1 Decaspermumfruticosum Forst.246

8.1.4.2 Eugeniaaquea Burm.f.247

8.1.4.3 Eugeniajambos L.249

8.1.4.4 Eugeniaoperculata Roxb.250

8.1.4.5 Melaleucacajuputi Roxb.251

8.1.4.6 Psidiumguajava L.252

8.1.4.7 Syzygiumcumini (L.)Skeels254

8.1.5 FamilyOnagraceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)254

8.1.5.1 Jussiaearepens L.255

8.1.5.2 Ludwigiaoctovalvis (Jacq.)Raven256

8.2 OrderBrassicalesBromhead(1838)257

8.2.1 BrassicaceaeBurnett(1835)257

8.2.1.1 Barbareavulgaris W.TAiton258

8.2.1.2 Brassicajuncea (L.)Czern.258

8.2.1.3 Capsellabursa-pastoris (L.)Medik259

8.2.1.4 Cardaminehirsuta L.260

8.2.1.5 Raphanussativus L.261

8.2.2 FamilyCapparaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)261

8.2.2.1 Capparismicracantha DC.262

8.2.2.2 Cleomegynandra L.262

8.2.2.3 Cratevareligiosa Forts.263

8.2.3 FamilyCaricaceaeDumortier(1829)264

8.2.3.1 Caricapapaya L.264

8.2.4 FamilyMoringaceaeMartynov(1820)265

8.2.4.1 Moringaoleifera Lam.265

8.3 OrderMalvalesJuss.ExBercht.&J.Presl(1820)266

8.3.1 FamilyBixaceaeKunth(1822)266

8.3.1.1 Bixaorellana L.266

8.3.2 FamilyMalvaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)267

8.3.2.1 Abutilonindicum (L.)Sweet268

8.3.2.2 Adansoniadigitata L.268

8.3.2.3 Bombaxceiba L.269

8.3.2.4 Ceibapentandra (L.)Gaertn.270

8.3.2.5 Duriooxleyanus Griff.270

8.3.2.6 Grewiaabutilifolia Vent.exJuss.271

8.3.2.7 Hibiscusrosa-sinensis L.271

8.3.2.8 Malvastrumcoromandelianum (L.)Garcke272

8.3.2.9 Pavoniazeylanica (L.)Cav.273

8.3.2.10 Sidaacuta Burm.f.273

8.3.2.11 Urenalobata L.274

8.3.3 FamilyThymelaeaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)274

8.3.3.1 Aquilariamalaccensis Lam.275

8.3.3.2 Wikstroemiaindica (L.)C.A.Mey275

8.4 OrderSapindalesJuss.ExBercht.&J.Presl(1820)276

8.4.1 FamilyAnacardiaceaeR.Brown(1818)276

8.4.1.1 Anacardiumoccidentale L.276

8.4.1.2 Dracontomelondao (Blanco)Merr.&Rolfe277

8.4.1.3 Lanneacoromandelica (Houtt.)Merr.278

8.4.1.4 Mangiferaindica L.279

8.4.1.5 Spondiasdulcis Parkinson280

8.4.1.6 Spondiaspinnata (L.f.)Kurz280

8.4.2 FamilyMeliaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)281

8.4.2.1 Azadirachtaindica A.Juss.282

8.4.2.2 Chisochetonpenduliflorus Planch.exHiern283

8.4.2.3 Lansiumdomesticum Corrêa283

8.4.2.4 Naregamiaalata Wight&Arn.285

8.4.2.5 Sandoricumkoetjape (Burm.f.)Merr.285

8.4.2.6 Toonasureni (Bl.)Merr.286

8.4.2.7 Xylocarpusgranatum Koenig.288

8.4.2.8 Xylocarpusmoluccensis (Lamk.)Roem.289

8.4.3 FamilyPeganaceaevanTieghemexTakhtajan1987290

8.4.3.1 Peganumharmala L.290

8.4.4 FamilyRutaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)291

8.4.4.1 Aeglemarmelos (L.)Corrêa291

8.4.4.2 Boenninghauseniaalbiflora (Hook.)Rchb.exMeisn.293

8.4.4.3 Clausenaexcavata Burm.f.294

8.4.4.4 Harrisoniaperforata (Blco.)Merr.296

8.4.4.5 Murrayapaniculata (L.)Jack297

8.4.4.6 Naringicrenulata Nicolson298

8.4.4.7 Rutaangustifolia (L.)Pers.298

8.4.4.8 Toddaliaasiatica (L.)Lam.299

8.4.4.9 Zanthoxylumailanthoides Sieb.&Zucc.301

8.4.5 SapindaceaeA.LdeJussieu(1789)302

8.4.5.1 Cardiospermumhalicacabum L.303

8.4.5.2 Dimocarpuslongan Lour.304

8.4.5.3 Nepheliummutabile Bl.305

8.4.5.4 Schleicheratrijuga Willd.306

8.4.6 FamilySimaroubaceaeA.P.deCandolle(1811)307

8.4.6.1 Ailanthusexcelsus Roxb.308

8.4.6.2 Bruceajavanica (L.)Merr.308

8.4.6.3 Eurycomalongifolia Jack309

8.4.6.4 Picrasmajavanica Bl310

8.5 OrderSantalalesR.Br.exBercht.&J.Presl(1820)310

8.5.1 FamilyLoranthaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1808)310

8.5.1.1 Scurrulaferruginea (Jack)Danser.311

8.5.1.2 Taxilluskaempferi (DC.)Danser312

8.5.2 FamilySantalaceaeR.Brown(1810)312

8.5.2.1 Santalumalbum L.313

8.5.3 FamilyOlacaceaeA.L.deJussieuexR.Brown(1818)313

8.5.3.1 Scorodocarpusborneensis Becc.314

8.6 OrderCaryophyllalesJuss.exBercht.&J.Presl(1820)314

8.6.1 FamilyAmaranthaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)314

8.6.1.1 Achyranthesaspera L.315

8.6.1.2 Aervalanata (L.)A.L.Juss.exSchultes316

8.6.1.3 Alternantherasessilis (L.)DC.316

8.6.1.4 Amaranthusgangeticus L.317

8.6.1.5 Celosiaargentea L.318

8.6.1.6 Chenopodiumalbum L.318

8.6.1.7 Cyathulaprostrata (L.)Bl.320

8.6.1.8 Deeringiaamaranthoides (Lamk.)Merr.320

8.6.1.9 Salsolakali L.321

8.6.2 FamilyAncistrocladaceaePlanchonexWalpers(1851)321

8.6.2.1 Ancistrocladustectorius (Lour.)Merr.321

8.6.3 FamilyBasellaceaeRafinesque(1837)322

8.6.3.1 Basellaalba L.322

8.6.4 FamilyCaryophyllaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)323

8.6.4.1 Arenariaserpyllifolia L.323

8.6.5 FamilyDroseraceaeR.A.Salisbury(1808)324

8.6.5.1 Droseraburmannii Vahl324

8.6.6 FamilyMolluginaceaeBartling(1825)325

8.6.6.1 Glinusoppositifolius (L.)Aug.DC.325

8.6.7 FamilyNepenthaceaeBerchtoldetJ.Presl(1820)326

8.6.7.1 Nepenthesampullaria Jack326

8.6.8 FamilyNyctaginaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)327

8.6.8.1 Boerhaviadiffusa L.327

8.6.9 FamilyPlumbaginaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)328

8.6.9.1 Plumbagozeylanica L.328

8.6.10 FamilyPolygonaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)329

8.6.10.1 Polygonumbarbatum L.329

8.6.10.2 Polygonumchinense L.330

8.6.10.3 Rheumemodi Wall.331

8.6.10.4 Rumexvesicarius L.332

8.6.11 FamilyPortulacaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)333

8.6.11.1 Portulacaoleracea L.333

9.AntiparasiticAsianmedicinalplantsintheCladeAsterids349

9.1 OrderCornalesLink.(1829)349

9.1.1 FamilyAlangiaceaeA.P.deCandolle(1828)349

9.1.1.1 Alangiumlamarckii Thwaites349

9.1.2 FamilyHydrangeaceaeDumortier(1829)350

9.1.2.1 Dichroafebrifuga Lour350

9.2 OrderEricalesBerchtoldetJ.Presl(1820)351

9.2.1 FamilyBalsaminaceaeBerchtoldandJ.Presl(1820)351

9.2.1.1 Impatiensbalsamina L.351

9.2.2 FamilyEbenaceaeGürke(1891)352

9.2.2.1 Diospyrosmalabarica (Desr.)Kostel.352

9.2.3 FamilyLecythidaceaeA.Richard(1825)353

9.2.3.1 Barringtoniaacutangula (L.)Gaertn.353

9.2.4 FamilyPrimulaceaeBatschexBorkhausen(1797)355

9.2.4.1 Anagallisarvensis L.355

9.2.4.2 Ardisiacrispa A.DC.356

9.2.4.3 Labisiapumila (Bl.)F-Vill.&Naves356

9.2.5 FamilySapotaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)357

9.2.5.1 Madhucaindica J.F.Gmel.357

9.2.5.2 Manilkarakauki (L.)Dubard357

9.2.6 FamilyTheaceaeMirbelexKerGawler(1816)358

9.2.6.1 Camelliasinensis (L.)Kuntze358

9.2.6.2 Schimawallichii (DC.)Korth.360

References 360

10.AntiparasiticAsianmedicinalplantsintheCladeLamiids363

10.1 OrderBoraginalesJuss.exBercht.&J.Presl(1820)363

10.1.1 FamilyBoraginaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)363

10.1.1.1 Anchusahispida Forssk363

10.1.1.2 Cordiamyxa L.364

10.1.1.3 Heliotropiumindicum L.364

10.1.1.4 Trichodesmaindicum R.Br.365

10.2 OrderGentianalesJuss.exBercht.&J.Presl(1820)365

10.2.1 FamilyApocynaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)365

10.2.1.1 Aganosmadichotoma K.Schum.366

10.2.1.2 Alstoniaangustifolia Wall.exA.DC.366

10.2.1.3 Alstoniamacrophylla Wall.exG.Don367

10.2.1.4 Alstoniascholaris (L.)R.Br.368

10.2.1.5 Alstoniaspatulata Bl369

10.2.1.6 Alyxiastellata (J.R.Forst.&G.Forst.)Roem.&Schult.370

10.2.1.7 Calotropisgigantea (L.)W.T.Aiton371

10.2.1.8 Carallumatuberculata N.E.Br.372

10.2.1.9 Catharanthusroseus (L.)G.Don372

10.2.1.10 Chonemorphafragrans (Moon)Alston373

10.2.1.11 Gymnemaalterniflorum (Lour.)Merr.374

10.2.1.12 Hemidesmusindicus (L.)R.Br.exSchult.374

10.2.1.13 Holarrhenaantidysenterica (Roxb.)Wall375

10.2.1.14 Holostemmaannulare (Roxb.)K.Schum.376

10.2.1.15 Kibataliaarborea (Bl.)G.Don376

10.2.1.16 Leuconotiseugenifolius A.DC377

10.2.1.17 Ochrosiaoppositifolia (Lam.)K.Schum.377

10.2.1.18 Oxystelmaesculentum (L.f.)Sm378

10.2.1.19 Plumeriarubra L.379

10.2.1.20 Rauvolfiaserpentina (L.)Benth.exKurz380

10.2.1.21 Thevetiaperuviana (Pers.)K.Schum.381

10.2.1.22 Tylophoraindica (Burm.f.)Merr.381

10.2.1.23 Willughbeiaedulis Ridl.382

10.2.1.24 Wrightiapubescens R.Br.383

10.3 FamilyGentianaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)384

10.3.1 Gentianamacrophylla Pall.384

10.3.2 Fagraeafragrans Roxb.exCarey&Wall.385

10.3.3 Swertiachirayita (Roxb.)Lyons386

10.4 FamilyLoganiaceaeR.BrexMart(1827)387

10.4.1 Buddlejaasiatica Lour387

10.4.2 Strychnosnuxvomica L.388

10.5 FamilyRubiaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)388

10.5.1 Adinacordifolia (Roxb.)Hook.f.exBrandis389

10.5.2 Anthocephaluscadamba (Roxb.)Miq.389

10.5.3 Borreriaarticularis (L.f.)F.N.Will.390

10.5.4 Gardeniajasminoides J.Ellis391

10.5.5 Gardeniatubifera Wall392

10.5.6 Guettardaspeciosa L.393

10.5.7 Hedyotiscapitellata Wall.exG.Don.394

10.5.8 Hedyotiscorymbosa (L.)Lamk.395

10.5.9 Hymenodictyonexcelsum Wall396

10.5.10 Ixoranigricans R.Br.397

10.5.11 Morindacitrifolia L.398

10.5.12 Mussaendaphilippica A.Rich.399

10.5.13 Mitragynaspeciosa (Korth.)Havil.400

10.5.14 Psychotrialuconiensis (Cham.&Schltdl.)Fern.-Vill.401

10.5.15 Psychotriarubra (Lour.)Poir.402

10.5.16 Randiadumetorum (Retz.)Poir.403

10.6 OrderLamialesBromhead(1838)404

10.6.1 FamilyAcanthaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)404

10.6.1.1 Acanthusebracteatus Valh404

10.6.1.2 Adhatodavasica (L.)Nees405

10.6.1.3 Andrographispaniculata (Burm.f.)Wall.406

10.6.1.4 Asystasiagangetica (L.)T.Anderson408

10.6.1.5 Hemigraphisalternata (Burm.f.)T.Anderson409

10.6.1.6 Justiciagendarussa Burm.f.410

10.6.1.7 Justiciaprocumbens L.410

10.6.2 FamilyBignoniaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)411

10.6.2.1 Oroxylumindicum (L.)Vent.411

10.6.2.2 Stereospermumchelonoides (L.f.)DC.412

10.6.3 FamilyGesneriaceaeRichardetA.L.deJussieuexA.P.deCandolle(1816)413

10.6.3.1 Didymocarpusreptans Jack413

10.6.4 FamilyLamiaceaeMartynov(1820)413

10.6.4.1 Anisomelesindica (L.)Kuntze414

10.6.4.2 Hyptiscapitata Jacq.414

10.6.4.3 Hyssopusofficinalis L.416

10.6.4.4 Leucaslavandulifolia Sm.416

10.6.4.5 Menthalongifolia (L.)L.417

10.6.4.6 Mosladianthera (Buch.-Ham.exRoxb.)Maxim.418

10.6.4.7 Ocimumbasilicum L.420

10.6.4.8 Salviaplebeia R.Br.421

10.6.5 FamilyOleaceaeHoffmannseggetLink(1809)422

10.6.5.1 Forsythiasuspensa (Thunb.)Vahl422

10.6.5.2 Fraxinusmalacophylla Hemsl.423

10.6.5.3 Jasminummultiflorum (Burm.f.)Andrews424

10.6.5.4 Myxopyrumnervosum Blume424

10.6.5.5 Nyctanthesarbor-tristis L.425

10.6.6 FamilyOrobanchaceaeVent.(1799)425

10.6.6.1 Strigaasiatica (L.)Kuntze426

10.6.7 FamilyPlantaginaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)426

10.6.7.1 Plantagomajor L.426

10.6.8 FamilyScrophulariaceaeA.LdeJussieu(1789)427

10.6.8.1 Curangafel-terrae Lour.428

10.6.8.2 Herpestismonnieri (L.)Kunth.428

10.6.8.3 Limnophilarepens (Benth.)Benth.430

10.6.8.4 Linderniacrustacea (L.)F.Muell.430

10.6.8.5 Scopariadulcis L.432

10.6.9 FamilyVerbenaceaeMartynov(1820)433

10.6.9.1 Callicarpamacrophylla Vahl433

10.6.9.2 Clerodendruminfortunatum L.434

10.6.9.3 Clerodendrumserratum (L.)Moon435

10.6.9.4 Durantarepens L.436

10.6.9.5 Lantanacamara L.437

10.6.9.6 Premnacorymbosa Rottler&Willd.438

10.6.9.7 Vitexnegundo L.439

10.6.9.8 Tectonagrandis L.441

10.7 OrderSolanalesJuss.exBercht.&J.Presl(1820)442

10.7.1 FamilyConvolvulaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)442

10.7.1.1 Calonyctionmuricatum (L.)G.Don442

10.7.1.2 Evolvulusalsinoides L.443

10.7.1.3 Ipomoeabatatas (L.)Lam.444

10.7.1.4 Ipomoeanil (L.)Roth445

10.7.1.5 Merremiapeltata (L.)Merr.446

10.7.2 FamilySolanaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)447

10.7.2.1 Physalisangulata L.447

10.7.2.2 Solanumnigrum L.449

10.7.2.3 Withaniasomnifera (L.)Dunal450 References 451 Furtherreading 463

11.AntiparasiticAsianmedicinalplantsintheCladeCampanulids465 11.1 OrderAsteralesLink(1829)465

11.1.1 FamilyAsteraceaeMartynov(1820)465

11.1.1.1 Ageratumconyzoides L.465

11.1.1.2 Artemisiavulgaris L.466

11.1.1.3 Carpesiumabrotanoides L.467

11.1.1.4 Ecliptaprostrata (L.)L.467

11.1.1.5 Emiliasonchifolia (L.)DC.468

11.1.1.6 Gnaphaliumluteoalbum L.468

11.1.1.7 Plucheaindica (L.)Less.469

11.1.1.8 Spilanthespaniculata Wall.exDC.470

11.1.1.9 Vernoniacinerea (L.)Less.470

11.1.2 FamilyCampanulaceaeA.L.deJussieu(1789)472

11.1.2.1 Lobelianummularia G.Forst.472

11.1.2.2 Platycodongrandiflorus (Jacq.)A.DC.472

11.1.3 FamilyGoodeniaceaeR.Brown(1810)473

11.1.3.1 Scaevolataccada (Gaertn.)Roxb.473

11.1.4 FamilyMenyanthaceaeDumort(1829)474

11.1.4.1 Nymphoidescristata (Roxb.)Kuntze474

11.2 OrderDipsacalesJuss.exBercht.&J.Presl(1820)475

11.2.1 AdoxaceaeE.Mey(1839)475

11.2.1.1 Viburnumdilatatum Thunb.475

11.2.2 FamilyCaprifoliaceaeJuss(1789)475

11.2.2.1 Lonicerajaponica Thunb.476

11.3 OrderApialesNakai(1930)476

11.3.1 FamilyApiaceaeLindley(1836)476

11.3.1.1 Angelicadahurica (Fisch.)Benth.&Hook.f.476

11.3.1.2 Bupleurumchinense DC.477

11.3.1.3 Cnidiummonnieri (L.)Cusson478

11.3.1.4 Torilisjaponica (Houtt.)DC.478

11.3.1.5 Trachyspermumammi (L.)Sprague479

ForewordbyRobertVerpoorte

ThepresentpandemicCOVID-19viraldiseaseshowsthatdespiteallouradvanced science,stillnatureisabletoshowusthatwemightthinkthatwehaveallundercontrol,butinfactthatisnottrue.Duringthemillionyearsofevolutionanddevelopmentleadingtothepresentday’ssociety,therehasbeenmanyotherpandemic diseasescausedbyviruses,microorganisms,andvariousparasitesthathithumans. Somehavebeeneradicated,somewehavelearnedtocontrolbyprevention,and othersbymedicationorthecombinationofbothmeasures.Besideshygiene,vaccinationisthemajorpreventivemedicaltreatment.Butstillmanytropicaldiseaseslack propermedicines.

Presentdaypharmaceuticaldevelopmentismainlyfocusedonchroniclifestylerelateddiseases,requiringstrictregimensforthepatientsoftakingseveralmedicines fortherestoftheirlifetotreatthesymptomsofthedisease,likehypertension,high cholesterol,and/orhighglucose.Thebusinessmodelisclear,identifiesallpatients whohavesymptomsandthenprescribesthemedicationtobetakeneverydayforthe restofyourlife.Theotherbusinessmodelforthebigpharmaiscancertreatmentsthat concernadiseasethatispotentiallykillingthepatient.Tosavethepatient’slife,the societyacceptshighcostsformedicinesthatcure,oratleastgivethepatientssome extratimetolive.Thisisabusinessmodelthatisbasedonveryexpensivemedicines tostopthegrowthofcancercellsandpreferablykillthesecells.Forbothbusiness models,costsofdevelopmentwillbesimilar,buttheearningsshouldbeinthefirst caseonchronictreatmentsovermanyyears,inthesecondcaseintensivetreatmentsin shorttime.Whataremissinginthesetwomodelsarethemedicinestotreatinfectious diseasescausedbyexternalorganismssuchasviruses,microorganisms,andparasites. Formanyoftheseillnesses,goodmedicinesareavailable,liketheantibiotics.Butto developnoveldrugsforthesediseases,thebusinessmodelsmentioneddonotwork,as usuallytheseillnessesarecuredinatreatmentofaweekorso.Thatmeansthecosts ofdevelopinganovelantibioticorantiparasiticdrugaredifficulttoearnback. Particularlyforsomeofthemoreraretropicaldiseases,bigpharmaceuticalcompanies donothaveresearchprogramsfordevelopingcures.TheNobelPrize2015shows twosuccessfulexamplesforparasiticdiseases.ThisprizewasforWilliamC.Campbell andSatoshi Omura “fortheirdiscoveriesconcerninganoveltherapyagainstinfections causedbyroundwormparasites” andtheotherhalftoTuYouyou “forherdiscoveries concerninganoveltherapyagainstMalaria.” Theroundworms-causeddiseasescould betreatedwithanovelantibioticIvermectinethatwasdevelopedandfinancedbythe pharmaceuticalcompanyMerck.

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