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Section 3: Metabolism
Chapter 5. Oxygen Transport
Abstract
Introduction
Characteristics of Mammalian Globin Proteins
Allosteric Modulation of the Oxygen Affinity of Hemoglobin
Selected Topics
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 6. Catalytic Proteins - Enzymes
Abstract
Introduction
Enzymatic Reactions
Enzyme Kinetics
Mechanism of Enzyme Action
Enzyme Inhibition
Regulation of Enzyme Activity
Enzymatic Measurement of Blood Glucose
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 7. Vitamins and Minerals
Abstract
Introduction
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Water-Soluble Vitamins
Dietary Supplementation of Vitamins
Minerals
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
More Clinical Cases
Abbreviations
Chapter 8. Bioenergetics and Oxidative Metabolism
Abstract
Introduction
Oxidation As A Source Of Energy
FREE ENERGY
Conservation Of Energy By Coupling Of Reactions To Hydrolysis Of ATP
Mitochondrial Synthesis Of Adenosine Triphosphate From Reduced Coenzymes
The Mitochondrial Electron Transport System
Transfer Of Electrons From NADH Into Mitochondria
Synthesis Of Adenosine Triphosphate: The Chemiosmotic Hypothesis
Inhibitors Of Oxidative Metabolism
Regulation Of Oxidative Phosphorylation
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 9. Glycolysis and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Abstract
Introduction
The Erythrocyte
Glycolysis
Synthesis of 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG)
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 10. The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
Abstract
Introduction
Functions of the Tca Cycle
Pyruvate Carboxylase
The Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex
Enzymes and Reactions of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
Energy Yield from the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
Cataplerosis and Anaplerosis
Regulation of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 11. Fa y Acid and Triglyceride Catabolism
Abstract
Introduction
Activation of Fatty Acids for Transport Into the Mitochondrion
Oxidation of Fatty Acids
Ketogenesis, a Metabolic Pathway Unique to Liver
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 12. Biosynthesis and Storage of Carbohydrate
Abstract
Introduction
Structure of Glycogen
Pathway of Glycogenesis from Blood Glucose in the Liver
Pathway of Glycogenolysis in the Liver
Hormonal Regulation of Hepatic Glycogenolysis
Mechanism of Action of Glucagon
Mobilization of Hepatic Glycogen by Epinephrine
Glycogenolysis in Muscle
Regulation of Glycogenesis
Gluconeogenesis
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 13. Biosynthesis and Storage of Fa y Acids
Abstract
Introduction
Fatty Acid Synthesis
Storage and Transport of Fatty Acids: Synthesis of Triacylglycerols (Triglycerides)
Regulation of Total Body Fat Stores
Summary
Further Reading
Abbreviations
Chapter 14. Biosynthesis of Cholesterol and Steroids
Abstract
Introduction
The Cholesterol Molecule
Cholesterol is Esterified Within Cells and in Plasma
Biosynthesis of Cholesterol
Cholesterol Clearance: The Bile Acids
Steroid Hormones
Vitamin D
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
More Clinical Cases
Abbreviations
Chapter 15. Biosynthesis and Degradation of Amino Acids
Abstract
Introduction
Metabolism of Dietary and Endogenous Proteins
Amino acid Degradation
Metabolism of the Carbon Skeletons of Amino Acids
Biosynthesis of Amino Acids
Inherited Diseases of Amino Acid Metabolism
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 16. Biosynthesis and Degradation of Nucleotides
Abstract Introduction
Purine Metabolism
Pyrimidine Metabolism
Formation of Deoxynucleotides
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 17. Complex Carbohydrates: Glycoproteins
Abstract
Introduction
Structures and Linkages
Interconversions of Dietary Sugars
Other Pathways of Sugar Nucleotide Metabolism
Biosynthesis of Oligosaccharides
Functions of the Oligosaccharide Chains of Glycoproteins
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 18. Complex Lipids
Abstract
Introduction
Synthesis and Turnover of Glycerophospholipids
Sphingolipids
Lysosomal Storage Diseases Resulting from Defects in Glycolipid Degradation
ABO Blood Group Antigens
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 19. The Extracellular Matrix
Abstract
Introduction
Noncollagenous Proteins in The Extracellular Matrix
Proteoglycans
Communication of Cells With The Extracellular Matrix
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Section 4: Molecular Basis of Inheritance
Chapter 20. Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Abstract
Introduction
Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid
The Cell Cycle in Eukaryotes
Dna Replication
DNA Repair
Recombinant Dna Technology
Principles of Molecular Hybridization
Cloning of DNA
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 21. Ribonucleic Acid
Abstract
Introduction
Molecular Anatomy Of Ribonucleic Acid Molecules
Ribonucleic Acid Polymerases
Messenger Ribonucleic Acid: Transcription
Posttranscriptional Processing of Ribonucleic Acids
Selective Degradation or Inactivation of Mrna
Further Reading
Relevant Websites and Videos
Abbreviations
Chapter 22. Protein Synthesis and Turnover
Abstract
Introduction
The Genetic Code
The Machinery of Protein Synthesis
The Process of Protein Synthesis
Protein Folding and Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Stress
Protein Targeting and Posttranslational Modifications
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 23. Regulation of Gene Expression: Basic Mechanisms
Abstract
Introduction
Basic Mechanisms of Gene Expression
Steroid Receptors
Alternative Approaches to Gene Regulation in Humans
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
CRISPR
Abbreviations
Chapter 24. Genomics, Proteomics, and Metabolomics
Abstract
Introduction
Genomics
Proteomics
Metabolomics
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Section 5: Signalling and Growth
Chapter 25. Membrane Receptors and Signal Transduction
Abstract
Introduction
Types of Hormone and Monoamine Receptors
Receptor Coupling to Intracellular Signal Transduction
Second Messengers
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 26. Neurotransmi ers
Abstract
Introduction
Neurotransmission
Classes of Neurotransmitters
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 27. Biochemical Endocrinology
Abstract
Introduction
Hormones
Laboratory Assessment of Hormone Action
Causes of Endocrine Disease
The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland
Thyroid Function: The HYPOTHALAMO-Pituitary–Thyroid Axis
The HYPOTHALAMO–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis
The Hypothalamo–Pituitary–Gonadal Axis
The Growth Hormone Axis
The Prolactin Axis
Endocrine Systems not Considered in this Chapter
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
More Clinical Cases
Abbreviations
Chapter 28. Cellular Homeostasis: Cell Growth and Cancer
Abstract
Introduction
Cell Cycle
Regulation of Cell Proliferation and Growth: Growth Factors
Regulation of the Cell Cycle
Cell Death Cancer
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 29. Aging
Abstract
Introduction
Theories of Aging
Genetic Models of Increased Life span
Antiaging Interventions: What Works and What Doesn’t
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Section 6: Fuels Nutrients and Minerals
Chapter 30. Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients: The Gastrointestinal Tract
Abstract
Introduction
Water and Electrolyte Handling in the Gastrointestinal Tract
Components of Digestion
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Digestion and Absorption of Proteins
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 31. Glucose Homeostasis and Fuel Metabolism: Diabetes Mellitus
Abstract
Introduction
Glucose Homeostasis
Glucagon and other Antiinsulin Hormones
Incretin Hormones
The Feed–Fast Cycle
Diabetes Mellitus
Hypoglycemia
Laboratory Assessment of Fuel Metabolism
Treating Diabetes
Summary
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Abbreviations
Chapter 32. Nutrients and Diets
Abstract
Introduction
Main Classes of Nutrients
Essential Nutrients
Role of the Adipose Tissue in Controlling Energy Balance
Regulation of Food Intake
Nutrigenomics
