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MARINE PROTECTED AREAS SCIENCE,POLICYAND MANAGEMENT Editedby
JOHN HUMPHREYS
InstituteofMarineSciences UniversityofPortsmouth UnitedKingdom;
SouthernInshoreFisheriesandConservationAuthority
Poole,UnitedKingdom
ROBERT W.E.CLARK
SouthernInshoreFisheriesandConservationAuthority
Poole,UnitedKingdom
Elsevier
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To DavidandKate & KimberandLyndon Contributors TundiAgardy SoundSeas,Bethesda,MD, UnitedStates
SophyAllen NaturalEngland,SterlingHouse, Dix’sField,Exeter,Devon,UnitedKingdom
DavidAllen Allen & MellonEnvironmental Ltd,Belfast,UnitedKingdom
ColinG.Attwood DepartmentofBiological Sciences,MarineResearchInstitute,University ofCapeTown,CapeTown,WesternCape, SouthAfrica
FernandaBalata CenterforCoastalEconomies, NewEconomicsFoundation,London,United Kingdom
AlexN.Banks NaturalEngland,SterlingHouse, Dix’sField,Exeter,Devon,UnitedKingdom
M.Bedington PlymouthMarineLaboratory, Plymouth,UnitedKingdom
FrancisBinney StatesofJersey,Departmentof theEnvironment,Trinity,Jersey
SarahE.Birchenough SouthernInshoreFisheries & ConservationAuthority,Poole,United Kingdom;SchoolofOceanandEarthScience, UniversityofSouthampton,Southampton, UnitedKingdom
JulieBlack JointNatureConservationCommittee,InverdeeHouse,Aberdeen,United Kingdom
SamanthaBlampied SocieteJersiaise,Marine BiologySection,St.Helier,Jersey
IanBond IndustryNatureConservationAssociation,Redcar,NorthYorkshire,United Kingdom
JessicaBone CentreforConservationEcology andEnvironmentalSustainability,Department ofLifeandEnvironmentalSciences,Facultyof ScienceandTechnology,BournemouthUniversity,Poole,Dorset,UnitedKingdom
FionaBowles WessexWater,Bath,United Kingdom
GeorgeM.Branch DepartmentofBiological Sciences,MarineResearchInstitute,University ofCapeTown,CapeTown,WesternCape, SouthAfrica
SusanBurton NaturalEngland,Dorchester, Dorset,UnitedKingdom
RichardW.G.Caldow NaturalEngland,SterlingHouse,Dix’sField,Exeter,Devon,United Kingdom
AlexJ.Caveen RSStandards,Belfast,United Kingdom
PaulChambers StatesofJersey,Departmentof theEnvironment,Trinity,Jersey
I.Chapman DepartmentofLife & EnvironmentalSciences,BournemouthUniversity, Poole,UnitedKingdom
RobertW.E.Clark SouthernInshoreFisheriesand ConservationAuthority,Poole,UnitedKingdom
J.R.Clark PlymouthMarineLaboratory,Plymouth,UnitedKingdom
KenCollins OceanandEarthScience,UniversityofSouthampton,NationalOceanographyCentre,Southampton,UK
LauraH.Crossley SchoolofGeographyand EnvironmentalScience,UniversityofSouthampton,Southampton,UnitedKingdom
IanW.Croudace GAU-Radioanalytical,UniversityofSouthampton,NationalOceanography Centre,Southampton,UnitedKingdom
TerenceP.Dawson DepartmentofGeography, SchoolofGlobalAffairs,King’sCollege London,London,UK
JohnA.Dearing SchoolofGeographyand EnvironmentalScience,UniversityofSouthampton,Southampton,UnitedKingdom
ChantelledeGruchy StatesofJersey,DepartmentoftheEnvironment,Trinity,Jersey
KalliDeMeyer Nature2,Bonaire,Dutch Caribbean
IanDurbach DepartmentofStatisticalSciences, CentreforStatisticsinEcology,Environment, andConservation,UniversityofCapeTown, CapeTown,WesternCape,SouthAfrica; AfricanInstituteforMathematicalSciences, CapeTown,WesternCape,SouthAfrica
SophieElliott MuseumNationald’Histoire Naturelle(MNHN),StationMarinedeDinard, Dinard,France
KenFindlay CPUTResearchChair:Oceans Economy,CapePeninsulaUniversityofTechnology,CapeTown,WesternCape,South Africa
StephenFletcher UNEnvironmentWorld ConservationMonitoringCentre,Cambridge, UnitedKingdom
PauloA.C.Flores AnhatomirimEPA,Chico MendesInstituteforConservationandBiodiversity(ICMBio/MMA),Florianópolis,Santa Catarina,Brazil
DanielJ.Franklin DepartmentofLifeand EnvironmentalSciences,FacultyofScienceand Technology,BournemouthUniversity,Talbot Campus,Poole,UnitedKingdom
TimFrayling NaturalEngland,SterlingHouse, Dix’sField,Exeter,Devon,UnitedKingdom
J.D.Goss-Custard LifeandEnvironmentalSciences,BournemouthUniversity,FernBarrow, Poole,UnitedKingdom
S.M.Grant BritishAntarcticSurvey,Natural EnvironmentResearchCouncil,Cambridge, UnitedKingdom
VictoriaJaneGravestock SouthernInshore FisheriesandConservationAuthority,Poole, Dorset,UnitedKingdom
JeanM.Harris InstituteforCoastalandMarine Research,NelsonMandelaUniversity,Port Elizabeth,EasternCape,SouthAfrica;WILDTRUST,Hilton,KwaZulu-Natal,SouthAfrica
AndrewHarwood ECONEcologicalConsultancyLtd,Norwich,Norfolk,United Kingdom
RogerJ.H.Herbert CentreforConservation EcologyandEnvironmentalSustainability, DepartmentofLifeandEnvironmentalSciences, FacultyofScienceandTechnology,Bournemouth University,Poole,Dorset,UnitedKingdom
AmyHill SeniorSolicitor,ChapmanTripp, Christchurch,NewZealand
KeithHiscock MarineBiologicalAssociationof theUK,Plymouth,UnitedKingdom
MalcolmD.Hudson CentreforEnvironmental Science,SchoolofGeographyandEnvironmentalScience,UniversityofSouthampton, Southampton,UnitedKingdom
StephenHull ABPmer,Southampton,United Kingdom
JohnHumphreys InstituteofMarineSciences,UniversityofPortsmouth,United Kingdom;SouthernInshoreFisheriesand ConservationAuthority,Poole,United Kingdom
RobertA.Irving Sea-ScopeMarineEnvironmentalConsultants,Dulverton,Somerset,UK
SimonJCripps DorsetWildlifeTrust,BrooklandsFarm,Forston,Dorset,UnitedKingdom
GarethJeffreys SocieteJersiaise,MarineBiologySection,St.Helier,Jersey
MagnusL.Johnson SchoolofEnvironmental Sciences,UniversityofHull,Hull,United Kingdom
IntiKeith CharlesDarwinResearchStation, CharlesDarwinFoundation,PuertoAyora, Galapagos,Ecuador
MelKershaw NaturalEngland,SterlingHouse, Dix’sField,Exeter,Devon,UnitedKingdom
PeterLangdon SchoolofGeographyandEnvironmentalScience,UniversityofSouthampton, Southampton,UnitedKingdom
DurwynLiley FootprintEcology,ForestOffice, Wareham,Dorset,UnitedKingdom
AmandaT.Lombard InstituteforCoastaland MarineResearch,NelsonMandelaUniversity, PortElizabeth,EasternCape,SouthAfrica
HeitorS.Macedo AnhatomirimEPA,Chico MendesInstituteforConservationandBiodiversity(ICMBio/MMA),Florianópolis, SantaCatarina,Brazil;CenterforStudiesin FisheriesSystemsandMarineProtectedAreas, CenterofSeaStudies,FederalUniversityof Paraná NESPAMP/CEM/UFPR,Pontaldo Sul,Paraná,Brazil
DuncanMacRae CoastalZoneManagement (UK),Fortrose,UnitedKingdom
JudyMann-Lang OceanographicResearch Institute,SouthAfricanAssociationforMarine BiologicalResearch,Durban,KwaZulu-Natal, SouthAfrica
BruceQ.Mann OceanographicResearchInstitute,SouthAfricanAssociationforMarine BiologicalResearch,Durban,KwaZulu-Natal, SouthAfrica
HeikeMarkus-Michalczyk NIOZRoyalNetherlandsInstituteforSeaResearch,Department ofEstuarineandDeltaSystems,andUtrecht University,Yerseke,TheNetherlands
NeilMcCulloch NorthernIrelandEnvironment Agency,Belfast,UnitedKingdom
KevinMcIlwee SocieteJersiaise,MarineBiologySection,St.Helier,Jersey
RodrigoP.Medeiros CenterforStudiesin FisheriesSystemsandMarineProtectedAreas, CenterofSeaStudies,FederalUniversityof Paraná NESPAMP/CEM/UFPR,Pontaldo Sul,Paraná,Brazil
S.B.Mitchell SchoolofCivilEngineeringand Surveying,UniversityofPortsmouth,Portsmouth,UK
GregMorel StatesofJersey,Departmentofthe Environment,Trinity,Jersey
ThomasMullier MarineMapping,Exeter,UK
MatthewMurphy NaturalResourcesWales, Bangor,Wales,UnitedKingdom
RosieNicoll SouthernInshoreFisheriesand ConservationAuthority,Poole,Dorset,United Kingdom
PatrickE.Osborne CentreforEnvironmental Science,SchoolofGeographyandEnvironmentalScience,UniversityofSouthampton, Southampton,UnitedKingdom
MiaPantzar InstituteforEuropeanEnvironmentalPolicy(IEEP),London,UnitedKingdom
SimonPengelly SouthernInshoreFisheries & ConservationAuthority,Poole,United Kingdom
MartinR.Perrow ECONEcologicalConsultancyLtd,Norwich,Norfolk,United Kingdom
D.A.Purdie OceanandEarthScience,National OceanographyCentreSouthampton,UniversityofSouthamptonWaterfrontCampus, Southampton,UnitedKingdom
AliceS.J.Puritz-Evans PlanningAssociate, CMSUK,Sheffield,UnitedKingdom
DaleP.Rodmell NationalFederationofFishermen ’sOrganisations,York,UnitedKingdom
KathrynRoss CentreforConservationEcology andEnvironmentalSustainability,Department ofLifeandEnvironmentalSciences,Facultyof ScienceandTechnology,BournemouthUniversity,Poole,Dorset,UnitedKingdom;British TrustforOrnithology,TheNunnery,Thetford, Norfolk,UnitedKingdom;ToiOhomaiInstituteofTechnology,MokoiaDrive,Tihiotonga, Rotorua,NewZealand
HelenRowell NaturalEngland,SterlingHouse, Dix’sField,Exeter,Devon,UnitedKingdom
DanielaRussi InstituteforEuropeanEnvironmentalPolicy,London,UnitedKingdom
JessicaM.Savage GlobalSustainableDevelopment,SchoolforCrossFacultyStudies,UniversityofWarwick,Coventry,Warwickshire, UnitedKingdom
DavidSear SchoolofGeographyandEnvironmentalScience,UniversityofSouthampton, Southampton,UnitedKingdom
EmmaSheehan UniversityofPlymouth, Plymouth,UK
Jean-LucSolandt MarineConservationSociety, Ross-on-Wye,UK
WalterSteenbock CenterforFisheriesResearch andManagement(CEPSUL),ChicoMendes InstituteforConservationandBiodiversity (ICMBio/MMA),Itajaí,SantaCatarina,Brazil
RichardA.Stillman LifeandEnvironmental Sciences,BournemouthUniversity,FernBarrow,Poole,UnitedKingdom
PhilTaylor TheOpenSeasTrust,Pitlochry, UnitedKingdom
AnnThornton ConservationScienceGroup, DepartmentofZoology,UniversityofCambridge,TheDavidAttenboroughBuilding, Cambridge,UnitedKingdom;Departmentof LifeandEnvironmentalSciences,Facultyof ScienceandTechnology,BournemouthUniversity,TalbotCampus,Poole,UnitedKingdom
PeterTinsley DorsetWildlifeTrust,Dorset, UnitedKingdom
R.Torres PlymouthMarineLaboratory,Plymouth,UnitedKingdom
P.N.Trathan BritishAntarcticSurvey,Natural EnvironmentResearchCouncil,Cambridge, UnitedKingdom
R.J.Uncles PlymouthMarineLaboratory,Plymouth,UnitedKingdom
NickUnderdown TheOpenSeasTrust, Pitlochry,UnitedKingdom
DuncanVaughan NaturalEngland,Peterborough,UnitedKingdom
TalwynWhetter SchoolofGeography,Birkbeck College,UniversityofLondon,Bloomsbury, London,UnitedKingdom
A.Willcocks DepartmentofLife & EnvironmentalSciences,BournemouthUniversity, Poole,UnitedKingdom
ChrisWilliams CenterforCoastalEconomies, NewEconomicsFoundation,London,United Kingdom
IlkaWin JointNatureConservationCommittee,InverdeeHouse,Aberdeen,United Kingdom
LewisYates Birmingham,UnitedKingdom
Foreword:Progresstowardsthe conservationandsustainableuseof theoceans:targetsandchallenges StephenFletcher
UNEnvironmentWorldConservationMonitoringCentre,Cambridge,UnitedKingdom
Introduction Itiswidelyrecognizedthattheoceanis facingunprecedentedpressurefromacombinationofincreaseddemandforliving andnon-livingresourcesandclimatedrivenlarge-scaletemperatureandchemical shifts.Thesearecausingsignificantchanges tooceanecosystemsandincreasingthe vulnerabilityofhumancommunitiesthat dependupontheocean.Eventhedeepocean inareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction,which hashistoricallybeenprotectedbyitsremoteness,isaffectedbythesechanges.Thepressingneedtoacttoaddresstheseglobal changeswascapturedbyBanKi-moonin 2016,whenhestatedthat ‘itisclearthaturgentactiononaglobalscaleisneededtoprotecttheworld’soceansfromthemany pressurestheyface’ (UN,2016).Thereare globaltargetsinplacefortheconservation andsustainableuseoftheocean,most notablywithintheAichiBiodiversityTargets andSustainableDevelopmentGoals,which aredrivingaction.Aparticularfocusofthese targetsistheproportionoftheoceancovered bymarineprotectedareas,whichisusedasa measureofprotectionandsustainableuse. Thisshortforewordreviewsglobalprogress
towardskeyoceanarea-basedprotectiontargetsandre flectsonthevalueofarea-based targetsasameasureofconservation ambition.
Globaltargetsandprocesses Thetwomainarea-basedoceanconservationtargetsarisefromtheConventionon BiologicalDiversity’sStrategicPlanfor Biodiversity2011 20andtheUNSustainableDevelopmentGoals.
Aichibiodiversitytargets IntheStrategicPlanforBiodiversity2011 20,AichiBiodiversitytarget11isdefined as:
By2020,atleast17percentofterrestrialand inlandwater,and10percentofcoastaland marineareas,especiallyareasofparticular importanceforbiodiversityandecosystemservices,areconservedthrougheffectivelyand equitablymanaged,ecologicallyrepresentative andwell-connectedsystemsofprotectedareas andothereffectivearea-basedconservation measures,andintegratedintothewiderlandscapesandseascapes.
Thistargetismulti-facetedandcontains quantitativeandqualitativeelements.The quantitativeelementseeksmarineprotected areacoverageof10%ofcoastalandmarine areasby2020.Inquantitativeterms,initially thetargetappearstobestraightforward, althoughformanyithascreatedambiguity overthedefinitionof ‘coastalandmarine’ . Forinstance,if ‘coastalandmarine’ is definedastheglobalocean,thenthetarget isfarmorechallengingthanoceanlocated withinnationaljurisdiction.Thequalitative elementsposemoredifficulties,asthey specifythatthe10%coveragemustbe ‘of particularimportanceforbiodiversityand ecosystemservices’,be ‘effectivelyandequitablymanaged’,be ‘ecologicallyrepresentative’ andpartofa ‘wellconnectedsystems ofprotectedareasandothereffectiveareabasedconservationmeasures’ (Reesetal., 2018).Proofoftheachievementofallqualitativeelementsoftarget11islikelytobedifficulttoobtain,whichmayresultintarget11 provingdifficulttounequivocallyclaimsuccessagainst.Itispossibletoimagineascenarioinwhichthequantitativecoverage targetismet,butthereisdisagreement overtheextenttowhichthequalitative criteriaaremet.
Aparticularfocusofdebateisthemeaningof ‘othereffectivearea-basedconservationmeasures’ (OECM).Todate,the contributionoftheseareastoAichitarget 11hasbeenunder-reportedduetothe absenceofclearguidelinesastowhatconstitutesOECM.However,in2018,theIUCN WorldCommissiononProtectedAreasissuedguidelinesdefiningOECMsas ‘ a geographicallydefinedspace,notrecognized asaprotectedarea,whichisgovernedand managedoverthelong-terminwaysthat delivertheeffectivein-situconservationof biodiversity,withassociatedecosystemservicesandculturalandspiritualvalues’ (IUCNWCPA,2018).Forexample,fully
protectedshipwreckscanqualifyasOECMs astheydeliverin-situbiodiversityconservationbene fitsdespitetheirprimarymotivebeingheritageconservation.Theguidelinesgo ontostatethat ‘thedistinguishingcriterionis thatprotectedareasshouldhaveaprimary conservationobjective,whereasanOECM shoulddelivertheeffectivein-situconservationofbiodiversity,regardlessofitsobjectives’ (IUCNWCPA,2018).Theagreed definitionofOECMswillenablemanyareas notcurrentlyconsideredasmarineprotected areastocontributetoAichiTarget11.
Sustainabledevelopmentgoals The17SustainableDevelopmentGoals wereadoptedaspartofthe2030Agenda forSustainableDevelopmentinSeptember 2015.TheGoalsrecognizethat ‘ending povertyandotherdeprivationsmustgo hand-in-handwithstrategiesthatimprove healthandeducation,reduceinequality, andspureconomicgrowth allwhiletacklingclimatechangeandworkingtopreserve ouroceansandforests’ (UN,onlinea).As such,thegoalsareallinterconnectedand dependentuponpartnershipsbetweencountries,businesses,NGOs,andcitizens.SustainableDevelopmentGoal14 ‘LifeBelow Water’ speci ficallyfocusesontheocean, withtheoverallgoalto ‘conserveandsustainablyusetheoceans,seasandmarineresourcesforsustainabledevelopment’ (UN, onlinea).Target14.5requiresthat:
‘By2020,conserveatleast10%ofcoastaland marineareas,consistentwithnationalandinternationallawandbasedonthebestavailablescientificinformation’ whichwillbemeasuredby ‘coverageofprotectedareasinrelationtomarine areas ’ (UN,onlineb).
Thequantitativeelementoftarget14.5is intentionallyalignedwithAichiTarget11, asdemonstratedbythecoveragetargets
andenddatesforbothbeingthesame.Criticallyhowever,Target14.5issimplerthan AichiTarget11,inthatitdeclaresaquantitativetargetandspecifiesthatprotectedareas mustbelegalandevidence-basedbutincludesnoneoftheotherqualitativeelements presentinAichiTarget11.Theachievement ofTarget14.5willthereforebeeasierto provethanAichiTarget11.
Conservationofbiodiversityinareas beyondnationaljurisdiction Inadditiontotheglobalarea-basedtargets,theotherkeyprocesstoenhanceglobal oceanconservationisthe ‘Intergovernmental ConferenceonaninternationallegallybindinginstrumentundertheUnitedNations ConventionontheLawoftheSeaonthe conservationandsustainableuseofmarine biologicaldiversityofareasbeyondnational jurisdiction’.Thisisacriticallyimportant process,asareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction aresignificantforbiodiversity,yetatpresent havefragmentedgovernancearrangements whichunderminetheirlimitedprotection. TheconferencewasinitiatedbyUNGeneral Assemblyresolution72/249andisexploring theformulationofanewlegalinstrumentto coverthefollowingtopicsinareasbeyond nationaljurisdiction:
• marinegeneticresources,includingquestionsonbene fit-sharing;
• environmentalimpactassessments;
• measuressuchasarea-basedmanagementtools,includingmarineprotected areas;and
• capacitybuildingandmarinetechnology transfer.
Theoutcomeofthisconferencehasthe potentialtomakedramaticchangestoocean conservation.Mostnotably,atpresent,there areveryfewmarineprotectedareasinareas beyondnationaljurisdictionasthecurrent
legalframeworkmakestheirdesignation difficult.Theintroductionofanewlegalinstrumentwiththepowertodesignatemarineprotectedareasinareasbeyond nationaljurisdictionislikelytocreatea step-changeintheoceanconservationand unleashasuiteofnewmarineprotected areas.SubstantialworkhasalreadybeenundertakenbytheConventiononBiologicalDiversityandpartnerstoidentifyEcologically orBiologicallySigni ficantMarineAreas, includinginareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction.Whiletheseareashavenoformalprotectionstatus,theydoidentifyareas worthyofprotectionwhenalegalmeansis availabletodoso.
Performanceagainsttargets Thedesignationofmarineprotectedareas hasacceleratedrapidlysince2006whenonly justoveronly1%oftheglobaloceanwas protected.YetbyJanuary2019,over14,000 marineprotectedareashadbeendesignated globally,coveringover27millionkm2.This represents7.44%oftheglobalocean,orjust over17.4%ofcoastalandmarineareas withinnationaljurisdictionand1.18%of areasbeyondnationaljurisdiction.Thedesignationshavebeendrivenbytheexpansion ofexistingprotectedareasandthedesignationofnew,oftenverylarge,protectedareas. Forexample,theMaraeMoanaMarinePark intheCookIslandswasdesignatedin2017 covering1.97millionkm2.However,the largestsinglemarineprotectedareaisthe RossSeaRegionMarineProtectedArea, whichcovers2.06millionkm2.Thetrendtowardslargemarineprotectedareasmeans thatthe20largestmarineprotectedareas (ofthe14,000designated)togetheraccount forapproximately65%ofthetotalareaprotected.Manynationshavealsopledgedto increasetheirmarineprotectedarea
networks.Forexample,theUNOceanConferencein2017,whichfocusedongenerating politicalactiontodeliverSustainableDevelopmentGoal14,resultedinpledgestodesignateafurther17.6millionkm2 ofnew marineprotectedareas.Thetotaladditional areaofmarineprotectedareascurrently pledgedbynationsis26.7millionkm2, whichwhenformallydesignatedwilleffectivelydoublethecurrentmarineprotected areacoverage.
Fig.1 showstheglobaldistributionofmarineprotectedareas.Thismapshowsmarine protectedareasdesignatedbygovernments only.ItdoesnotincludeOECMsorpledged areas,nordoesitincludeanyconsideration ofthemanagementeffectivenessofthemarineprotectedareasdisplayed.
Themanagementeffectivenessofmarine protectedareasisacriticalandcontentious issueforbothdesignatedandpledgedsites. Itisacriticalissuebecauseineffectivemarine
protectedareaswillnotmeaningfully contributetoglobalconservationeffortsor targets.Itiscontentiousassomecommentatorssuggestthatineffectivemarineprotected areas(suchasthosewithoutmanagement plans)aredesignatedoutofpoliticalexpediencytobeseentocontributetoglobaltargets.Similaraccusationshavebeenmade towardsthedesignationoflargemarineprotectedareasaroundremoteislands,which arguablyfacecomparativelyfewpressures, butallownationstodemonstratesubstantial contributionstonationalandglobalconservationtargets.Themarineprotectedarea coveragetargetsarethereforenotstraightforwardandrequireconsiderableinterpretationinordertoobtainaclearpictureof progresstowardstheirachievement.However,thetargetdateof2020isfastapproaching andattentionisturningtowhatwillreplace thecurrentsystemoftargetdrivenmarine conservation.
FIG.1 Officialmapshowingglobaldistributionofmarineprotectedareas(UNEP-WCMCandIUCN,2019).
Post-2020biodiversityagenda TheStrategicPlanforBiodiversity2011 20,AichiBiodiversitytargets,andsome oftheSustainableDevelopmentGoaltargets (includingtarget14.5)expirein2020.In practicalterms,thismeansthatthe10%marineprotectedareatargetembeddedinboth Aichitarget11andSDGtarget14.5willbe replaced.Inbroadterms,theStrategicPlan forBiodiversity2011 20willbereplaced byanew ‘biodiversityframework’ thatwill contributetoachievingthe2050Visionof ‘Livinginharmonywithnature’ where ‘by 2050,biodiversityisvalued,conserved, restoredandwiselyused,maintaining ecosystemservices,sustainingahealthy planetanddeliveringbene fitsessentialfor allpeople’ (UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/X/2, 2010).
Therearestrongandcompetingviews aboutwhatshouldreplacethecurrent10% marineprotectedareatarget.Someviews focusontheneedtoincreasethecoverage target,withupto50%protectionadvocated bysome.However,anemergingconsensus amongstconservationbodiesappearstobe atargetof30%coverageofmarineprotected areasby2030.Incontrast,othersarguethat anycoveragetargetwillfailtorecognize theimportanceofmanagementeffectiveness andcarriestheriskofincentivizingpoliticallyexpedientdesignations.Atthetimeof writing,theapproachtobetakenbythe world’snationstomarineconservationfor
thenextdecaderemainsunclear.However, thedecisionstakenintheleadupto2020 willundoubtedlyfundamentallyin fluence theextenttowhichhumansocietycan respondtothechallengesfacingtheglobal ocean,whichwillhaveimplicationsfor everyone.
References IUCNWCPA,2018.GuidelinesforRecognisingand ReportingOtherEffectiveArea-BasedConservation Measures.IUCN,Switzerland.Version1. Rees,S.E.,Foster,N.L.,Langmead,O.,Pittman,S., Johnson,D.E.,2018.DefiningthequalitativeelementsofAichiBiodiversityTarget11withregardto themarineandcoastalenvironmentinorderto strengthenglobaleffortsformarinebiodiversity conservationoutlinedintheUnitedNations SustainableDevelopmentGoal14.MarinePolicy93, 241 250.ISSN0308-597X. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.marpol.2017.05.016
UN,2016.WorldOceanAssessment. http://www. worldoceanassessment.org.
UN,Online,a.SustainableDevelopmentGoals. https:// Sustainabledevelopment.Un.Org/Sdgs.
UN,Online,b.SustainableDevelopmentGoal14. https://Sustainabledevelopment.Un.Org/Sdg14.
UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/X/2,October29,2010.The StrategicPlanforBiodiversity2011-2020andthe AichiBiodiversityTargets.ConferenceoftheParties totheConventiononBiologicalDiversity.Tenth MeetingNagoya,Japan,18-29October2010Agenda Item4.4.
UNEP-WCMCandIUCN,February2019.MarineProtectedPlanet[On-Line].UNEP-WCMCandIUCN, Cambridge,UK.Availableat: www.protectedplanet. net
Preface Ifaskedtocaricaturethepolicyandmanagementofmarineprotectedareas(MPAs) wewouldbeinclinedtodrawaspectrum withthreeoverlappingzonesofactivity.On themanagementendarethousandsofpractitionerstryinghardtoimplementeffective MPAs,oftensucceedingdespiteinadequate resources.Attheotherendareawiderange ofglobalandregionaltechnocratsinintergovernmentalorganisations,andNGOlobbyistsjostlingforpositionorinfluenceinthe policyprocesseswhichdeterminewhat MPAsreallyareaboutandwhatproportion oftheseashouldbeprotectedbythem.Inthe middlearethegovernmentsofsovereign statesdesperatelytryingtoachievetargets thattheysigneduptoasaresultofagreat internationalcongress,withoutalienatingtoo manyoftheircitizensonewayortheother. Allalongthespectrumscientistsarebusy. Sometimesactingstrictlyasscientists,but oftenalsolobbyingordirectlyengagedinthe policyormanagementprocessesaswell. Occasionallyarepresentativeofotherinterests(mostoften fishing)isspotted,but these ‘stakeholders’ aremoreoftenfoundoffspectrum,exertingtheirinfluencelocallyin consultationexercisesand ‘co-management’ committees,orformorepowerfulplayers,in thecorridorsofpower.Onandaroundour spectrumweassumealloftheactorsare intelligent,committedandactingingood faith,buttheyalsohavedifferingperspectivesandthedecisionsreachedarealmost alwayscontentiousandessentiallypolitical. Yetlikealltheenvironmentalissuesofthe Anthropoceneepoch,theresultsarecrucial
forbiodiversity,ecosystemsandhuman welfare.
Inthisbookwehavesoughttocapturea rangeofperspectivesandconclusions throughthecontributionsofpeopledirectly involvedinthescience,policyandmanagementofmarineprotectedareas.Thebookis farfromuncritical.Inadditiontoanalysesof thecausesofsuccessauthorsalsoelucidate challenges,frustrations,failuresandcritiques.Indoingsotheyprovideinformed insightswithimplicationsforthefutureof marineprotectedareas.
Geographicalperspectivesincludeboth neriticandoceanicrealmsandrangeacross thePacific,Indian,AtlanticandSouthern Oceansystems.Neverthelesscommonissues andthemesemerge.Manychaptersdemonstratehowthoseprofessionallyinvolvedwith MPAsmustroutinelyactacrossourthree eponymousdisciplines.Consequentlywe mustasktheforgivenessofauthorsforshoehorningtheirworkintooneorotherofthe booksthreeparts,whentheircontribution spanstwoorevenallofthem.Toorganize thebookwehaveasaruleofthumblocated contributionsonsinglesitesinthemanagementsection,howeverforreasonswhichwe hopethereaderwillappreciatewehavenot beenentirelyconsistentwiththisapproach.
Withinourthreepartswehavearranged chapterswhichareobviouslyrelatedinsome waynexttoeachinthesequence.Thisis mostconspicuousinthesciencepartof thebookinwhichweclusterfourchapters (35 38)whichdealwithaspectsofthe eutrophicationofaheavilyprotected
estuarineMPAinsouthernEngland.Infact thelastoftheseisnotscientificincharacter butobviouslybelongswiththeotherthree. ThisclusterexemplifiestheextremepermeabilityofMPAboundariestoextraneous causesofenvironmentaldegradation,and howMPAmanagementmustoftenrelyon conservationeffortsmanagedthroughother distinctinitiatives.
Attheendofthebookweoffera final chapterwithsomesuggestionsonhow
aspectsofscience,policyandmanagement coulddeveloptoenhancetheutilityofMPAs inmarineconservation.Thischapterisnot synopticinanysenseandrepresentsonly whatweaseditorshavetakenfromthe processofcreatingthebook.Assuchwhileit doesnotrepresenttheviewsofourauthorsit isinformedbythewiderangeofgeographicalandprofessionalperspectivesthatthey soablyexemplify.
Acknowledgements Theinitiativeforthisbookcamefroma conferenceinPoole,UKattheeasternendof the ‘JurassicCoast’ WorldHeritageSiteand overlookingalargemulti-designationMPA. Theconferencewasheldunderthejoint auspicesoftheEstuarine & CoastalSciences AssociationandthePooleHarbourStudy Group.Wearegratefultoourcolleagueson theconferenceorganizingcommittee,especiallyDrAliceHall,andallwhocontributed. ThanksalsotoourmajorconferencesponsorsincludingNaturalEngland,theEnvironmentAgency,BournemouthUniversity, PooleHarbourCommissioners,Dorset WildlifeTrustandtheSouthernInshore Fisheries & ConservationAuthority(SIFCA).
Wemustalsothankallthemembers (technicalandpolitical)ofthestatutoryauthority(SIFCA)webothserve.Thereisno
doubtthatthediverseperspectivesandwell informeddeliberationsofthesemembers haveprofoundlyinformedourownknowledgeoftherealitiesofMPAscience,policy andmanagement.Similarlywethankthe commercial fishersandotherstakeholders ontheEnglishsouthcoastwhohavealso provideduswithmanyinvaluableinsights, notleastGaryWordsworthofOthnielOysterswhoseanalysisweborrowedinour concludingchapter.
AtElsevierwethankEmilyThompsonfor projectmanagingthebooksoeffectively, LouisaMunroourcommissioningeditorand DivyaKrishnaKumarourProductionProject Manager.
Aboveallwewishtothankallour authors.
Listofabbreviations AA Averageaccuracy
AAS Acetylsalicylicacid
ABLM Adaptativebilinearmodeling
ABS Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
ADSI Angulardomainspectroscopicimaging
AE Automaticemulation
AEB Automatedendmembersbundles
AFM Atomicforcemicroscopy
AGAPE AutomaticGaussianprocessemulator
AGM AutomatedGaussianmodel
AIS AirborneImagingSpectrometer
ALA Averageleafangleinclination
ALI Advancedlandimager
ALLUT Adaptativelinearizedlookuptrees
ALS Alternatingleastsquares
ALS Airbornelaserscanning
AM Additivemanufacturing
AMD Age-relatedmaculardegeneration
AMOGAPE Automaticmulti-outputGaussianprocessemulator
ANC Abundancenon-negativityconstraint
ANFO Ammoniumnitratefueloil
ANN Artificialneuralnetworks
ANOVA AnalysisofVariance
AO Artery-only
AOTF Acousto-optictunable filter
AP Attributeprofiles
API Activeprincipalingredient
ARI Anthocyaninreflectanceindex
ARVI Atmosphericallyresistantvegetationindex
ASC Abundancesum-to-oneconstraint
ASCA Anova-Simultaneouscomponentanalysis
AsLS Assymetricleastsquares
ATM Automatictellermachine
ATR Attenuatedtotalreflection
AUC Areaunderthecurve
AVIRIS Airbonevisibleinfraredimagingspectrometer
BCM Betacompositionalmodel
BF Bilateral filter
BGS Brilliantgreensulfa
BIL Bandinterleavedbylineformat
BIP Bandinterleavedbypixelformat
BP-ANN Backpropagationartificialneuralnetworks
BPT Binarypartitiontree
BRDF Bi-directionalreflectancedistributionfunction
BSQ Bandsequentialformat
BSS Blindsourceseparation
BTF Bilateraltexture filter
C&DW Constructionanddemolitionwaste
CALIC Context-basedAdaptativelosslessimagecodec
CAR Carotenoidcontent
CARS Coherentanti-stokesRamanscattering
CBD Conventiononbiologicaldiversity
Cbr Brownpigmentscontent
CCD Charge-coupleddevice
CD Chlorophylldensityperunitarea
CFU Colonyformingunits
CGH Computer-generatedhologram
CH CulturalHeritage
Chl Leafchlorophyllcontent
CHM Canopiheightmodel
CI Chemicalimaging
CI Coniferindex
CI Chlorophyllindex
CLS Classicalleastsquares
CLSM Confocallaserscanningmicroscopy
CLSU Constrainedleastsquaresunmixing
Cm Drymattercontent
CMOS Complementarymetaloxidesemiconductor
CPU CentralProcessingUnit
CRI Carotenoidreflectanceindex
CRISM CompactreconnaissanceimagingspectrometeronMars
CRISTAL Comprehensivereflectanceinversionbasedonspectrummatchingandtablelookup
CRM ConfocalRamanmicroscopy
CS Componentsubstitution
CS Hydroxypropyltrimoniumchitosan
CTIS Computedtomographicimagingspectroscopy
CV Crossvalidation
Cw Watercontent
CWL Ceterwavelength
DBH Diameteratbreastheight
DCT Discretecosinetransform
DEM Digitalelevationmodel
DFC Datafusioncontest
DI Deionized
DLP Digitallightprocessing
DMD Multispectraldigitalmicroscope
DMD Digitalmicro-mirror
DR Dimensionalityreduction
DSM Digitalsurfacemodel
DTC Deterministictrainingconditional
DTD Directtrilineardecomposition
DTRF Domaintransformrecursive filter
DVI Differencevegetationindex
DWT Discretewavelettransform
EAP Extendedattributeprofile
EBV Essentialbiodiversityvariables
ECOC ErrorCorrectingOutputCoding
EDP EdgeDirectionPrediction
EEA Endmemberextractionalgorithm
EEM Excitation-emission fluorescencemeasurements
ELMM Extendedlinearmixingmodel
ELS Extendedleastsquares
EMAP Extendedmulti-attributeprofile
EMCCD Electronmultiplyingcharge-coupleddevice
EMSC Extendedmultiplicativescattercorrection
EO Earthobservation
EOS Earthobservingsystem
EPF Edge-preserving filtering/features
EPO Externalparameterorthogonalization
ERGAS ErreurGlobaleAdimensionnelledeSynthèse
ERMES Earthobservationmodelbasedriceinformationservice
EVI Enhancedvegetationindex
EWT Equivalentwaterthickness
FAB Fastidiousanaerobebroth
FAD Favinadeninedinucleotide
fAPAR fractionofabsorbedphotosyntheticallyactiveradiation
FCLSU Fullyconstrainedleastsquaresunmixing
FCM FuzzyC-Means
FDN Fisherdiscriminantnullspace
FFS Forwardfeatureselection
FITC Fullyindependenttrainingconditional
FLEX Fluorescenceexplorer
FORS FiberOpticsReflectanceSpectroscopy
FOV Fieldofview
FPA Focalplanearray
FPGA Fieldprogrammegatearrays
FR-KNN Featuresrankingknearestneighbors
FSIW-EFA/FSW-EFA Fixedsizeimagewindow-evolvingfactoranalysis
FTIR/FT-IR Fouriertransforminfrared
FT-NIR Fouriertransfernearinfrared
FVC Fractionalvegetationcover
FWHM Filterwidthathalfmaximum
GBM Gradientboostedmachine
GC MS Gaschromatographymassspectrometry
GCP Groundcontrolpoints
GF Guided filter
GFP Green fluorescentprotein
GFPO Guided filteringbasedprobabilityoptimization
GFR Glomerular filtrationrate
GHG Greenhousegasses
GI GreenIndex
GLCM Gray-levelco-occurrencematrix
GLP GeneralizedLaplacianpyramid
GLS Generalizedleastsquares
GMES Globalmonitoringforenvironmentandsecurity
GNDVI Greennormalizeddifferencevegetationindex
GP Gaussianprocess
GPR Gaussianprocessregression
GPU Graphicsprocessingunits
GRSS GeoscienceandRemoteSensingSociety
GS Gram-Schmidt
GSA Gram-Schmidtadaptative
GSD
Groupsampledistance
GSR Gunshotresidues
GT GroundTruth
GUI Graphicaluserinterface
HCA Hierarchicalclusteranalysis
HDPE Highdensitypolyethylene
HEM Hemorrhagicshock
HGF Hierarchicalguidance filteringbasedensembleclassifier
HIPPS High-impactpolystyrene
HiRISE
HighresolutionImagingscienceexperiment
HNC Headandneckcancer
HPC
HPLC
High-performancecomputing
Highperformanceliquidchromatography
HPM Highpassmodulation
HQNR
HS/HSI
Hybridqualitywithoutnoreference
Hyperspectralimaging
HSM Hyperspectralmacroscope
HSR Higherspectralresolution
HSV Hue-Saturation-value
HYDICE
HyspIRI
HyTES
Hyperspectraldigitalimagerycollectionexperiment
Hyperspectralinfraredimager
Hyperspectralthermalemissionspectrometer
IASI Infraredatmosphericsoundinginterferometer
ICA Independentcomponentanalysis
ICCD Intensifiedcharge-coupleddevice
ICE Iteratedconstrainedendmembers
ICM Intrinsiccoregionalizationmodel
IEEE Instituteofelectricalandelectronicsengineers
IFOV Instantaneous fieldofview
IFRF Imagefusionandrecursive filteringmethod
IGBP Internationalgeospherebiosphereprogramme
ILS Inverseleastsquares
IPCC Internationalpanelonclimatechange
IPVI Infraredpercentagevegetationindex
IQI Internalqualityindex
IR Infrared
IRR InfraredReflectography
ITC Individualtreecrown
JGP JointGaussianprocess
JPEG2000
JointPhotographicExpertsGroup
JPG-LS JointPhotographicExpertsGroup-Lossless
KL Kullback-Leiblerdivergence
KLT Karhunen-Loèvetransform
kNN/k-NN knearestneighbors
KPCA Kernel-Principalcomponentanalysis
KS Kaposi’ ssarcoma
KSFA KeySetFactorAnalysis
LAB Lacticacidbacteria
LAI Leafareaindex
LB Lysogenybroth
LC Liquidcrystal
LCTF Liquidcrystaltuneable filters
LDA Lineardiscriminantanalysis
LDPE Lowdensitypolyethylene
LED Lightemittingdiode
LFM Latentforcemodel
LHS Latinhypercubesampling
LIBS Laser-inducedbreakdownspectroscopy
LiDAR LightDetectionandRanging/LaserImaging,DetectionandRanging
LMA Leafmassperarea
LMC Linearmodelofcoregionalization
LMM Linearmixturemodel
LOCO-I Low-ComplexityLosslessCompressionforImages
LOF Lackof fit
LOO leave-one-out
LPF Low-pass filter
LPN Laparoscopicpartialnephrectomy
LPVQ Localoptimalpartitionedvectorquantization
LS-SVM Leastsquaressupportvectormachine
LSU Localspectralunmixing
LTI Lineartime-invariant
LUT Look-uptable
LV Latentvariable
LWIR Longwaveinfraredregion
M/SVQ Mean/shapevectorquantization
MA MaximumAngle
MATLAB Matrixlaboratory
MA-XRF-SR Synchrotron-basedmacroX-ray fluorescence
MBW Marker-basedwatershed
M-CALIC VariationofCALICalgorithm
MCARI Modifiedchlorophyllabsorptioninreflectance
MCR Multivariatecurveresolution
MCR-ALS Multivariatecurveresolution-Alternatingleastsquares
MCR-WALS Multivariatecurveresolution-Weightedalternatingleastsquares
MDC Multispectraldigitalcolposcopy
MERIS Mediumresolutionimagingspectrometer
MESMA Multipleendmemberspectralmixtureanalysis
MGM ModifiedGaussianmodel
MHSI Medicalhyperspectralimaging
MI Mutualinformation
MIA MultivariateImageAnalysis
MIR Midinfrared/Middleinfrared
MLE MaximumLikelihoodEstimator
MLR Multiplelinearregression
MLRA Machinelearningregressionalgorithm
MMPs Matrixbymatrixmetalloproteinases
MNDVI Modifiednormalizeddifferencevegetationindex
mNDVI705 Modifiedred-edgenormalizeddifferencevegetationindex
MNF Minimumnoisefraction
M-NVQ Mean-normalizedVectorQuantization
MODIS Moderateresolutionimagingspectroradiometers
MOF Metal-organicframework
MP Macularpigment
MRA Multi-resolutionanalysis
MS Massspectrometry
MS/MSI Multispectralimaging
MSAVI Modifiedsoil-adjustedvegetationindex
MSC Multiplicativescattercorrection
MSE Meansquareerror
mSR Modifiedrededgesimpleratioindex
MTF Modulationtransferfunction
MTF-GLP
MTF-GLP-HPM
Modulationtransferfunction-generalizedLaplacianpyramid
Modulationtransferfunction-generalizedLaplacianpyramid-highpassmodulation
MTVI Modifiedtriangularvegetationindex
MVE Minimumvolumeellipsoid
NADH Nicotinamideadeninedinucleotide
NB Narrowband
NCM Normalcompositionalmodel
NDSI Normalizeddifferencesnowindex
NDVI Normalizeddifferencevegetationindex
N-FINDR Endmember finder
NIMS Nearinfraredmappingspectrometer
NIR Nearinfrared
NLSU Nonlinearspectralunmixing
NMF Non-negativematrixfactorization
NMR Nuclearmagneticresonance
NMSE Normalizedmeansquarederror
N-PLS Multiwaypartialleastsquares
NPs Nanoparticles
OA Overallaccuracy
OLS Orthogonalleastsquares
ONH Opticnervehead
OPA Orthogonalprojectionapproach
OPD Opticalpathdifference
OPN Openpartialnephrectomy
OPR Orthogonalpolarizedreflectance
OSAVI Optimizationofsoil-adjustedvegetationindex
OTF Opticaltransferfunction
OTFP On-the-fly-processing
PAD Peripheralarterialdisease
PAN Panchromatic
PARAFAC Parallelfactoranalysis
PAT Processanalyticaltechnologies
PC Principalcomponent
PC Polycarbonate
PCA Principalcomponentanalysis
PCA-LDA Principalcomponentanalysis-Lineardiscriminantanalysis
PCB Printedcircuitboards
PCR Principalcomponentregression
PCR Polymerasechainreaction
PCs Principalcomponents
PCS Principalcomponentsubstitution
PCS Pointcloudsegmentation
PEFF Paraffin-embeddedformalin-fixed
PEG Polyethyleneglycol
PET Positronemissiontomography
PET Polyethyleneterephthalate
PGP Prismgratingprism
PGPR Plantgrowthpromotingrhizobacteria
PITC Partiallyindependenttrainingconditional
PLGA Poly(DL-lactide-co-glycolide)
PLMM Perturbedlinearmixingmodel
PLS/PLSR/PLS-R Partialleastsquares
PLS-DA Partialleastsquares-discriminantanalysis
PP Polypropylene
PPI PixelPurityIndex
PPR Plantpigmentratio
PRI Photochemicalreflectanceindex
PRISMA Hyperspectralprecursorandapplicationmission
PRR Photochemicalreflectanceratio
PS Polystyrene
PSRI Plantsenescencereflectanceindex
PT Peaktransmission
PVC Polyvinylchloride
QbD Qualitybydesign
QDA Quadraticdiscriminantanalysis
QLM Quadraticlinearmodel
QNR Qualitywithoutnoreference
QS Quorumsensing
QUAC Quickatmosphericcorrection
rAP reducedattributeprofiles
RAS reflectionabsorptionspectroscopy
RBF Radialbasisfunction
RDVI Renormalizeddifferencevegetationindex
REI Rededgeindex
REIP Rededgeinflectionpoint
RELAB Reflectanceexperimentlaboratory
RENDVI Narrowbandrededgenormalizeddifferencevegetationindex
RF Randomforest
RFP Red fluorescentprotein
RGB RedGreenBlue
RGF Rollingguided filter
RGRI Redgreenratioindex
RH Relativehumidity
RMSE Rootmeansquareerror
ROC Receiveroperatingcharacteristics
RoF Rotationforest
ROI/RoI Regionofinterest
RoRF Rotationrandomforest
rPCA robustprincipalcomponentanalysis
RR ResonanceRaman
RRS ResonanceRamanscattering
RTM Radiativetransfermodels
RVM Relevancevectormachine
RVSI Red-edgevegetationstress
S/N Signal-to-noise
SAD Spectralangledistance
SAM Spectralanglemapper
SAR Syntheticapertureradar
SAVI Soil-adjustedvegetationindex
SCA Snowcoverarea
SCC Squamouscellcarcinoma
SCF Snowcoverfraction
SCLSU Scaledconstrainedleastsquaresunmixing
SE Structuringelement
SE Standarderror
SEBASS Spatially-enhancedbroadbandarrayspectrographsystem
SEL Standarderroroflaboratory
SEM Scanningelectronmicroscope
SERRS SurfaceenhancedresonanceRamanscattering
SERS SurfaceenhancedRamanspectroscopy
SFFS SequentialForwardFloatingSelection
SFG Sum-frequencygeneration
SFIM Smoothing filter-basedintensitymodulation
SGI Sumgreenindex
SI Spruceindex
SID Spectralinformationdivergence
SIF Solar-inducechlorophyll fluorescence
SIMCA SoftIndependentModellingofClassAnalogy
SIMPLISMA SIMPLe-to-useInteractiveSelf-modelingMixtureAnalysis
SIMS Secondaryionmassspectrometry
SIPI Structureinsensitivepigmentindex
SISAL SplitaugmentedLagrangian
SLSQ Spectralorientedleastsquares
SMIRR ShuttleMultispectralInfraredRadiometer
SNR Signal-to-noiseratio
SNV Standardnormalvariate
SOC Soilorganiccarbon
SoD Subsetofdata
SOM Soilorganicmatter
SoRs Subsetofregressors
SPAD Soilandplantanalyzerdevelopment
SPARC SPectrabARraxCampaign
SPECK SetPartitionedEmbeddedbloCKCoder
SPIHT SetPartitioninginHierarchicalTrees
SPOT-VGT Satellitepourl’observationdelaterre-vegetation
SRVI Simpleratiovegetationindex
SSA Singlescatteringalbedo
SSC Solublesolidcontent
SSGP SparsespectrumGaussianprocess
SU Spectralunmixing
SVH Spectralvariationhypothesis
SVM Supportvectorsmachine
SVR Supportvectorsregression
SWIR Shortwaveinfrared
TCARI Transformedchlorophyllabsorptioninreflectanceindex
TDI Timedelayintegration
TH Tungstenhalogen
TMW Namederivedbyauthors(TemerandTischer)
TNT 2,4,6trinitrotoluene
TOA Topofatmosphere
TSB TryptoneSoyBroth
TVB-N Volatilebasicnitrogen
TVC Totalviablecount
UAV Unmannedaerialvehicle
UI UltrasoundImaging
UMGMC
UPGMA
Unweightedpairgroupmethodusingcentroids
Unweightedpairgroupmethodusingarithmeticaverages
USAF UnitedStatesAirForce
UV Ultraviolet
VARI
VCA
Visibleatmosphericallyresistantindex
Vertexcomponentanalysis
VIS Visible
Vis-NIR
Visible-Nearinfrared
VNIR Visible-Nearinfrared
VOG Vogelmannrededgeindex
VQ Vectorquantization
WBC Whitebloodcell
WBI Waterbandindex
WCRP Worldclimateresearchprogramme
WEEE Wastefromelectricandelectronicequipment
WLS Weightedleastsquares
WMGMC
XmCT
X-rayCT
XRD
XRF
Weightedpairgroupmethodusingcentroid
X-raycomputedmicrotomography
X-raycomputedtomography
X-raydiffraction
X-ray fluorescence
1 Acriticalhistoryofmarine protectedareas JohnHumphreys a, b,RobertW.E.Clarkb aInstituteofMarineSciences,UniversityofPortsmouth,Portsmouth,UnitedKingdom; bSouthernInshoreFisheriesandConservationAuthority,Poole,UnitedKingdom
Abstract
Althoughformsofmarineprotectedarea(MPA)haveexistedforthebestpartofacentury,thebeginningsofa modernglobalmovementcanbetracedtothe firstWorldCongressonNationalParksin1962.Howevernew impetuswasprovidedbytheinitiationin1976ofaprocesswhichdeliveredexclusiverightstosovereignstates overadjacentwatersupto200nmout.Thefollowingdecadesweremarkedbyagrowingbodyofscientific evidenceontheutilityofMPAsandacceleratingMPAdesignations.AftertheRio ‘EarthSummit’ in1992a globalMPAareatargetof10%wasestablished.Failuretoachievethisbythe2010deadlinewasfollowedby itsreplacementwith ‘Aichitarget11’ requiring10%coverageby2020.Sincethenacycleoftarget ‘gaming’ by sovereignstateshasnecessitatedrepeatedeffortstotightenMPAtechnicalrequirements.Atechnocratically drivendialecticalstyleofinternationalpolicydevelopmenthasputincreasingemphasisonstrongermanagementandenforcementsolutions,withoutsufficientreflectiononthesocio-economicfactorswhichlie behindthegamingproblem.Proposalstoincreasetheareatargetto30%arequestionableuntilsuchtimeasa moreconsideredroleforMPAsisestablishedwithinacomprehensiveglobalconservationstrategyapplying to100%ofthemarineenvironment.
Keywords:
AichiTarget11;HistoryofMPAs;MarineProtectedAreas;MPAs;MPAPolicy.
DevelopmentofMPApolicyandextent Akeyeventinthemodernglobalimpetusformarineprotectedareas(MPAs)wasthethird UnitedNationsConferenceontheLawoftheSea(UNCLOS)whichranfrom1976to1982. AlthoughUNCLOSincludedclearstatementsonmarineenvironmentalprotection,itsmain impactwastoformaliseagrowinginclinationtoextendnationaljurisdictionsfromathree milebandofcoastalwaterstoa200nauticalmile ‘ExclusiveEconomicZone’ (EEZ)within whichmaritimenationshaveexclusiverightsovermarineresources.Althoughnotimmediatelyrati fied,theeffectwastocompleteatransitionfromtheseaasbelonginginprincipleto allnations(andthereforeinasensenone),toanarrangementwherebymuchofthecontinentalshelfcamewithinthepurviewofindividualstates.Thisinturnprovidedastrong
