Lawrie’s Meat Science
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Preface
Lawrie’s Meat Science constitutes a classical reference as a textbook in the meat world because it has been used by numerous generations of meat professionals since its first edition in 1966. The former eighth edition dates back to 2017 and the contents were spread throughout 22 chapters. The knowledge on meat science has progressed rapidly in the recent years; therefore, an updated compilation of the recent developments was needed by meat scientists. This new ninth edition of the book is arranged as an edited book as was the previous eighth edition and also keeping the textbook format, with a compilation of 23 chapters with new approaches, combining updated revised chapters with new ones dealing with the sustainability of animal production and meat processing, and the future meat market, especially regarding the trends in consumption of processed meats partly replaced by plant- or insect-based proteins, cultured meat, organic meat, and pandemic planning for the meat industry.
The main goal of this book is to provide the reader with a comprehensive resource, covering the wide field of meat science and including leading-edge technologies (i.e., nanotechnology and novel preservation technologies) and techniques (i.e., proteomics, genomics, and metabolomics). The book brings together all the advances in the production of animals, the structure and composition of the muscle, its conversion into meat, the different technologies adopted for preservation and storage, the eating and nutritional quality, meat safety, traceability and authenticity, sustainability, and future trends through the production systems, processing industry, and distribution until reaching the consumer.
I sincerely hope that readers will find this book interesting as the intention is to provide them with useful information. The book is written by a select group of the most experienced and distinguished international contributors, and I wish to thank all of them for their dedication and good job because without them this book would not have been possible. I also thank the production team at Woodhead Publishing, especially Mrs. Judith Clarisse Punzalan (Editorial Production Manager) and Mr. Surya Jayachandran (Production Manager) for their dedication during the preparation and elaboration of the chapters and during the publication of the book.
Fidel Toldrá Editor
Contributors
Numbers in parenthesis indicate the pages on which the authors’ contributions begin.
D.U. Ahn (245), Animal Science Department, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
Lopa Basu (707), University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
Luis Calvo (105), Quality, R&D and Environment Department, Industrias Cárnicas Loriente Piqueras S.A., Cuenca, Spain
Marie-Christine Champomier-Vergès (195), Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Jouy-en-Josas, France
Marilena E. Dasenaki (591), Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Per Ertbjerg (393), Department of Food and Nutrition, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Cameron Faustman (363), Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
X. Feng (245), Nutrition, Food Science and Packaging Department, San Jose State University, San Jose, CA, United States
Mónica Flores (421), Department of Food Science, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (CSIC), Valencia, Spain
Luca Fontanesi (627), Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
Kerri B. Gehring (687), Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
David E. Gerrard (159), Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, United States
Benjamin W.B. Holman (727), Centre for Red Meat and Sheep Development, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Cowra, NSW, Australia
David L. Hopkins (393), NSW Department of Primary Industries, Centre for Red Meat and Sheep Development, Cowra, NSW, Australia
Dacheng Kang (799), College of Life Sciences, Linyi University, Linyi, Shandong, China
Joe P. Kerry (315), School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, Food Packaging Group, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Anastasia S. Kritikou (591), Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Alexandra Lianou (549), Division of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, Department of Biology, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
Clemente López-Bote (105), Animal Production Department, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Sulaiman K. Matarneh (159), Department of Nutrition, Dietetics and Food Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT, United States
Mark McGee (21), Livestock Science Department, Teagasc, Animal & Grassland Research and Innovation Centre, Grange, Dunsany, County Meath, Ireland
A. Mendonca (245), Food Science and Human Nutrition Department, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
Rhonda K. Miller (509), Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
Aidan P. Moloney (21), Animal and Bioscience Department, Teagasc, Animal & Grassland Research and Innovation Centre, Grange, Dunsany, County Meath, Ireland
George-John E. Nychas (549), Laboratory of Microbiology and Biotechnology of Foods, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Herbert W. Ockerman (707), Department of Animal Sciences, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
Efstathios Z. Panagou (549), Laboratory of Microbiology and Biotechnology of Foods, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Eric N. Ponnampalam (727), Animal Production Sciences, Agriculture Victoria Research, Department of Jobs, Precincts and Regions, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
Peter P. Purslow (51), Department of Food Technology and Tandil Centre for Veterinary Investigation (CIVETAN), National University of Central Buenos Aires Province, Argentina
Ranjith Ramanathan (363), Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
Jeffrey W. Savell (1), Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
Tracy L. Scheffler (159), Department of Animal Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
Surendranath P. Suman (363), Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
Nikolaos S. Thomaidis (591), Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Fidel Toldrá (281, 707), Department of Food Science, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (CSIC), Valencia, Spain
Contributors
Andrey A. Tyuftin (315), School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, Food Packaging Group, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Robyn Dorothy Warner (457), Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Science, Melbourne University, Parkville, VIC, Australia
Jeffrey D. Wood (665), School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, England, United Kingdom
Youling L. Xiong (219), Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
Monique Zagorec (195), Oniris, INRAE, SECALIM, Nantes, France
Wangang Zhang (799), College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
Chapter 1 Introduction
Jeffrey W. Savell Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
Meat science is a discipline that requires a complete understanding of the complexities of antemortem and postmortem factors that impact the final product for the consumer. Subsequent chapters in this book will delve into these factors more deeply, but an overview of some of the background and current issues related to meat production is an important starting point for this journey.
1.1 Meat and muscle
The basic definition of meat is the flesh of animals used for food. For the most part and for most societies, meat comes from domesticated livestock with the primary species being cattle, hogs, and sheep. Although skeletal muscle makes up the greatest proportion of the products produced and consumed, various organs and other offal items are important food components for many nations and often contribute greatly to the export markets for those countries that produce more than what can be consumed domestically.
One example of a technical definition of meat can be found at U.S. Department of Agriculture (2016a):
Meat. (1) The part of the muscle of any cattle, sheep, swine, or goats which is skeletal or which is found in the tongue, diaphragm, heart, or esophagus, with or without the accompanying and overlying fat, and the portions of bone (in bone-in product such as T-bone or porterhouse steak), skin, sinew, nerve, and blood vessels which normally accompany the muscle tissue and that are not separated from it in the process of dressing. As applied to products of equines, this term has a comparable meaning.
1. Meat does not include the muscle found in the lips, snout, or ears.
2. Meat may not include significant portions of bone, including hard bone and related components, such as bone marrow, or any amount of brain, trigeminal ganglia, spinal cord, or dorsal root ganglia.
Regulatory authorities within governments must define what constitutes “meat” for its citizens to ensure proper labeling and prevention of adulteration, and it is
Lawrie’s Meat Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85408-5.00021-2
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expected that this definition will vary from country to country. This definition from the United States has been updated since the occurrence of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in the mid-1980s as reflected by the reference to the absence of items now considered as “specified risk material” (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2016b).
1.2 Meat from other animals
Throughout the world, there are many other animals used for primary or secondary sources of meat for consumption. The buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is an important source of draft power, milk, meat, and hides in many Asian countries, with the greatest numbers present in India, China, Pakistan, and Nepal (Nanda and Nakao, 2003). Desert camels (Camelus dromedarius), in addition to their historic use as a transporter, their drought tolerance, and their ability to adapt to harsh arid and semiarid zones, provide food for parts of Africa (Kurtu, 2004; Yousif and Babiker, 1989) and the Middle East (Elgasim and Alkanhal, 1992; Kadim et al., 2006).
The goat (Capra aegagrus hircus) is a great contributor to the development of rural zones and people (Dubeuf et al., 2004) and historically has been a great source of meat, milk, fiber, and skin. Dubeuf et al. (2004) stated that goats are found on all continents, with the greatest numbers being in Asia (especially China and India), Africa (especially Nigeria and Ethiopia), Europe (especially Greece and Spain), and the Americas (especially Mexico and Brazil). For species such as goats, sometimes meat production is secondary to that of milk or fiber, which often diminishes the value of meat in the marketplace.
The horse (Equus ferus caballus) is used as a source of human food in some cultures, with the majority of horse meat production/importation occurring in Asia and Western Europe (Gill, 2005). Gill (2005) also stated that the Western European countries with the greatest amounts of horse meat produced, exported, and/or imported were Italy, Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. Gade (1976) stated that the acceptance of horse meat in France as a food item for humans would be one of the few documented cases of a change in attitude from aversion to that of acceptance and was probably driven by food-shortage crises of the past.
For many years, the United States slaughtered horses with most of the morevalued cuts destined for Western Europe and the less-valued cuts remaining for use in pet food manufacturing or use in zoos. In 2005, the first successful attempt by the US Congress to find a way to stop horse slaughter was through an act that prevented federal monies from being used to pay the salaries or expenses of inspectors. Even though this bill expired several years later, the US budget passed in early 2014 reinstated the ban on the use of federal monies for inspection of horse meat. Nonetheless, there are EU-approved horse slaughter facilities in Canada and Mexico that handle much of the volume of North American horses that are destined for slaughter.
Horse meat production and consumption were brought to international headlines when in 2013, in parts of Ireland and the United Kingdom, processed beef products were found to have been contaminated/adulterated with horse meat (Abbots and Coles, 2013). Regan et al. (2015), in a survey of the aftermath of this incident, found three factors that were related to how consumers assigned responsibility and blame for the adulteration: (1) the deliberately deceitful practices of the food industry, (2) the complexity of the food supply chain, and (3) the demand from (other) consumers for cheap food. Mislabeling/misbranding products, especially related to substituting lower-priced for higher-priced meats, can and do have serious regulatory consequences, but may, most importantly, erode consumer confidence and trust for the meat industry.
The domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) meat consumption is centered in the Mediterranean countries and is impacted by historical, economical, and social evolution (Dalle Zotte, 2002). Dalle Zotte and Szendro (2011) observed that rabbit meat could be used as a functional food (providing multiple health benefits including nutrition, well-being, and reduction of disease) because of how diet could be used to influence the fatty acid composition and vitamin content of the meat.
Exotic or game meat is one for which there are certain countries that have abundant wildlife where animals can be hunted in the traditional form or where animals can be farmed using the latest reproductive technologies, advanced nutrition schemes, and sanitary slaughter and cutting operations to provide meat through commerce. Hoffman and Cawthorn (2013) compared several species of wildlife to show the proximate composition of meat (principally from the M. longissimus thoracis et lumborum). As one would expect based on the overall leanness of these animals, Hoffman and Cawthorn (2013) found that the ungulates, African species, including the springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis), blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi), kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), and impala (Aepyceros melampus), and ungulates, cervidae, including red deer (Cervus elaphus), fallow deer (Dama dama), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) had protein contents from 19.3% to 23.6% and fat contents from 1.7% to 4.6% based on a raw weight basis. Hoffman and Wiklund (2006) stated that game meat and venison from southern Africa are increasingly being exported into Europe and the United States, and that how they are produced (wild, free range, or intensive production), harvested, the nutritional quality, and traceability are all factors that play a role into the consumer acceptance of this meat.
1.3 Domest ication of livestock
There are exciting technologies, such as mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, available to better understand how, when, and where livestock domestication occurred (Bruford et al., 2003). Bruford et al. (2003) stated that there are three principal areas of livestock domestication: (1) southwest Asia also known as the Fertile Crescent and toward the Indus Valley, (2) East Asia (China and countries
