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Lawrie’sMeatScience
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RelatedTitles
NewAspectsofMeatQuality (978-0-08-100593-4)
PoultryQualityEvaluation (978-0-08-100763-1)
AdvancesinAnimalWelfare (978-0-08-101215-4)
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Notices
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TypesetbyTNQBooksandJournals
3.14TheStructureofAdiposeTissues
3.15MuscleDevelopmentandGrowth
3.16MuscleDevelopmentinEmbryogenesisandPrenatal
4. ChemicalandBiochemicalConstitutionofMuscle ClementeLo ´ pez-Bote
4.1GeneralChemicalAspects
5. TheConversionofMuscletoMeat
SulaimanK.Matarneh,EricM.England,TracyL.Scheffler, DavidE.Gerrard
5.4TheFactorsControllingtheExtentofPostmortem
5.5AbnormalPostmortemMetabolism
5.6PreslaughterStress
5.7DevelopmentofMeatQualityAttributes
5.9AgingandProteolysis
6. MeatMicrobiologyandSpoilage
MoniqueZagorec,Marie-ChristineChampomier-Verge ` s
6.1Introduction
6.2OriginandDynamicsofMeatMicrobialContamination InvolvedinSpoilage
6.3MechanismsInvolvedinMeatBacterialSpoilage
6.4TheMainMicrobialContaminantsofMeatInvolvedin Spoilage
6.5TheMainSpoilageManifestationsandTheirMicrobial
6.6FutureTrends
7. TheStorageandPreservationofMeat:I Thermal Technologies YoulingL.Xiong 7.1Introduction
8. TheStorageandPreservationofMeat: II NonthermalTechnologies
DongU.Ahn,AubreyF.Mendonc¸a,XiFeng
8.1Introduction
9. TheStorageandPreservationofMeat:III Meat Processing
10. StorageandPreservationofRawMeat andMuscle-BasedFoodProducts:IVStorage andPackaging
JoeP.Kerry,AndreyA.Tyuftin
11. TheEatingQualityofMeat:I Color
CameronFaustman,SurendranathP.Suman
12. TheEatingQualityofMeat:II Tenderness
DavidL.Hopkins
13. TheEatingQualityofMeat:III Flavor Mo
13.1AromaandTasteCompounds
13.3MethodologyforMeatAromaVolatileIdentification
13.4Pre-andPostslaughterFactorsAffectingAroma
13.5Off-Flavors
13.6MeatProductFlavor
13.7ConclusionsandFutureTrends
14. TheEatingQualityofMeat IVWater-Holding CapacityandJuiciness
RobynD.Warner
14.3StructuralInfluencesontheWater-HoldingCapacity ofUncooked(Raw)Meat
14.4FactorsInfluencingWater-HoldingCapacityinRaw
14.5ChangesinWater-HoldingCapacityDuringCooking ofRawMeat
14.6Juiciness InfluencingFactorsandInteractionsWith Water-HoldingCapacity
14.7FactorsInfluencingWater-HoldingCapacityofMeat
14.8MethodstoMeasureWater-HoldingCapacityand Juiciness
15. TheEatingQualityofMeat:V SensoryEvaluation ofMeat
RhondaK.Miller
15.1Introduction
15.2WhySensoryEvaluationofMeatIsUnique
15.3OverviewofHowSensoryIsPerceivedandDefining SensoryAttributes
15.4SensoryControlsforMeat
15.5SensoryTechniques
15.6EmergingorUnderutilizedSensoryTechniques
15.7Conclusions
x Contents
16. PhenotypingofAnimalsandTheirMeat: ApplicationsofLow-PowerUltrasounds, Near-InfraredSpectroscopy,RamanSpectroscopy, andHyperspectralImaging
DonatoAndueza,Benoıˆt-PierreMourot, Jean-Franc¸oisHocquette,JacquesMourot
16.1Introduction
16.2PrinciplesoftheMainMethods
16.3ApplicationsinMeatQualityAssessment
16.4Conclusions
17. MeatSafety IFoodbornePathogensandOther BiologicalIssues
AlexandraLianou,EfstathiosZ.Panagou,George-JohnE.Nychas 17.1Introduction
17.2FoodborneIllnessesAssociatedWiththeConsumption ofMeatandMeatProducts
17.6Prions
17.7CurrentandEmergingChallengestoMeatSafety
18. MeatSafety:IIResiduesandContaminants
MarilenaE.Dasenaki,NikolaosS.Thomaidis 18.1Introduction
19. MeatAuthenticityandTraceability
LucaFontanesi
19.1GeneralOverview
19.2IntrinsicCharacteristicsoftheMeat
19.3ExtrinsicCharacteristicsoftheMeat
19.4ConclusionsandFutureTrends
20. MeatCompositionandNutritionalValue
JeffreyD.Wood
20.1Introduction
21. MeatandHealth
KerriB.Gehring
21.1Introduction:NutrientsSuppliedFromMeat
22. EdibleBy-products
HerbertW.Ockerman,LopaBasu,FidelToldra ´
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ListofContributors
DongU.Ahn,IowaStateUniversity,Ames,IA,UnitedStates
DonatoAndueza,INRA,UMR1213Herbivores,Saint-Gene ` s-Champanelle,France; ClermontUniversite ´ ,VetAgroSup,UMR1213Herbivores,Clermont-Ferrand, France
LopaBasu,UniversityofKentucky,Lexington,KY,UnitedStates
Marie-ChristineChampomier-Verge ` s,UMR1319,MICALIS,INRA,Universite ´ Paris-Saclay,Jouy-en-Josas,France
MarilenaE.Dasenaki,UniversityofAthens,Athens,Greece
EricM.England,TheOhioStateUniversity,Columbus,OH,UnitedStates
CameronFaustman,UniversityofConnecticut,Storrs,CT,UnitedStates
XiFeng,IowaStateUniversity,Ames,IA,UnitedStates
Mo ´ nicaFlores,InstitutodeAgroquı´micayTecnologı´adeAlimentos(CSIC),Valencia, Spain
LucaFontanesi,UniversityofBologna,Bologna,Italy
KerriB.Gehring,TexasA&MUniversity,CollegeStation,TX,UnitedStates; InternationalHACCPAlliance,CollegeStation,TX,UnitedStates
DavidE.Gerrard,VirginiaPolytechnicInstituteandStateUniversity,Blacksburg, VA,UnitedStates
Jean-Franc¸oisHocquette,INRA,UMR1213Herbivores,Saint-Gene ` s-Champanelle, France;ClermontUniversite ´ ,VetAgroSup,UMR1213Herbivores,ClermontFerrand,France
DavidL.Hopkins,CentreforRedMeatandSheepDevelopment,Cowra,NSW, Australia
JoeP.Kerry,UniversityCollegeCork,CorkCity,Ireland
AlexandraLianou,AgriculturalUniversityofAthens,Athens,Greece
ClementeLo ´ pez-Bote,UniversidadComplutensedeMadrid,Madrid,Spain
SulaimanK.Matarneh,VirginiaPolytechnicInstituteandStateUniversity, Blacksburg,VA,UnitedStates
MarkMcGee,Teagasc,Grange,Dunsany,Co.Meath,Ireland
AubreyF.Mendonc¸a,IowaStateUniversity,Ames,IA,UnitedStates
RhondaK.Miller,TexasA&MUniversity,CollegeStation,TX,UnitedStates
ListofContributors
AidanP.Moloney,Teagasc,Grange,Dunsany,Co.Meath,Ireland
Benoıˆt-PierreMourot,INRA,UMR1213Herbivores,Saint-Gene ` s-Champanelle, France;ClermontUniversite ´ ,VetAgroSup,UMR1213Herbivores,ClermontFerrand,France;Valorex,Combourtille ´ ,France
JacquesMourot,INRA,UMR1348PEGASE,St-Gilles,France;AgrocampusOuest, UMR1348PEGASE,Rennes,France
George-JohnE.Nychas,AgriculturalUniversityofAthens,Athens,Greece
HerbertW.Ockerman,OhioStateUniversity,Columbus,OH,UnitedStates
EfstathiosZ.Panagou,AgriculturalUniversityofAthens,Athens,Greece
PeterP.Purslow,NationalUniversityofCentralBuenosAiresProvince,Tandil, Argentina
JeffreyW.Savell,TexasA&MUniversity,CollegeStation,TX,UnitedStates
TracyL.Scheffler,UniversityofFlorida,Gainesville,FL,UnitedStates
SurendranathP.Suman,UniversityofKentucky,Lexington,KY,UnitedStates
NikolaosS.Thomaidis,UniversityofAthens,Athens,Greece
FidelToldra ´ ,InstitutodeAgroquı´micayTecnologı´adeAlimentos(CSIC),Valencia, Spain
AndreyA.Tyuftin,UniversityCollegeCork,CorkCity,Ireland
RobynD.Warner,MelbourneUniversity,Parkville,VIC,Australia
JeffreyD.Wood,UniversityofBristol,Bristol,UnitedKingdom
YoulingL.Xiong,UniversityofKentucky,Lexington,KY,UnitedStates
MoniqueZagorec,UMR1014SECALIM,INRA,Oniris,Nantes,France
Preface
WhenIwascontactedbythepublishertopreparetheeighthedition,myfirst thoughtswerefocusedontheenormousresponsibilitythatIwasassuming.Infact, andaftertalkingwithmanycolleagues,Ithinkthatmostofthemeatscientists worldwidehavelearnedaboutmeatwithanyoftheearliereditionsofLawrie’s MeatSciencebook.Thisisthetypeofbookthatmeatscientistsmusthaveonhand intheirpersonallibrary.Ipersonallylearnedalotaboutmeatsciencefrom thepreviouseditionsofthisbook.ThisiswhyIamsogratefultoProfessor RalstonLawrieforhisinitiativeinwritingthisnicebookandpublishingitsfirst editionin1966andthefollowingeditionsandalsotoProfessorDaveLedwardfor theworkdoneinupdatingandexpandingtherecenteditionsofthebook.
Themaingoalofthebookistoprovidethereaderwithacomprehensive resource,coveringthewidefieldofmeatscience.Thismeansfromtheproduction ofanimals,thestructureofthemuscle,itsconversionintomeat,thedifferent technologiesusedforpreservationandstorageandtheeatingandnutritional qualityandsafetyofmeatthroughtheprocessingindustryanddistributionuntil reachingtheconsumer.
Thebookincludesleading-edgetechnologies(i.e.,nanotechnology,novel preservationtechnologies)andtechniques(i.e.,proteomics,genomics,metabolomics)inchaptersnotonlyrelatedwithmeatquality,nutritionalvalue,and meatsafetybutalsoinotherrelevantissuessuchastraceabilityandauthenticity, whichhaveastrongdemandfromallsectorsinvolvedin“farmtofork”andhave beenthefocusofsomerecentscandalsnotonlyintheEuropeanUnionbutalso inotherareasoftheworld.
After50yearssincethebookwasfirstpublished,thiseightheditionisfacing newtimesandhasgotconsiderablechangesinrelationtothepreviouseditions. Themostrelevantchangethatyouwillimmediatelynoticeistheformatofthe bookthatisnowaneditedbookwithmultiauthoredchapters.Thismeansthat eachchapterisauthoredbywell-knownscientistshavinganexcellentexpertise ontherespectivetopic.Theseauthorshavecontributedtogetthechapters completelyrewrittenandupdated.Anotherrelevantchangeisthebreakdown intomorespecificchapters.Somechaptersremainwithsimilartitlesalthough substantiallyrevisedandupdatedincontent,suchastheintroduction,thefactors affectingthegrowthanddevelopmentofmeatanimals,thestructureandgrowth ofmuscle,thechemicalandbiochemicalconstitutionofmuscle,theconversion ofmuscletomeat,meatmicrobiologyandspoilage,andmeatcompositionand nutritionalvalue.Otherchaptershavebeencompletelychangedlikethesetof
chaptersonstorageandpreservationofmeat,whicharenowsplitintofour chapters:thermalandnonthermaltechnologies,processingandpackaging,and storage.Theeatingqualityofmeatissplitintosixchapters:color,tenderness, flavor,water-holdingcapacityandjuiciness,sensoryevaluation,andlatest technologiesforassessmentofquality.Therearetwonewchaptersundermeat safety:foodbornepathogensandotherbiologicalissues,andresiduesand contaminants.Finally,thebookalsoincludesnewchaptersontopicsofcurrent relevantinterestssuchasauthenticityandtraceability,edibleby-products,and meatandhealth.
Isincerelyhopethatreaderswillfindthisbookofinterestandproviding usefulinformation.Iwishtothankallthecontributorsfortheirhardworkand goodjobdonewiththedeliveredchaptersandmakingthisbookpossible. IalsowishtothanktheproductionteamatWoodheadPublishing,especially Mrs.KarenMiller,theEditorialProductionManager,LisaJones,theSenior ProjectManager,andMr.RobertSykes,theAcquisitionsEditor,fortheir dedicationduringthepreparationandelaborationofthechaptersandduringthe publicationofthisbook.
FidelToldra ´ Editor
Chapter1 Introduction
JeffreyW.Savell
TexasA&MUniversity,CollegeStation,TX,UnitedStates
Meatscienceisadisciplinethatrequiresacompleteunderstandingofthe complexitiesofantemortemandpostmortemfactorsthatimpactthefinal productfortheconsumer.Subsequentchaptersinthisbookwilldelveinto thesefactorsmoredeeply,butanoverviewofsomeofthebackgroundand currentissuesrelatedtomeatproductionisanimportantstartingpointforthis journey.
1.1MEATANDMUSCLE
Thebasicdefinitionofmeatisthefleshofanimalsusedforfood.Forthemost partandformostsocieties,meatcomesfromdomesticatedlivestockwiththe primaryspeciesbeingcattle,hogs,andsheep.Althoughskeletalmusclemakes upthegreatestproportionoftheproductsproducedandconsumed,various organsandotheroffalitemsareimportantfoodcomponentsformanynations andoftencontributegreatlytotheexportmarketsforthosecountriesthat producemorethanwhatcanbeconsumeddomestically.
Oneexampleofatechnicaldefinitionofmeatcanbefoundat U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture(2016a):
Meat.(1)Thepartofthemuscleofanycattle,sheep,swine,orgoatswhichis skeletalorwhichisfoundinthetongue,diaphragm,heart,oresophagus,withor withouttheaccompanyingandoverlyingfat,andtheportionsofbone(inbone-in productsuchasT-boneorporterhousesteak),skin,sinew,nerve,andblood vesselswhichnormallyaccompanythemuscletissueandthatarenotseparated fromitintheprocessofdressing.Asappliedtoproductsofequines,thistermhas acomparablemeaning.
1.Meatdoesnotincludethemusclefoundinthelips,snout,orears.
2.Meatmaynotincludesignificantportionsofbone,includinghardboneand relatedcomponents,suchasbonemarrow,oranyamountofbrain,trigeminal ganglia,spinalcord,ordorsalrootganglia. Lawrie’sMeatScience. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100694-8.00001-7
Regulatoryauthoritieswithingovernmentsmustdefinewhatconstitutes “meat”foritscitizensasawaytoensureproperlabelingandpreventionof adulteration,anditisexpectedthatthisdefinitionwillvaryfromcountryto country.ThisdefinitionfromtheUnitedStateshasbeenupdatedsincethe occurrenceofbovinespongiformencephalopathyinthemid-1980sasreflected bythereferencetotheabsenceofitemsnowconsideredas“specifiedrisk materials”(U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,2016b).
1.2MEATFROMOTHERANIMALS
Throughouttheworld,therearemanyotheranimalsusedforprimaryor secondarysourcesofmeatforconsumption.Thebuffalo(Bubalusbubalis)is animportantsourceofdraftpower,milk,meat,andhidesinmanyAsian countries,withthegreatestnumberspresentinIndia,China,Pakistan,and Nepal(NandaandNakao,2003).Desertcamels(Camelusdromedarius),in additiontotheirhistoricuseasatransporter,theirdroughttolerance,andtheir abilitytoadapttoharsharidandsemiaridzones,providefoodforpartsof Africa(Kurtu,2004;YousifandBabiker,1989)andtheMiddleEast(Elgasim andAlkanhal,1992;Kadimetal.,2006).
Thegoat(Capraaegagrushircus)isagreatcontributortothedevelopment ofruralzonesandpeople(Dubeufetal.,2004)andhistoricallyhasbeena greatsourceofmeat,milk,fiber,andskin. Dubeufetal.(2004) statedthat goatsarefoundonallcontinents,withthegreatestnumbersbeinglocatedin Asia(especiallyChinaandIndia),Africa(especiallyNigeriaandEthiopia), Europe(especiallyGreeceandSpain),andtheAmericas(especiallyMexico andBrazil).Forspeciessuchasgoats,sometimesmeatproductionissecondarytothatofmilkorfiber,whichoftendiminishesthevalueofmeatinthe marketplace.
Thehorse(Equusferuscaballus)isusedasasourceofhumanfoodin somecultures,withthemajorityofhorsemeatproduction/importation occurringinAsiaandWesternEurope(Gill,2005). Gill(2005) alsostatedthat theWesternEuropeancountrieswiththegreatestamountsofhorsemeat produced,exported,and/orimportedwereItaly,Belgium,France,andthe Netherlands. Gade(1976) statedthattheacceptanceofhorsemeatinFranceas afooditemforhumanswouldbeoneofthefewdocumentedcasesofachange inattitudefromaversiontothatofacceptanceandwasprobablydrivenby food-shortagecrisesofthepast.
Formanyyears,theUnitedStatesslaughteredhorseswiththemajorityof themorevaluedcutsdestinedforWesternEuropeandthelessvaluedcuts remainingforuseinpetfoodmanufacturingoruseinzoos.In2005,thefirst successfulattemptbytheUSCongresstofindawaytostophorseslaughter wasthroughanactthatpreventedfederalmoniesfrombeingusedtopaythe salariesorexpensesofinspectors.Eventhoughthisbillexpiredseveralyears later,theUSbudgetpassedinearly2014reinstatedthebanontheuseof
federalmoniesforinspectionofhorsemeat.Nonetheless,thereareEUapprovedhorseslaughterfacilitiesinCanadaandMexicothathandlemuch ofthevolumeofNorthAmericanhorsesthataredestinedforslaughter.
Horsemeatproductionandconsumptionwerebroughttointernational headlineswhenin2013,inpartsofIrelandandtheUnitedKingdom,processed beefproductswerefoundtohavebeencontaminated/adulteratedwithhorse meat(AbbotsandColes,2013). Reganetal.(2015),inasurveyofthe aftermathofthisincident,foundthreefactorsthatwererelatedtohow consumersassignedresponsibilityandblamefortheadulteration:(1)the deliberatelydeceitfulpracticesofthefoodindustry,(2)thecomplexityofthe foodsupplychain,and(3)thedemandfrom(other)consumersforcheapfood. Mislabeling/misbrandingproducts,especiallyrelatedtosubstitutinglower pricedforhigherpricedmeats,cananddohaveseriousregulatoryconsequences,butmaymostimportantly,erodeconsumerconfidenceandtrustfor themeatindustry.
Thedomesticrabbit(Oryctolaguscuniculus)meatconsumptioniscentered intheMediterraneancountriesandisimpactedbyhistorical,economical,and socialevolution(DalleZotte,2002).Rabbitcarcassesmaybesomeofthe smallest(from1.0to1.8kg)usedformeatproduction,butbecauseoftheir leanness(approximately3% 6%dissectiblefat)andoverallquality,theyare verydesirableforthemarketplace(DalleZotte,2002). DalleZotteand Szendro(2011) observedthatrabbitmeatcouldbeusedasafunctionalfood (providingmultiplehealthbenefitsincludingnutrition,well-being,and reductionofdisease)becauseofhowdietcouldbeusedtoinfluencethefatty acidcompositionandvitamincontentofthemeat.
Exoticorgamemeatisoneforwhichtherearecertaincountriesthathave abundantwildlifewhereanimalscanbehuntedinthetraditionalformor whereanimalscanbefarmedusingthelatestreproductivetechnologies, advancednutritionschemes,andsanitaryslaughterandcuttingoperationsto providemeatthroughcommerce. HoffmanandCawthorn(2013) compared severalspeciesofwildlifetoshowtheproximatecompositionofmeat(principallyfromthe M.longissimusthoracisetlumborum).Asonewouldexpect basedontheoverallleannessoftheseanimals, HoffmanandCawthorn(2013) foundthatmeatfromtheungulates,Africanspecies,includingthespringbok (Antidorcasmarsupialis),blesbok(Damaliscusdorcasphillipsi),kudu (Tragelaphusstrepsiceros)andimpala(Aepycerosmelampus),andungulates, cervidae,includingreddeer(Cervuselaphus),fallowdeer(Damadama),roe deer(Capreoluscapreolus),andreindeer(Rangifertarandus)hadprotein contentsfrom19.3%to23.6%andfatcontentsfrom1.7%to4.6%basedona rawweightbasis. HoffmanandWiklund(2006) statedthatgamemeatand venisonfromsouthernAfricaareincreasinglybeingexportedintoEuropeand theUnitedStates,andthathowtheyareproduced(wild,freerange,or intensiveproduction),harvested,thenutritionalquality,andtraceabilityareall factorsthatplayaroleintotheconsumeracceptanceofthismeat.
1.3DOMESTICATIONOFLIVESTOCK
Thereareexcitingtechnologies,suchasmitochondrialandnuclearDNA, availabletobetterunderstandhow,when,andwherelivestockdomestication occurred(Brufordetal.,2003). Brufordetal.(2003) statedthattherearethree principalareasoflivestockdomestication:(1)southwestAsiaalsoknownas theFertileCrescentandtowardtheIndusValley,(2)EastAsia(Chinaand countriessouthofChina),and(3)theAndeanchainofSouthAmerica.Species suchascattle,sheep,goats,pigs,andbuffaloweredomesticatedinthetwo Asianregions,whereastheSouthAmericanregioniswherellamasandalpacasweredomesticated(Brufordetal.,2003).Moststudiespointto domesticationoflivestocktohaveoccurredaround10,000yearsago.
Evidencetopointtowhendomesticationoccurredmostoftenfocusedon whenareductioninsizeoftheanimalwasobserved. Zeder(2008) statedthat thisreductioninsizemostlikelywasthedifferenceinthestrategiesbetween hunters,whowouldhavetargetedlargeanimalstomaximizetheirhunt,and herders,whowouldhaveslaughteredthefemales(smallerthantheirmale counterparts)attheendofthereproductivelifeandtheyoungermalesnot neededforherdpropagation. Zeder(2008) alsorevealedthatarcheological evidencerelatedtothesequenceandtimingoflongbonegrowthandthe determinationofsex-specificsubpopulationscanbeusedtogenerateharvest profilesformaleandfemaleanimalsthatarecapableofdistinguishing betweenthepreystrategiesofhuntersfromtheharveststrategiesofherders.
1.3.1Cattle
Thewildaurochsen(Bosprimigenius)weretheancestorsofmodern-daycattle withtwopossibledomesticationeventsoccurringinsouthwestAsia,which gaverisetothetaurine(Bostaurus)andzebuine(Bosindicus)cattle(Loftus etal.,1994). Ajmone-Marsanetal.(2010) statedthatthematernallineagesof taurinecattleoriginatedintheFertileCrescentwithapossiblecontributionof SouthEuropeanwild-cattlepopulations,andthatthezebucattleoriginated fromtheIndusValley.Domesticationofthesetwodifferenttypesofcattlehas allowedthemtobeusedinawidevarietyofenvironmentsthroughoutthe world,providingmeat,milk,hides,andlabortopromotethedevelopmentof thehumanpopulationoverthemillennia(Ajmone-Marsanetal.,2010).
InitialmigrationofcattlefromtheirdomesticationsitestoAfricaand Europeallowedformoredevelopmentovertimeandisthesubjectofmany studiesfollowingmitochondriaDNAhaplotypedistributionsasawayto evaluatewherethesubsequentdevelopmentoccurred(Achillietal.,2008; Ajmone-Marsanetal.,2010;Beja-Pereiraetal.,2006). Achillietal.(2008) showedthattheaurochseninNorthernorCentralEuropemayhavecontributedtoadditionalgeneflowtotheThaplogroups(B.taurus),andthatthe haplogroupQmayhavebeenacquiredfromadifferentpopulationof aurochsenthatrangedonlysouthoftheAlps(Achillietal.,2009).
ThedevelopmentofcattlethroughoutEurope,Africa,andAsiaoccurred forthousandsofyears,butwiththediscoveryandconquestoftheAmericas, cattleaccompaniedthehumanstotheNewWorld(Ajmone-Marsanetal., 2010)andsetinplacethedevelopmentofthecattleindustriesinNorthand SouthAmericathathavegrownintomajorbeef-producingregionsoverthe past500years. B.taurus cattlefromEuropeand B.indicus cattlefrom SouthwestAsiamadetheirwaytotheselandsatdifferenttimesandfor differentreasonsandevennewbreedsofcattle(e.g.,SantaGertrudis,Brangus, Beefmaster)weredevelopedbasedonplannedbreedingprogramsbetween thesetwospecies.Hundredsofbreedsofcattlearefoundaroundtheworld, eachknownforsomegrowth,quality,and/orcompositionfeaturewithsome usedinpurebreedingoraspartofplannedcrossbreedingoperationstoproduce beefforavariedmarketplace.
1.3.2Swine
Larsonetal.(2010) haveshown,usingbothgeneticandarchaeological piecesofevidence,thatpigsweredomesticatedinEastAsia.Thatsaid,the authorsalsobelievethatthemostcommonmoderndomestichaplotypes foundinCentralChinaalsoarethemostcommonAsianhaplotypesfound acrossEastAsia,inAustralianferalpigs,andinmodernEuropeanand Americanbreeds,whichoccurredmostlikelyduringthe18thcenturywhen AsianpigswereusedtoimprovetheEuropeanbreeds. Larsonetal.(2010) furtherstatedthatpigsweredisseminatedthroughouttheseregionsthrough humanmigrationaswellasthenaturalmigrationacrosslandbridgesinto variouscountries.
Ofgreatinterestinthedomesticationofswine(Susscrofa)istherole playedbythewildboarwhereatleasttwoEuropeanwildboarlineageshave beenfoundandthatthepossibilitythatotherwildboarlineagesalsomayhave beendomesticated(Larsonetal.,2005). Larsonetal.(2005) statedthateven thoughsomeofthewildprogenitorsofmanyoftheEurasiandomesticatesare eitherextinctorhavelittleornophylogeographicstructure,thedistributionof thesurvivingwildboargivesresearcherstheopportunitytodeterminethe originsofthecurrentdomesticlineages.
AnotherimportantissuerelatedtohowswineenteredEuropefromAsia wasthatitappearedthatatleasttwopathswerefollowed,oneanorthern route theDanubianCorridor whichfollowedtheDanubeandRhineRiver valleys,andtheothermorealongwithnorthernMediterraneanregion(Larson etal.,2005). Larsonetal.(2007) evaluatedancientDNArelatedtothe NeolithicexpansioninislandSoutheastAsiaandfoundthatthereweretwo separate,human-mediateddispersalsof Sus fromAsiaintothePacificanda thirdwithinWallacea(islandsbetweenBorneo,NewGuinea,andAustralia). ThesepigslikelyoriginatedinEastAsiaandwereintroducedtotheseareasas humansmigratedtothem.
Porkproductiontodayfeaturesmanydifferentbreedsorgeneticlines designedforspecificmarkets.Largecommercialfarms,manyofwhichare farrow-to-finishoperations,ensurethatsufficientnumbersofmarket-ready hogsareavailableforprocessingintofinishedgoods.Fromaminor contributionstandpoint,therearesomeheritagebreeds(e.g.,Mangalitsa,Red Wattle,GloucestershireOldSpot)thathavegainedinpopularityfromthose whowishtopreserveandpromotetheseanimals.
1.3.3Sheep
Itmaybethatthedomesticationofsheep(Ovisaries)wastheeasierofthe threemajorspeciesbecauseoftheirrelativesmallsizeandeaseofherding. Chessaetal.(2009) citingothersthatsheepwerethefirstspeciestobe domesticatedalsostatedthatalthoughsheepwererearedprimarilyformeat, duringthefifthmillenniumbeforepresent(B.P.)inSouthwestAsiaandthe fourthmillenniumB.P.inEurope,specializationforproductssuchaswool mayhavecausedareplacementofprimitivedomesticpopulationswiththose moresuitedforwoolproduction.
Hiendlederetal.(1998) evaluatedthemitochondrialDNAfromseveral sourcesofsheepfromEuropean,African,andAsianbreedsalongwith mouflon(Ovismusimon).Theauthorsidentifiedtwomajordomesticsheep mitochondrialDNAlineages,whichtheytermedEuropeanandAsianlineages, andwithinbranchesthatcontainedEuropeanmouflon(O.musimon).Itisof interestthatthereweretwodifferentlineagesincattle(B.taurus and B.indicus)andswine(Susvittatus and S.scrofa)thatgoalongwiththetheory oftwodifferentlineagesinsheep(Hiendlederetal.,1998).Finally,theauthors hypothesizedthatsomemoderndomesticsheepandEuropeanmouflonderive fromacommonancestorthatisnotfromtheurialandargaligroupsandhas notyetbeenidentified.
Chessaetal.(2009) usedretrovirusintegrationstostudythehistory ofsheepdomestication.Theauthorsfoundthattherewasasecondarypopulationexpansionofimproveddomesticsheep,whichweremostlikelyoutof SouthwestAsia.Thisfindingprovidedvaluableinsightsintothehistoryof pastoralistsocietiesthatinvolvedsheephusbandry.
Notallareinagreementaboutthenumberofdomesticationeventsfor sheep. Pedrosaetal.(2005) foundevidenceofanadditionalmaternallineage insheep,whichwouldthenmeanthattherewereatleastthreedomestication eventsforsheepratherthantheprevioustheoryofjusttwo(Hiendlederetal., 1998,2002).
Oncesheepwereexportedthroughouttheworld,theyplayedanimportant roleintheeconomicdevelopmentofsomanycountriesasimportantsources ofmeat,fiber,andmilk.Somesheepareraisedprimarilyfortheirmeatand someprimarilyfortheirwoolwithdifferentbreedsdevelopedtofitdifferent niches.Developmentofsyntheticfibersandtheuniqueflavoraspectsoflamb
meathavesomewhatdampenedthedemandforsheepoverthepasthalf century,butthesheepindustrycontinuestobeanimportantcomponentfor muchoftheworld.
1.4TRENDSANDDEVELOPMENTS
Fourspecificareasareincludedsothataquickoverviewcanbeprovided relatedtotrendsanddevelopmentsinmeatproduction,animalwelfare, sustainability,andkosherandhalal.
1.4.1MeatProduction
Meatproductionvariesaroundtheworldwithrespecttocountriesthatproduce themostmeat.Forbeefandveal(Table1.1),thetopfiveproducingcountries aretheUnitedStates,Brazil,EuropeanUnion,China,andIndia.Forpork (Table1.2),thetopthreeproducingcountriesareChina,EuropeanUnion,and
FromU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,ForeignAgriculturalService,2015. LivestockandPoultry:WorldMarketsandTrade.Availablefrom: http://apps.fas. usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/livestock_poultry.pdf
TABLE1.2 PorkProduction,SelectedCountriesSummary fortheYear2015
Country
1000MetricTons(Carcass WeightEquivalent)
China56,375
EuropeanUnion23,000
UnitedStates11,158
Brazil3451
Russia2630
Vietnam2450
Canada1840
Philippines1370
Mexico1335
Japan1270
SouthKorea1210
Others5369
Total111,458
FromU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,ForeignAgriculturalService,2015.LivestockandPoultry:WorldMarketsandTrade.Availablefrom: http://apps.fas.usda. gov/psdonline/circulars/livestock_poultry.pdf
theUnitedStates.WhatisremarkableaboutthesefiguresisthatChinaproducesalmosthalfoftheworld’ssupplyofpork.
Importsandexportsplayamajorroleintheeconomicviabilityofeach country.Importsmayprovideawaytobesurethattherearesufficient quantitiesofmeatofaparticularkindforacountry,whereasexportsmaybea waytoimprovethebalanceoftradeandincreasetherevenuelivestockproducers receive.Forbeefandveal(Table1.3),thetopfourimportingcountriesarethe UnitedStates,Japan,Russia,andChina,whereasthetopfourexporting countriesareIndia,Brazil,Australia,andtheUnitedStates.Forpork(Table1.4),thetopthreeimportingcountriesareJapan,Mexico,andChina, whereasthetopthreeexportingcountriesaretheEuropeanUnion,theUnited States,andCanada.
Forsheepmeat, Colby(2015) publishedinformationrelatedtotheglobal sheepmeatproduction,consumption,andexportbasedontheUnitedNations FoodandAgricultureOrganizationinformation.Thetopsheepmeat producing countriesin2013wereChina(24%),Australia(8%),NewZealand(5%),
TABLE1.3 BeefandVealImportsandExports,Selected CountriesSummaryfortheYear2015
Country
TotalImports
1000MetricTons(Carcass WeightEquivalent)
UnitedStates1559
Japan740
Russia700
China600
HongKong450
SouthKorea400
EuropeanUnion370
Canada290
Egypt270
Malaysia235
Chile200
Others1745
Totalimports7559
TotalExports
India2000
Australia1815
Brazil1625
UnitedStates1035
NewZealand590
Paraguay400
Canada375
Uruguay360
EuropeanUnion300
Mexico245
Argentina230
Others626
Totalexports9601
FromU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,ForeignAgriculturalService,2015. LivestockandPoultry:WorldMarketsandTrade.Availablefrom: http://apps.fas. usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/livestock_poultry.pdf
