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Prefacexxiii
Acknowledgmentsxxvii
About the Authorsxxxi
NFPA 1033 Correlation Matrixxxxii
Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) Gridxxxiv
Chapter 1 Introduction1
Fire Investigation2
The Fire Problem4
Fire Statistics in the United States4
Fire Statistics in the United Kingdom5
Role of the Fire Investigator in Accurately Reporting the Causes of Fires5
The Detection of Incendiary Fires6
Reporting Arson as a Crime6
Problems Associated with Estimating Incendiary Fires8
Scientifically Based Fire Investigation10
Comprehensive Methodologies for Fire Investigation10
The Scientific Approach to Fire Investigation11
Applying the Scientific Method11
Steps in the Scientific Method12
Levels of Confidence15
Legal Opinions Regarding Science in Investigation16
Chapter Review17
Review Questions17 References17
Chapter 2 The Elementary Chemistry of Combustion19
Elements, Atoms, and Compounds20
The Oxidation Reaction21
Carbon Compounds22
Other Elements22
Organic Compounds23
Hydrocarbons23
Petroleum Products25
Carbohydrates26
Pyrolysis of Organics28
Conclusions about Organic Compounds28
State of the Fuel28
Significance of State of Fuel29
Difficulty in Classifying Some Hydrocarbons29
Solids30
Liquids30
Chapter Review31
Summary31
Review Questions31
References31
Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Fire Behavior and Building Construction32
Basic Combustion33
Flaming Fire34
Structure of Flames36
Smoldering Fire38
Explosive Combustion41
Heat42
Heat and the Rate of Reaction42
Heat and Temperature43
Heat Release Rate43
Heat Transfer and Heat Flux45
Direct Flame Impingement50
Flame Plume51
Sequence of a Room Fire54
Beginning or Incipient Stage54
Growth, a Free-Burning Stage56
Fire Growth to Flashover56
Post-Flashover Stage61
Decay Stage62
Flow of Hot Gases63
Effects of Environmental Conditions65
Temperature65
Humidity66
Wetness of Fuel (Fuel Moisture Content)67
Wind68
Oxygen Content68
Elements of Building Construction69
Structural Shell69
Fire Resistance Ratings72
Internal Structure73
Chapter Review82
Summary82
Review Questions82 References82
Chapter 4 Combustion Properties of Liquid and Gaseous Fuels85
Types of Fuel86
Gases86
Liquids and Their Vapors86
Solids86
Physical Properties of Fuels87
Vapor Pressure87
Flammability (Explosive) Limits88
Flash Point91
Flame Point/Fire Point94
Ignition Temperature94
Ignition Energy97
Boiling Points98
Vapor Density99
Heat of Combustion104
Hydrocarbon Fuels104
Natural Gas104
Liquefied Petroleum Gas105
Petroleum106
Gasoline106
Kerosene and Other Distillates107
Diesel Fuel107
Lubricating Oils107
Specialty Petroleum Products108
Nonhydrocarbon Liquid Fuels108
Alcohols, Solvents, and Similar Nonhydrocarbons108
Alternative Fuels or Biofuels108
Combustion of Liquid Fuels109
Pyrolysis and Decomposition of Liquids112
Fuel Gas Sources112
Gas Lines112
Natural Gas113
LP Gas113
Chapter Review121
Summary121
Review Questions121
References121
Chapter 5 Combustion Properties of Solid Fuels123
Pyrolysis125
Crown Fires and Fireballs126
Nonpyrolyzing Fuels127
Combustion Properties of Wood127
Components of Wood127
Ignition and Combustion of Wood128
“Low Temperature” Ignition of Wood131
Charcoal and Coke137
Wood Products138
Paper140
Plastics143
General Characteristics143
Behavior of Plastics145
Special Considerations for Fire Investigators149
Paint156
Metals158
Magnesium159
Aluminum159
Coal160
Dust Explosions160
Combustion Products of Solid Fuels161
Flame Color161
Smoke Production162
Chapter Review164
Summary164
Review Questions164
References164
Chapter 6 Sources of Ignition167
Introduction to Ignition Sources168
Primary Ignition Sources168
Matches169
Lighters171
Torches171
Candles173
Secondary Ignition Sources173
Sparks/Arcs174
Hot Objects/Hot Surfaces174
Friction176
Radiant Heat177
Chemical Reaction178
The Role of Services and Appliances as Ignition Sources179
Gas Appliances as Ignition Sources179
Portable Electric Appliances186
Kerosene Heaters187
Stoves and Heaters187
Oil Storage187
Electricity188
The Role of Hot and Burning Fragments in Igniting Fires188
Windblown Sparks189
Fireplaces and Chimneys190
Long-Term Heating (“Low-Temperature” Ignition)194
Trash Burners, Incinerators, and Bonfires197
Hot Metals197
Mechanical Sparks198
Firearms Residues200
Smoking as a Fire Origin201
Cigarettes201
Bedding and Furnishings203
Cigarettes and Flammable Liquids and Gases205
Pipes and Cigars206
Plantings206
Spontaneous Combustion (Self-Heating)207
Characteristics of Self-Heating207
Self-Heating Oils209
Self-Heating of Vegetation213
Other Materials Subject to Self-Heating215
Implications for the Fire Investigator215
Other Sources of Ignition215
Lightning216
Implications for the Fire Investigator216
Ignition by Electric Lighting219
Ignition from Discarded Batteries223
Animal Interaction with Sources of Ignition223
Assessing Ignition Sources at the Fire Scene: The Ignition Matrix225
Chapter Review227
Summary227
Review Questions227
References227
Chapter 7 Structure Fires and Their Investigation231
Beginning the Investigation233
During the Fire233
Immediately After the Fire Is Extinguished234
During the Clearing of the Scene234
After Cleanup235
Investigative Information during Suppression236
Responsibility of the Firefighters236
Minimizing Post-Fire Damage237 Overhaul237
Salvage and Security Concerns238
Documenting the Fire Scene238
Photography and Photographic Equipment238
Digital Images239
Enlargements and Film240
Photography for the Fire Investigator240
Sketching243
Measurement and Scanning Systems245
Notes245
Reconstructing the Pre-Fire Conditions249
General Principles of Fire Behavior249
Fire Patterns249
Tracing the Course of the Fire250
Implications for the Fire Investigator252
Examination of a Structure Fire Scene252
General Considerations252
Interviews with Firefighters253
Interviews with Witnesses254
Search Patterns and Practices255
Fire Behavior Indicators257
Burn Patterns258
Heat Level (Heat Horizon)265
Smoke Level (Smoke Horizon)268
Low Burns and Penetration268
Floor Burns and Penetrations276
Char Depth279
Appearance of Char Surface281
Surface Effects282
Displacement of Walls and Floors282
Spalling283
Ghost Marks286
Calcination of Gypsum Board288
Annealed Furniture Springs289
Glass290
Melting Points of Materials295
Clean Burn296
Myths and Misconceptions about Indicators296
Evidence (Documentary or Witnesses) of an Abnormally Fast Rate of Fire
Spread or Collapse296
Evidence of Abnormally High Temperatures (Melted Metals, etc.)296
Spalling of Concrete296
Crazing of Glass297
Irregular Damage to Floors and Floor Coverings297
Black, Heavy, Oily Soot on Windows/Black Dense Smoke297
Annealing of Steel Springs and Steel Structural Materials298
Floor-to-Ceiling Heat Damage298
Deep Char298
Progression to Flashover298
Alligatoring (Shiny or White)298
Arson Evidence298
Trailers298
Containers298
Contents Inventory299
Ignitable Liquids300
Detectors—Electronic and Canine302
General Considerations304
Protected Areas304
Utilities310
Elimination of Electrical Ignition Sources310
Arc Mapping311
Appliance Condition312
Trash312
Detection Systems Mapping313
Interior Fires from Exterior Sources314
Roof and Attic Fires314
Timelines315
Collection and Preservation of Evidence316
Debris Suspected of Containing Volatiles316
Other Solid Evidence319
Liquids319
Testing of Hands319
Testing of Clothing320 Chain of Evidence320
Analysis and Hypothesis Testing321
Chapter Review323
Summary323
Review Questions323
References324
Chapter 8 Wildland Fires and Their Investigation327
Fire Spread329
Fuels330
Fire Spread331
Moisture Content331
Intensity of Wildland Fire331
Fire Behavior332
Effect of Wind333
Effect of Tall Fuels333
Other Effects333
Determination of Origin333
Investigation Methodology334
First Evaluation334
Other Sources of Information335
The Scene Search335
Burn Indicators338
Documentation344
Contents
Sources of Ignition345
Power Lines346
Lightning346
Burning or Hot Fragments349
Campfires349
Cigarettes349
Incendiary Fires349
Modeling353
Collection and Preservation of Physical Evidence354
Cigarettes, Matchbooks, and Other Fragile Evidence354
Shoe and Tire Impressions355
Charred Matches355
Debris Suspected of Containing Volatiles355
Containers355
Weather Data355
Chapter Review357
Summary357
Review Questions357
References357
Chapter 9 Automobile, Motor Vehicle, and Marine Fires359
Automobiles and Motor Vehicles360
Fuel Tanks360
Fuel Tank Connections361
Fuel Pumps, Fuel Lines, and Carburetors361
Fuel Injection Systems361
Vehicle Fuels362
Other Combustible Liquids363
Engine Fuel System Fires364
Electrical Systems367
Miscellaneous Causes369
Considerations for Fire Investigation371
Combustible Materials372
Miscellaneous Ignition Mechanisms372
Vehicle Arson373
Considerations for Fire Investigation373
Protocol for Vehicle Examination373
Safety373
Photography and Sketches376
Importance of Scene Preservation377
Exterior Examination378
Evidence of Stripping378
Considerations for Fire Investigation379
Motorhomes and Other Recreational Vehicles387
Characteristics of Motorhomes387 Fire Risk387
Propane Tanks388
Considerations for Fire Investigation388
Mobile Homes (Manufactured Housing)390
Construction and Materials390
Considerations for Fire Investigation391
Heavy Equipment392
Boats and Ships393
Ships394
Tankers395
Ship Construction and Firefighting Techniques396
Motives for Vehicle and Marine Arson397
Chapter Review399
Summary399
Review Questions399
References399
Chapter 10 Electrical Causes of Fires401
Basic Electricity403
Static Electricity403
Current Electricity404
Direct and Alternating Current (DC and AC)407
Electrical Units407
Electrical Calculations408
Series and Parallel Circuits410
Electrical Systems412
Conductors and Insulators412
Current-Carrying Capability (Ampacity)413
Protection—Overcurrent and Short Circuit416
Fuses416
Circuit Breakers418
Thermal Protectors419
Surge Protection Devices419
Overcurrent Devices and Fire Investigation420
Ground Fault Interrupters420
Arc-Fault Circuit Interrupters421
Open Neutral422
Electrical Service Distribution422
Service Entrance423
Receptacles424
Ignition by Electrical Means425
Conduction Heating426
Overheating by Excessive Current426
Overheating by Poor Connection427
Insulation Breakdown (Degradation)—Carbon Tracking429
Arcs and Sparks435
Aluminum Wiring437
Electric Transformers and Motors438
Fixed Heaters440
Appliances440
Electric Lighting443
Electric Blankets448
Extension Cords448
Heat Tapes and Heat Cable448
Batteries449
Investigation of Electricity-Related Fires449
Post-Fire Indicators450
Mapping of Arc Faults454
Arcing Through Char457
Laboratory Examination458
Chapter Review464
Summary464
Review Questions464
References465
Chapter 11 Clothing and Fabric Fires467
Types of Fabric468
Natural Fibers469
Petroleum-Based Synthetic Fibers469
Non-Petroleum-Based Synthetic Fibers471
Fire Hazards471
Influence of Weave and Fiber471
Clothing Ignition472
Regulation of Flammable Fabrics472
Regulation of Flammable Fabrics472
Furniture Testing476
Flammability Testing478
Flammability Tests for Federal Regulations478
Flammability Tests for California Regulations481
General Observations482
Considerations for Fire Investigators483
Chapter Review485
Summary485
Review Questions485 References485
Chapter 12 Explosions and Explosive Combustion487
Chemical Explosions488
Key Terms and Concepts489
Diffuse-Phase Explosions490
Gases490
Vapors and Vapor Density498
Deflagrations501
Ignition503
Condensed-Phase Explosions505
Chemical and Physical Properties506
Types and Characteristics of Explosives507
Propellants or Low Explosives507
High Explosives509
High Explosive Categories511
Components512
High-Order/Low-Order Explosions513
Mechanical Explosions514
Acid, Gas, or Bottle Bombs515
BLEVEs517
Electrical Explosions518
Investigation of Explosions519
The Scene Search520
Speed and Force of Reaction523
Scene Evaluation and Hypothesis Formation530
Evidence Recovery530 Laboratory Analysis532
Incident Analysis533
Chapter Review536
Summary536
Review Questions536
References536
Chapter 13 Chemical Fires and Hazardous Materials539
Gases540
Hydrocarbons541
Other Gases542
Liquids543
Solvents543
Miscellaneous Liquids546
Solids546
Incendiary Mixtures547
Oxidizing Salts548
Reactive Metals549
Clandestine Laboratories549
Clandestine Drug Laboratories550
Marijuana Cultivation554
Clandestine Explosives Laboratories555
Warnings555
NFPA 704 System555
Federal Hazardous Materials Transportation System556
Chapter Review558
Summary558
Review Questions558
References558
Chapter 14 Laboratory Services559
Availability of Laboratory Services560
Forensic Laboratories560
Fire Testing Laboratories561
Expert Qualifications561
Identification of Volatile Accelerants562
Gas Chromatography562
Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS)566
Sample Handling and Isolation of Volatile Residues569
Identification of Volatile Residues573
Interpretation of GC Results582
Chemical Incendiaries585
Improvised Mixtures585
Laboratory Methods586
General Fire Evidence587
Identification of Charred or Burned Materials587 Burned Documents588
Failure Analysis by Forensic Engineers589
Evaluation of Appliances and Wiring590
Miscellaneous Laboratory Tests591 Spoliation595
Non-Fire-Related Physical Evidence596
Fingerprints596
Blood599
Impression Evidence600
Physical Matches603
Trace Evidence603
Chapter Review606
Summary606
Review Questions606
References606
Chapter 15 Fire-Related Deaths and Injuries611
The Team Effort613
Species of Remains614
Identity of the Victim614
Cause of Death615
Manner of Death616
Victim Status at Time of Death616
Death Due to Fire versus Death Associated with Fire616
Pathological and Toxicological Examination616
General Considerations616
Destruction of the Body619 Effects of Fire625
Other Pathological Findings632
Carbon Monoxide Asphyxiation635
The Carbon Monoxide Hazard637
Effect of Rate of Absorption639
Sources of Carbon Monoxide640
Investigation of Carbon Monoxide Asphyxiations642
Other Toxic Gases643
Hydrogen Cyanide and Other Toxic Gases643
Toxic Gases from Sulfur-Containing Polymers644
Other Mechanisms644
Burn Injuries645
Manner of Death649
Chapter Review650
Summary650
Review Questions651 References651
Chapter 16 Arson as a Crime655
The Crime of Arson658
Arson Law659
Elements of Proof659
Direct and Circumstantial Evidence660
Motive661
Profit662
Vandalism664
Juvenile Fire Setting665
Excitement and Thrill Seeking665
Revenge, Retaliation, or Spite667
Concealment of another Crime668
Extremism (Social Protest and Terrorism)669
Mixed Motives670
Irrational Fire Setting670
The Arson Set671
Arranging the Fire—Location672
Fuels673
Method of Initiation681
Deductions from the Interpretation of Evidence687
Criminal Investigative Analysis or Profiling688
Analytical Reasoning689
Elimination of Accidental or Natural Causes690
Chapter Review692
Summary692
Review Questions692
Court Citations692
References693
Chapter 17 Other Investigative Topics695
Safety and Health696
Fire Modeling698
Mathematical Fire Modeling698
Zone Models699
Field Models699
Models for Specialized Applications700
ASTM and Critical Modeling Issues701 What Should We Ask about Any Model We Use?701
Fire Assessment702
Documentation702
Model Evaluation703
Testing Complex Computer Models706
Critical Analysis of Cases707
Search and Seizure708
Search and Seizure Court Decisions710
Sources of Information713
Spoliation714
Public-Sector Investigators and Spoliation715
Private-Sector Investigators and Spoliation715
Consequences of Spoliation715
Chain of Evidence718
Report Writing718
Report Summary719
The Scene719
The Investigation720
Report Conclusions720
Report Writing Basics720
Courtroom Testimony721
The Expert Witness721
Pretrial Preparation726
Testimony727
Scientific Method727
Chapter Review732
Summary732
Review Questions734
Court Citations734
References735
Suggested Reading 737
Glossary745
Index751
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The last 25 years have seen a dramatic change in the standards of performance expected of fire and explosion investigators. Such changes have been brought about by Supreme Court decisions, a development of professional standards including several certification programs, and acceptance of published texts and guides such as NFPA 921. These years have also seen a dramatic improvement in the frequency and quality of interactions among fire investigators, fire scientists, and engineers involved in fire safety and fire protection. The intuitive extrapolation or interpolation of data to explain fire development or fire indicators had been standard practice among fire investigators, and it has been faulty far too often. The scientific method has finally been recognized as the core analytical process that leads to accurate and defensible conclusions in fire investigations. That method, however, requires reliable data and information, which often have been lacking in fire topics. The integration of the wealth of information, knowledge, and experience of fire engineers and of those scientists involved in the chemistry and physics of fire development into fire investigation has proceeded along many paths—personal, educational, and professional—and on an international basis. The ATF Fire Research Laboratory at Beltsville, Maryland; the Center for Fire Research at NIST; the Fire Research Station in the United Kingdom; and numerous private researchers have all contributed significantly to fire investigations for many years. Recently, Vyto Babrauskas published a virtual encyclopedia of information about the ignition and combustion of materials. The Ignition Handbook is a comprehensive summary of decades of fire research in an accessible, fully referenced source. This seventh edition of Kirk’s Fire Investigation includes new material reflecting “new” knowledge from that remarkable book. Fire engineers are now involved directly in investigations and also teach investigators how to apply fire engineering principles.
The National Fire Protection Association’s NFPA 921: Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations has focused the attention of investigators and the legal profession on the scientific principles behind investigation. Coauthors David Icove and John DeHaan were active technical consultant members in the development of NFPA 921 (DeHaan from 1991 to 1999, and Icove from 1990 to date), and this seventh edition of Kirk’s Fire Investigation reflects a closer parallel between practices and information in both sources that can only enhance the accuracy and reliability of all investigations. Correlations are also offered to information in NFPA 1033: Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Investigator.
Eight years ago, a companion book for this text was released. Forensic Fire Scene Reconstruction was created to explore more of the engineering principles behind fire behavior and the mechanisms of production of many of the post-fire indicators that Kirk’s describes. Taken together, these books provide a sound basis for the fire expert to use when evaluating fire scenes, preparing reports, or offering testimony. Today’s investigators are being held to a higher standard of professional practice than ever before. It is no longer adequate to claim expertise based on years of experience alone. A professional must demonstratethat what he or she is doing follows the practices and the knowledge base of the relevant professional community. Such knowledge and practices are based on texts such as this one, Fire Scene Reconstruction, and NFPA 921, which are continuously peer reviewed and revised to reflect the most current knowledge. The revisions in this edition follow the same path as in previous editions but include many new photographs, published experimental data, and case examples. There is revised material on ignition and fire dynamics, supported by new references and color photos. This text reflects an international database as offered by fire and explosion investigators, scientists, and engineers from all over the world. It is offered in the hope it will augment the knowledge and improve the skills of investigators everywhere and help them find the right answers for the right reasons.
It is hard to believe that it has been 30 years since John DeHaan took over responsibility for the text that what was then Fire Investigation by Dr. Paul Kirk. So many years have passed that a whole new generation of fire investigators is now practicing, many of whom have asked, Why is it called Kirk’s Fire Investigation? It is clear they are not aware of Professor Kirk’s contribution to the discipline. Paul L. Kirk was a professor of biochemistry and criminalistics at the University of California at Berkeley, but it was his specialty of microchemistry that focused his attention on physical evidence and its analysis. Professor Kirk was part of the Manhattan Project (where separation and identification of trace quantities of particular chemicals was a critical step in the development of the atomic bomb). After the war, he focused on analytical chemistry as an adjunct to criminal investigation. He was in charge of the criminalistics program at Berkeley until his death in 1970 and launched the careers of many criminalists who now practice around the world. He wrote the landmark text Crime Investigation in 1953 and maintained a private criminalistics consulting practice. It was this practice that led to his involvement in fire and arson investigation, where he was consulted in a wide variety of fire and explosion cases. He published Fire Investigation in 1969 as the first textbook on fire investigation written by a scientist rather than a field investigator. It became a standard reference and was still in print some 11 years after his death. His concern with using science to solve the puzzles of fire and explosion presaged the current emphasis on using the scientific method to investigate fires by more than 30 years. It is clear that good, knowledgeable investigators have been using that approach for years, even if they were not aware of it.
In honor of Dr. Kirk’s pioneering work in bringing science to fire investigation, his name is included in the title, and the spirit, of this text.
J. D. DeHaan, Ph.D., F-ABC,
IAAI-CFI, FSSDip, CFEI-NAFI D. J. Icove, Ph.D., P.E., CFEI
What’s New
The Seventh Edition is one of the most adventurous editions over the last decade. John DeHaan has been joined by David Icove to produce the keystone textbook in the fire investigation field. The following highlights are changes to this edition that set it apart from previous ones.
■ Completely updated chapters with learning objectives
■ Reference tracking of the National Fire Academy–developed Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (FESHE) curriculum
■ New case examples and results of recent fire tests
■ Substantial new artwork and photographs, many in color
■ Updated bibliographic references and appendices, which can be found on the MyFireKit for this text
For additional review materials, appendices, and suggested readings, visit www.bradybooks.com and follow the MyBradyKit link to register for book-specific resources.
Register for MyFireKit by following directions on the MyFireKit student access card provided with this text. If there is no card, go to www.bradybooks.com and follow the MyBradyKit link to Buy Access from there.
As an added bonus, Kirk’s Fire Investigation, Seventh Edition, features a MyFireKit, which provides a one-stop shop for online review materials, appendices, suggested readings, chapter support materials, and other resources.
You can prepare for class and exams with multiple-choice and matching questions, Web links, study aids, and more! To register for MyFireKit for this text, please visit www. bradybooks.comand follow the MyBradyKit link.
Scope of This Book
Kirk’s Fire Investigation is divided into the following chapters.
Chapter 1, “Introduction,” describesthe field of fire investigation, which is the formal process of determining the origin, cause, and development of a fire or explosion.
Chapter 2, “The Elementary Chemistry of Combustion, ” describes how a fire is a chemical reaction that produces physical effects. This chapter also introduces some of the concepts and terms that the fire investigator might encounter when reviewing laboratory reports or meeting with experts.
Chapter 3, “Fundamentals of Fire Behavior and Building Construction, ” describes fire as an exothermic oxidation reaction that proceeds at such a rate that it generates detectable heat and light. This chapter also describes the basic elements of building construction and materials to give the fire investigator an understanding of how they can affect fire growth and patterns.
Chapter 4, “Combustion Properties of Liquid and Gaseous Fuel, ” discusses some of the concepts that are basic to understanding how gaseous and liquid fuels burn, the conditions and limitations that apply to the combustion of such fuels, and the conventional methods of expressing combustion properties in terms of laboratory tests.
Chapter 5, “Combustion Properties of Solid Fuels, ” describes the more complex ignition and combustion of solid fuels, which usually depend on pyrolysis to create combustible gases and vapors.
Chapter 6, “Sources of Ignition,” describes a wide variety of heat sources and their thermal properties. This chapter also discusses the fundamental processes of heat transfer, heat release rate, fire propagation, and assessment that must be applied to each possible situation.
Chapter 7, “Structure Fires and Their Investigation, ” describes the principles of fuels, ignition, and fire behavior with which investigators should be reasonably familiar before undertaking the probe of a fire. This chapter also discusses the necessity of having a clear understanding of the purposes and goals of the investigation and a rational, orderly plan for carrying it out to meet those purposes, as well as the value and limitations of post-fire indicators and the basic physical processes that create them.
Chapter 8, “Grass and Wildland Fires and Their Investigation, ” describes how the investigator who understands fuels, fire behavior, and the effects of environmental conditions is in a better position to interpret the subtle and sometimes delicate signs of fire patterns in wildland fires and therefore is better able to identify the origin and cause, no matter what type of fire is involved.
Chapter 9, “Automobile, Other Motor Vehicle, and Ship Fires, ” describes the fuels, ignition sources, and dynamics as encountered in vehicles with which vehicle fire investigators must be familiar to carry out correct investigations.
Chapter 10, “Electrical Causes of Fires, ” describes the basics of electricity, its control, uses, and measurement of which the investigator must have a working knowledge to accurately assess its effects on fuels in the fire environment. The chapter also discusses the many ways in which electrical power can cause fires and diagnostic indicators of use to investigators.
Chapter 11, “Clothing and Fabric Fires, ” describes how despite governmental regulations, fires in which fabrics are the first materials to be ignited are still a very common
Preface
occurrence. The chapter discusses the nature of common fabrics and upholstery materials and their contributions to both ignition hazard and fuel load in current studies.
Chapter 12, “Explosions and Explosive Combustion, ” describes the range of explosion violence—from the diffused type of rolling, progressive flame resulting from the combustion of a rich mixture of flammable gases or vapors in air, to the violent, almost instantaneous detonation of condensed-phase explosives.The chapter also discusses the chemical structure and mechanisms of low and high explosives, as well as mechanical and electrical explosions.
Chapter 13, “Chemical Fires and Hazardous Materials, ” describes how to identify the common causes of fires involving chemicals and hazardous materials.
Chapter 14, “Laboratory Services, ” describes the role of laboratory services in fire and explosion investigation and the types of examinations that can be requested. These include not only fire debris analysis but the application of a wide range of physical, chemical, optical, and instrumental tools on a variety of substances.
Chapter 15, “Fire-Related Deaths and Injuries, ” identifies the common causes of (and factors contributing to) fire-related deaths and injuries and describes indicators and postmortem tests. Postmortem fire effects on the body are a primary focus.
Chapter 16, “Arson as a Crime, ” explains the basic concepts of arson as a crime along with its common motives, and describes common incendiary devices and mechanisms.
Chapter 17, “Other Investigative Topics, ” identifies specialized tools that are relevant and useful in fire investigation, including fire modeling. The chapter also discusses on-scene safety considerations for the fire investigator and the implications of the scientific method in analyzing fire events.
Peer review is important for ensuring that a textbook is well balanced, useful, authoritative, and accurate. The following agencies, institutions, companies, and individuals provided invaluable support during the peer-review process of this edition.
Vyto Babrauskas, Ph.D.
Fire Science and Technology Inc.
Issaquah, WA
Nick Carey
Fire Investigation Group, London Fire Brigade, London, UK
Detective Mike Dalton
Knox County Sheriff’s Office/Fire Investigation Unit Knoxville, TN
Gary Edwards
Fire Science Program Director/Instructor
Montana State University–Billings College of Technology Billings, MT
Tom Goodrow
ATF National Academy (Retired) West Chatham, MA
Gary S. Hodson, IAAI-CFI
Sgt., Provo UT Police Department (retired)
Adjunct Instructor, Utah Valley University
Special Investigator, Unified Investigations and Sciences Provo, UT
Jeffrey Lee Huber
Professor of Fire Science Lansing Community College Lansing, MI
Judith Kuleta Bellevue College Bellevue, WA
John E. Malooly
President of Malooly & Associates, Inc.
Senior Special Agent (Retired), U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of ATF Chicago, IL
Matthew Marcarelli
Lieutenant, City of New Haven Fire Department
Adjunct Instructor, Connecticut Fire Academy
J. Ronald McCardle
Major, Florida Bureau of Fire & Arson Investigations (Retired)
Currently Instructing, Consulting, & Researching in Fire and Explosion Causation Florida
C. W. Munson
Chemeketa Fire Technology
Salem, OR
J. Graham Rankin, PhD
Forensic Science Program
Marshall University Huntington, WV
Steve Riggs
Public Agency Training Council Indianapolis, IN
James P. Ryan
Fire Investigator, Arson Bureau
New York State Department of Homeland Security and Emergency Services Academy of Fire Science Montour Falls, NY
Nathan Sivils
Director, Fire Science
Blinn College Bryan, TX
Aaron S. Woolverton
Adjunct Professor
Austin Community College
Austin, TX
Rather than extend an already substantial list from previous editions, we focus on those persons who contributed the most to this Seventh Edition. As with any other evolutionary process, the result is the product of many generations. You know who you are from those earlier lists. Rest assured that your contributions are still greatly appreciated. We want to acknowledge the following individuals who reviewed and generously offered counsel and new material to improve this edition: Doug Wood; Morris Polich & Purdy, San Francisco, CA; Daniel Madrzykowski, P.E., National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD; Major Ron McCardle, Florida State Fire Marshal’s Office (retired); Dr. Niamh Nic Daéid, University of Strathclyde; Kim R. Mniszewski, P.E., FX Engineering; Jeff Morrill, MorrFire Investigations; Gordon Damant, Sacramento, CA; Steve Riggs, Public Agency Training Council; Senior Special Agent Paul Steensland (retired), United States Forest Service, Susanville, CA; Luis Velazco, Luis Velazco Investigations, Ltd., St. Simons Is., GA; and Special Agent Dino Balos and Steven J. Avato, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Falls Church, VA. Your efforts were substantial, and your ideas were greatly welcomed. Our special appreciation is offered to Doug Wood and his staff for all the new material on spoliation and other legal issues.
Vyto Babrauskas, Mick Gardiner, Gary White, Steve Mackaig, Ron Parsons, Chris Korinek, Rick Korinek, Bob Svare, and Mark Svare all reviewed critical portions of text and contributed significantly to the accuracy of this book. In addition, Vyto Babrauskas and Dan Madrzykowski always generously shared ideas, insight, and information whenever we asked, for which we are deeply grateful.
A number of people generously shared their case histories, test results, and photographs for this edition, including Jim Albers, Santa Ana Fire Dept. (retired); David Barber, Goleta, CA; Steve Bauer; Dr. Roger Berrett; Lou Bilancia, Synnovation Engineering and HTRI Forensics; Calvin Bonenberger, Fire Marshal, Lafayette Hill Fire Department; Dr. Bernard R. Cuzzillo; Chris Bloom, CJB Consultants, Grants Pass, OR; Joe Bloom, Bloom
Fire Investigation, Grants Pass, OR; Helmut and Peter Brosz, Brosz & Assoc., Markham, Ontario, Canada; Paul Carolan, Toronto Fire Department, Canada; Randy Crim, Fire Marshal, Lake Jackson, TX; Donna Deaton, U.S. Forest Service (retired); Andrew Derrick; Denise DeMars, Streich DeMars, Inc.; Jack Deans; Det. Richard Edwards, Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department (retired); Ryan B. Fields, Orca Fire Investigation, Medford, OR; Capt./Inv. Bruce Fusselman, Phoenix Fire Department, Phoenix, AZ; Nick Carey, John Galvin, and Paul Spencer, London Fire Brigade, London, UK; Edward Garrison, Fire/Explosion Investigator, Raleigh, NC; Thomas Goodrow, Fire/Explosives Technical Specialist, ATFE (retired); Tony Grissim, Leica GeoSystems; Don Perkins, Curt Hawk, and Diane Spinner, Fire Cause Analysis; Gerald Haynes, Forensic Fire Analysis, LLC, Fredericksburg, VA; Dr. Robin Holleyhead; Science &Justice; Chief Kurt Hubele, Richland Fire Department, WA; John Jerome; Capt. Thomas Kinkaid, Knoxville, Fire Department; Chris W. Korinek, P.E., and Richard E. Korinek, P.E., Synergy Technologies LLC; Ken Legat, Christchurch, New Zealand; SA/CFI Michael A. Marquardt, ATFE, Grand Rapids, MI; Vic Massenkoff, Contra Costa County Fire Department; Marion Matthews, U.S. Forest Service; Lamont “Monty” McGill, retired Fire Investigator and Bomb Technician (deceased); Wayne Moorehead, Forensic Consultant; Jamie Novak and Cameron Novak, Novak Fire Investigations and St. Paul Fire Department; Dr. Said Nurbakhsh, California Bureau of Home Furnishings, North Highlands, CA; Chief Mike Oakes and Tony Hudson, Clallam County Fire Investigation Team, Port Angeles, WA; Keith Parker, Marin County Fire Department, Woodacre, CA; David W. Powell, SYTEK Consultants, East Syracuse, NY; Steve Riggs and Tim Yandell, Public Agency Training Council; Susan Sherwin, Scottsdale, AZ; Stuart Sklar, Fabian, Sklar & King, P.C., Farmington Hills, MI; Robert Toth, Iris Investigations; Inv. Jeff Weber, San Jose Fire Department, CA; and Capt. Sandra Wesson, Little Rock Fire Department, AR. Our special thanks to Det. Michael Dalton and Inv. Greg Lampkin, Knox County Sheriff’s Office, Knoxville, TN, for all their great photos. We also want to offer our special acknowledgment to Jamie Novak, who seems to be able to burn (and blow up) more buildings than anyone else. Jamie generously opened his awesome collection of photos, and many were selected for this book. We all know that fire and explosion investigation is largely a visual endeavor, and such photos are vital to the usefulness of an investigation text. The Bureau of Home Furnishings and the Fire Research Station (Garston, UK) have repeatedly provided us with opportunities to do special tests and share the results.
Firsthand observations of fire behavior and patterns are a critical element in qualifications for every fire expert. Organizations such as Gardiner Associates (UK), the European Working Group on Fires & Explosions, ATF (Glynco, GA), Florida State Fire Marshal, and various chapters of the IAAI are to be commended for the special efforts they have made in providing “live burn” training and research. The efforts of Dan Madrzykowski and his team from NIST at CCAI conferences were greatly appreciated for the careful science they demonstrated. The Training Committee of the CCAI has done an exemplary job of providing extraordinary opportunities for firsthand fire observations. Its motto is “Build it and they will come—to burn it and learn.” The Forensic Fire Death Investigation Courses provided recently by the San Luis Obispo Fire Investigation Strike Team provided unique opportunities to observe the effects of fire on human cadavers. These results will benefit investigators through the illustrations presented here.
Our very patient editors, Monica Moosang, Pam Powell, and Barbara Liguori, saw this text through all manner of crises. John DeHaan’s office manager, Shirley Runyan, performed exemplary work in myriad roles—text, proofreading, graphics, and especially in unraveling the mysteries of electronic communication. Our deepest thanks to everyone.
Finally, we want to acknowledge the personal inspiration we gain from working with fire investigators such as Monty McGill, Jamie Novak, Jack Malooly, Ross Brogan, Jeff Campbell, Nick Carey, Randy Crim, Bob Toth, Wayne Miller, Jim Allen, Mike Dalton, Jim Munday, and Mike Marquardt. Their dedication to finding the right answer through scientific analysis is an example for all of us.
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