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Introduction
Formorethanthreecenturies,museumshaveacquiredtreasuresof thepastsothatvisitorstotheBritishMuseuminLondon,theLouvre inParis,andtheMetropolitanMuseumofArtinNewYork,toname butafew,canwonderattheingenuityandcreativityofhumanity.Aswell asexhibitingtheseobjectstohundredsofthousandsofvisitorsevery year,scholarsresearchthecollections,exploringhowartefactswere made,whattheywereusedfor,andwhattheyhavemeanttopeople, openingoureyestopastlivesandfurtheringourknowledgeofhuman civilizations.
Today,however,therightofmuseumstoholdanddisplaytheir collections,andtheirreasonsfordoingso,areunderquestion.Objects areoftensaidto ‘belong’ toaparticularpeople,ratherthanallpeople. Attentionisincreasinglyfocusedonhowtheartefactscametobeinthe possessionoftheinstitution,ratherthanonwhattheycantellusabouta culture.Collectionsareasoftencondemnedas ‘loot’ , ‘plunder’ , ‘pillage’,or ‘booty’,astheyarelaudedasinteresting,revealing,orbeautiful.The underlyingimplicationisthatmuseumsarenottheproperplaceforsuch artefacts,thattheseinstitutionsmayevendomoreharmthangood.Indeed, museumshavebeenplacedundersuchscrutinythatIfearfortheirfuture.
Inrecentdecades,variouscountries,individuals,andgroupshave requestedtherepatriation thereturn ofartefactstheyconsidertheirs. TheElginMarbles,1 exhibitedintheBritishMuseumforover years,
areaprominentexampleandthefocusofacampaignforrepatriation thathaswonconsiderablesupport.Theseancientmarblesculptures, includingsomeofthemostremarkablepiecesofancientGreekartin existence,wereonceanintegralpartoftheParthenoninAthens,builtas atemplededicatedtotheGreekgoddessAthenawhichhadstoodonthe AcropolisintheGreekcapitalforcloseto , years.Aroundhalfofthe sculptureswereremovedattheturnofthenineteenthcentury,with permissionfromthethenrulers,theOttomanEmpire,bytheagentsof theBritishambassadortoConstantinople,LordThomasElgin.Elgin’s agentstook tons’ worth,bypickingpartsoffthe floorandhacking partsofftheParthenon,beforeshippingthemtoBritain,aidedbythe RoyalNavy,wheretheyendedupintheBritishMuseumasthe centrepieceofoneofthegreatestcollectionsintheworld.2
FewdoubtthelegalrightoftheBritishMuseumtokeeptheElgin Marbles.Many,however,openlyandvocallydisputethemoralright. AlthoughElginarguedthatherescuedtheMarbles,removingthemfrom thesiteandtransportingthemtoLondonwascontroversial,andtheir arrivaltriggeredintensedebate.Someconsidereditanactofvandalism.
Dullistheeyethatwillnotweeptosee Thywallsdefac’d,thymoulderingshrinesremov’d ByBritishhands,whichithadbestbehov’d Toguardthoserelicsne’ertoberestor’d
decriedLordByroninhispoem ChildeHarold’sPilgrimage. 3
CampaignerswanttheMarblestobereturnedtoGreecesotheycanbe displayedintheAcropolisMuseum,situatedaboutamilefromthe originalsite,andwhichholdsmuchofwhatisleftfromtheParthenon. TheElginMarblesare ‘theirs’,itissaid;theyare ‘Greek’.Oneargument contendsthatreunitingtheMarbleswiththerestofthesculptures wouldgreatlybenefitourunderstandingandappreciationoftheiroriginalform.
TheBritishMuseum,asyoumightexpect,wantstokeepthem, justifyingtheretentiononthebasisthattheyhavepreservedandprotectedtheMarblesforcenturies,andthatinthecontextoftheirencyclopaediccollection whichholdsobjectsfrommultiplecivilizationsacross time,includingartefactsfromPersia,Rome,Mesopotamia,India,and Turkey visitorscanunderstandtherelationshipoftheancientGreek culturetothewiderworld.
TheElginMarbleshavebecomeacausecélèbre,topofalonglistof artefactsthatpeoplewantreturnedtotheircountryoforigin.Anotherset ofobjects about sculpturesandplaques thathavebecomethe focusofcampaignsaretheBeninBronzes,heldvariouslyintheBritish Museum,theEthnologicalMuseuminBerlin,theEthnologyMuseumin Vienna,theNationalMuseumLagosinNigeria,theNationalMuseumof Scotland,andtheArtInstituteofChicago.Theirstoryofremovalisnotas morallyambiguousasthatoftheElginMarbles:theBeninBronzeswere takenbytheBritisharmyastheyrazedtheKingdomofBenintothe ground.
BeninhadbeenatthecentreofamedievalAfricankingdom,founded inthetenthcenturyinwhatisnowSouthernNigeria,which flourished betweenthefourteenthandseventeenthcenturies.TheBeninBronzes magnificentdarkred,copperalloysculpturesandplaques weremade duringthisperiod.Elegant,narrativeworks,theyprovideaninsightinto asophisticatedculture.TheirarrivalinBritainissaidtohavestimulated the ‘discovery’ andappreciationofAfricanart.Butthestoryoftheir acquisitionisnotquitesocivilized.
Towardstheendofthenineteenthcentury,ObaOvonramwen the kingofBenin wasinvolvedinaterritoryandtradedisputewithBritain. Germany,Britain,France,andBelgiumwerecompetingtocarveupthe Africancontinent.TheObainBeninhadamonopolyovertrade,partly duetoitsstrategicallyadvantageouslocationinthemiddleofnorth–southandeast–westtraderoutesandbecauseitwasclosetothesea.The
Britishhadtheireyeonthisterritory.BritishpowersdecidedthattheOba hadtogowhenhewouldnotbendtotheirwill,andtheBeninBronzes werecaughtupinthisbattle:theywereremovedbythearmyasthey destroyedBeninCity.Troopsburneddownthepalaceandtookitsriches duringamassacre,withtheBritishusingthenewlymanufacturedMaxim machineguns.Thesculpturesandplaquesweretakendeliberatelytosell inordertorecoupthemilitaryexpensesofthecampaign.TheForeign andCommonwealthOfficesoldthemoffandtheyendedupin museums,andboughtbycollectors.
In thecollectorandNewYorkbankerRobertOwenLehman bequeathedtotheBostonMuseumofFineArtthirty-fourrareWest Africanworksofart,boughtinthe sand s,thirty-twoofwhich arefromtheKingdomofBeninandformthebasisofanewpublic gallery.Therewasacryofprotest.YusufAbdallahUsman,director generaloftheNationalCommissionforMuseumsandMonumentsin Nigeria,issuedanemotionalpleafortheirreturn:
Withoutmincingwords,theseartworksareheirloomsofthegreat peopleoftheBeninKingdomandNigeriagenerally.Theyformpartof thehistoryofthepeople.Thegapcreatedbythissenselessexploitationis causingourpeopleuntoldanguish,discomfortanddisillusionment.4
YusufAbdallahUsmandidnotachievewhathesodesired.TheBoston MuseumopeneditsgallerydevotedtotheBronzes.
Elsewhere,TurkeyhasrequestedthattheVictorianandAlbert Museum(V&A)inLondonsendbackthemarblecarvingofachild’s head,removedfromasarcophagusinAnatoliabythearchaeologistSir CharlesWilsoninthelatenineteenthcentury,andhasrefusedexhibition loanstomultiplemuseumsuntilmanyotherdemandsforthereturnof antiquityaremet.Questionshavebeenraisedabouttheacquisitionof theNefertitibust,nowintheNeuesMuseuminBerlin,discoveredbya teamofGermanarchaeologistsinAmarna,Egypt,in ;theRosetta
Stone,nowintheBritishMuseum;aswellasthe ,-year-oldDendera Zodiacrelief,blastedfromtheceilingoftheHathortemplebytheFrench intheearlynineteenthcentury(nowintheLouvreinParis).TheChinese aresearchingfortheobjectstakenfromtheSummerPalaceinBeijing duringtheOpiumWars,plunderedbytheBritishandFrencharmies beforetheyburntthepalacetotheground,andwhichweresubsequently scatteredininstitutionsincludingtheV&A,theMuseumofFineArts inBoston,andtheArmyMuseuminParis.Thelistofobjectsthat peoplewanttobegivenbackislong,andfrequentlyupdatedwithnew requests orreturns.
Therearelegitimatereasonswhysomefeelthatthetreasuresin museumsbelongtothem.Theseobjectswerecreatedbypeoplein particularmomentsandplaces,andtheyspeaktopeopleaboutthose importanttimespast.Theyareoftenbeautifuland/orintriguing.Additionally,manyoftheseobjectsinmuseumsweretakenundercircumstancesthatarenowgenerallyperceivedasdubious.Theacquisitionof artefactsfromculturesthatincludeancientEgypt,Greece,theMiddle East,Africa,andChinatookplaceduringaperiodofWesterndominance.Imperialambitionsandrivalry,especiallywithandbetweenBritain andFrance,fuelledtheextensiveexcavationoffarawayancientlandsfor monumentsandsculptures.Armiesanddiplomatshauledthembackto Europe,creatingwell-stockedcollectionsasaconsequence.Littleattentionwaspaid,then,totheideathatobjectsfoundinforeignlandsmight notbelongtotheEuropeanexplorers,invaders,andtravellerswhotook them;thatthepeopleofthecountriesmightwanttokeepthetreasures forthemselves.Manyarguethatitisnowtimetomakeamendsforsuch acts,torepairthewrongsofthepast.
Therequestsforrepatriationappeartobehavingsomeeffect.In certaincases,the flowofartefactsintomuseumsisstartingtobereversed. Inthelate s,GlasgowCityCouncilreturnedaGhostDanceShirt a sacredpieceofclothing totheLakotapeopleofSouthDakota.Atotem
polefromaNativeAmericantribe,donatedtoamuseuminSwedenin the s,wassentbacktotheHaislapeople.Attheendofthe ,the US-basedcharitytheAnnenbergFoundationboughttwenty-foursacred NativeAmericanmasksatacontroversialParisauctioninordertosend thembacktotheHopiandApachetribes.InthesummerofJuly , BerlinreturnedtheBoğazköySphinx,datedfromaround BC and foundattheHittitecapitalofHattusain ,toTurkey.Oneyearearlier, theMetropolitanMuseumofArtinNewYorksentbackrelicsfrom Tutankhamen’stombtoEgypt.In and ,YaleUniversity returnedtoPeruartefactsfoundatMachuPicchubytheexplorerHiram Bingham saidtobetheinspirationfortheIndianaJonescharacter.In ,awealthyFrenchbusinessmanreturnedtwobronzeanimalheadsto ChinathathadbeenlootedbyFrenchandBritishtroopsinthenineteenth century.In ,theDenverMuseumofNatureandSciencerepatriated thirtymemorialtotemstotheNationalMuseumsofKenya.Thatsame year,MarkWalker,thegreat-grandsonofCaptainHerbertWalker (aprincipal figureintheBritishexpeditioninBenin),returnedtwo bronzes aso-called ‘birdofprophecy’,knownasanOrobird,anda bellusedtoinvokeancestors takenbyhisgreat-grandfather,toNigeria.5
Peruaskedforthereturnofacollectionofelaboratelyembroidered textiles,discoveredbytombraidersintheearlytwentiethcentury,after theywereexhibitedintheshow AStolenWorld attheMuseumof WorldCultureinGothenburg,Sweden,inSeptember –.The repatriationrequestwassuccessful.Anancientshroudandfourother textileswerereturnedin .Itisintendedthatanothereighty-five textilesaresentbackby .
AlthoughtheBritishMuseumrefusestopartwiththeElginMarbles, themuseumhasagreedtothe ‘permanentloan’ ofpartsofthe LewisChessmancollectiontoLewsCastle,inthetownofStornoway, Scotland,andhasrepatriatedhumanremains vitalresearchmaterial to AboriginalcommunitiesinAustralia.Indeed,thousandsofhuman
remainshavebeenrepatriatedfrommuseumsinAmerica,Australasia, Canada,andEurope.
In ,theNaturalHistoryMuseumreturned bonesofmenand womentotheTorresStraitIslands,locatedbetweenAustraliaandPapua NewGuinea.In ,theMontrealMuseumofFineArtsreturneda tattooedhead aToiMoko toTePapaTongarewa,amuseuminNew Zealand.Thesameyear,aSwedishmuseumannouncedintentionsto repatriatethreehumanskulls,collectedinthenineteenthcentury,to Polynesia.ThecuratoroftheUniversityofUppsala’sGustavianum Museum,AnneIngvarsson-Sundström,toldthe UppsalaNyaTidning newspaperthattheinstitution ‘ wantstomakethingsright ’ . 6 Inthe UnitedStatesandAustralasia,repatriationisnowthenorm itis unusualifhumanremainsstayintheinstitutionsthatcollectedand preservedthem.
Thisbookhasthreeaims.First,Icharthowmuseumswereformedand howtheyacquiredtheirartefacts.ManyofthosewhoIhavelabelled ‘repatriationsceptics’ intheirdefenceofthemuseumanditsretentionof objectstendtounderplaythemorequestionableactsbymeansofwhich objectswereseized;andwhileItoocanbedescribedasarepatriation sceptic,Idonotwishtoshyawayfromdiscussingthispast.Understandingitisvitalinordertoappreciatethatthemuseumishistorically constituted:itisnotaninstitutionthatisalwaysthesamebutonethat isshapedbythesocialcontextinwhichitissituated.Anditiscrucialthat weaddressthequestionofhowtodealwithpaststhatare,inthepresent day,oftenuncomfortable.
Thesecondaimofthisbookistoexploretheinfluencesthathave contributedtotheriseanddominanceoftherepatriationcontroversy, andthecharacterofthecontemporarydemands.Therightsandwrongs ofplunderingartefactshavebeenthesubjectofdebateforcenturies,but therehavebeenchangesintheargumentsadvanced.Morecountries, groups,andindividualshaveagitatedforthereturnof ‘their’ artefacts
sincethelate sthandidinthepast.Theobjectsthattheywant returnedweretakencenturiesago.Yetthecriesforreturnescalate.And thereareanumberofdevelopmentsaccompanyingtheclaimsof ‘It’s ours!’ thatwarrantscrutiny.Theprimaryargumentsforrepatriationare nowmadewithshiftingandexpandingrationales:becauseoneculture ownsitsownculture;becauseofthewaytheartefactswereacquired withforce,underduress,orduringtheAgeofImperialism;andbecause theyhavebeenrippedoutoftheiroriginalcontextwhere,itissaid,they belong.Returningartefactsissaidtohealthewoundsofthepast,to provideakindoftherapytothedescendantsofthoseviolated,andtorestore theobjectstotheirrightfulplace.Greatclaimsaremadeforwhatrepatriationcandoandwhatthemovementofculturalartefactscanachieve.
Theshiftsintheprominenceoftheproblem,andtheexpansionof reasonsforreturn,promptanumberofquestions.Whydoestheownershipofancientartefactsstimulatesuchpassiontoday?Canrepatriation succeedinmakinggoodhistoricalwrongs?Whyareweturningto museumsandobjectstostimulatesuchoutcomes? KeepingTheirMarbles situatesthisongoingcontroversyinitshistoricalandsocialcontextto explorewhyconflictsovertheownershipofartefactsareontherise. Althoughculturaltreasureshavealwaysbeenthefocusofdispute,the increaseinclaimsoverartefactsinthetwenty-firstcentury,andthe characteroftheseclaims,stemslessfromancientwrongsandmore fromcontemporarypolitical,social,andculturalshifts.
Welive,ithasbeenargued,7 inaperiodofsocialandpolitical defeatism,inwhichthesearchforabetterfuturehasbeencastaside. Inthiscontext,thepasthasbecomeasurrogateareaforstruggle,with differentgroupscompetingtoshowtheirwoundsofhistoricalconflict.As economicandsocialsolutionstosociety’sproblemshavefallenaway fromthepoliticalagenda,theculturalspherehasdevelopedintoasphere ofactivismforgroupsseekingchange.Thesesocialchangeshavehelped totransformmuseumsintokeysitesofculturalandpoliticalbattles.
‘Representationisapoliticalact.Sponsorshipisapoliticalact.Curationisapoliticalact.Workinginamuseumisapoliticalact,’8 argues MichaelAmes,theanthropologistandmuseumdirector.Culturehas becomeperceivedasthesolutiontomanyproblems,withemphasisincreasinglyplacedontheroleofeducation,art,andmusicinpromotingcertain valuesandcoheringcommunities.Asaconsequence,themuseumhasbeen encouragedinpursuitofanewmission,inrelationtotheperceivedgoodit candoforsocietyandawideningofexpectationsofthesocialroleitcanplay. Themuseumsholdingthecontestedartefacts,onthewhole,preferto keepthem.However,despitea firmhistoricalresistancetosuch demands,therehavebeensubstantialconcessionsinrecenttimes. Certainauthoritieshavebecomeincreasinglyreluctanttomobilizethe importantscientificandmoralargumentsforretainingobjectsofhistoric significanceincollections.Theytendnottotackletheargumentsfor repatriationrobustly.Theyappearto findithardtojustify,inparticular, retainingartefactsacquiredundercolonialism.
Mycentralobservationisthatourgreatmuseumsasinstitutionsare strugglingto findtheirplaceinthenewmillennium,andthatthisisan importantcontributingfactorinwhytheyhavebecometheobjectof scrutiny,anddefensiveinresponse.Socialchangesandintellectualcurrentshavecontributedtochallengingthefoundationalpurposeofthe museum:toextendourknowledgeofpastpeopleandtheirlives.Since thelatterhalfofthetwentiethcentury,museumshavefacedacrisisof conscienceandconfidence,asanarrayofsocialandintellectualshifts includingtheideasofpostmodernismandpostcolonialism,whichquestionthepossibilityofknowledgeandcommonunderstanding have becomemainstream.Withtheinfluenceofthesetrends,theinstitution hasbecomeafocusofarelentlesscritique,castigatedforhistorical wrongsandcurrentsocialills.
Oneofthemostimportantargumentsinthisbookisthattheargument overwhoownscultureisnotsimplyabattlebetweencuratorsinsidethe
institutionpitchedagainstoutsiderswhoclaimownership,whichishowit isconventionallyportrayed.Attimes,theloudestandmostimportant voicesraisingquestionsabouttheroleofthemuseumandagitatingfor repatriationareacademicsandseniormanagerswithintheseinstitutions. Thereisapushforrepatriationfrom within theinstitution,aswellasthe pullfromoutside.
Thethirdaimofthisbookistorestatetheroleofthemuseumand toreassesswhatwesh ouldexpectofobjects.Museumcollections aremorethanmerelythesumoftheirexhibits:theyhaveplayedan importantroleintheexpansionofourunderstandingofhistory, thespeci fi cityandtheinteractionofdiffe rentcultures.Thearguments madeforrepatriation aswellasthoseforretention undermine thisrole.
Thereisliteratureproposingavarietyofwaysingoingforward, especiallywithinthe fieldoflaw,butmyaimisdifferent:tounderstand howwegothere.9 Theimportant firststeprequiredinthisdebateisto unpicktheinfluencesonthecurrentstateofaffairs.Whatyouwillread here,then,ismoreanalysisandargumentthancasestudiesorpolicy recommendations;andresolvingindividualcasesisnotmyintention. Nonetheless,theexpertonartandculturalpropertylaw,JohnHenry Merryman,proposedanapproachtothequestionofwhereartefacts shouldbethatIendorseasagoodstartingpoint.Merrymansuggests thata ‘triadofregulatoryimperatives’ beinvoked.Thiscomesdownto holdingcertainprioritieswhenthinkingaboutwhereartefactsbelong: ‘preservation,truth,andaccess’ . 10 Ultimately,thismeansworkingout wheretheartefactsbelongonthebasisofwhatisbestfortheartefacts, scholars,andthepublic:wheretheartefactisbestpreserved,displayed, andunderstood.Thesequestionsarehelpfulinthinkingaboutthefateof artefacts,muchmoresothanassertionsaboutwhattheobjectwilldofor ustoday butwearealongwayfromthisstartingpoint.Myaim,bythe endofthebook,isthatweareclosertounderstandingwhy.
Todothis,weneedtogobacktothebeginningofthestory.Part Itracestheformationofthegreatmuseumsandtheircollectionsoverthe lastthreecenturies.PartIIthenexploreswhymuseumshavebecomethe targetforrepatriationclaimsinrecentdecades,engagingwiththeargumentsonbothsidesofthedebate.
