Juvenile Delinquency
CAUSES AND CONTROL
ROBERT AGNEW
EMORY UNIVERSITY
TIMOTHY BREZINA
GEORGIA STATE UNIVERSITY
New York Oxford
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
CIP data on file with Library of Congress
ISBN: 9780190641610
An Important Message for Instructors xvi
An Overview of This Book xx
Acknowledgments xxii
PART 1
The Nature and Extent of Delinquency 1
1 What Is Delinquency and How Does It Differ from Adult Crime? 3
Juvenile Delinquents Are Viewed Differently than Adult Criminals 4
Juvenile Delinquents Are Treated Differently than Adult Criminals 6
Special Laws for Juveniles: Status Offenses 6
A Special Court for Juveniles: Juvenile Court 7
Special Correctional Programs for Juveniles 9
How Can We Explain the Invention of Juvenile Delinquency? 10
Changing Conception of Children 11
Major Social Changes, Especially the Growth of Urban Slums 11
Gender, Race, and the Invention of Delinquency 13
Our View and Treatment of Juvenile Offenders Continues to Evolve 14
“Getting Tough” with Juvenile Offenders (Late 1980s Through the Early 2000s) 14
Retreating from the Get-Tough Approach (Since the Early 2000s) 17
Summary 20
Teaching Aids 20
Web-Based Exercises 20
Controversial Case 21
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 22
Thought and Discussion Questions 23
Key Terms 23
Endnotes 23
2 How Is Delinquency Measured? 25
Official Statistics—Especially Arrest Data from the Police 26
Problems with Arrest Data 29
Summary 32
Self-Report Data 33
How Do We Know that Juveniles Are Telling the Truth? 33
Problems with Many Self-Report Surveys 35
Recent Self-Report Surveys Have Made Much Progress in Overcoming the Preceding Problems 37
Victimization Data 38
Problems with Victimization Data 39
Summary 40
Teaching Aids 40
A Challenge 40
Practical Advice: Three Things to Beware of When Others Discuss the Extent of and Trends in Delinquency (and a Challenge) 41
Web-Based Exercise: Measuring the Extent of Rape 42
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 42
Thought and Discussion Questions 43
Key Terms 43
Answers to the Challenge 43
Endnotes 44
3 How Much Delinquency Is There, and Is Delinquency Increasing? 45
How Much Delinquency Is There? 46
How Many Juveniles Are Arrested, and What Are They Arrested For? 46
How Much Self-Reported Delinquency Is There? 48
How Many Juveniles Are Victimized, and How Many Victimizations Are Committed by Juveniles? 51
Summary 53
Is Juvenile Delinquency Increasing? 53
Are Juvenile Arrests Increasing? 55
Is Self-Reported Delinquency Increasing? 58
Are Victimizations Committed by Juveniles Increasing? 60
Summary 60
How Can We Explain the Dramatic Decline in Serious Crime Since the Mid-1990s? 62
Teaching Aids 64
Exercise: The Extent of and Trends in Campus Crime 64
Web-Based Exercise: Finding the Latest Information on the Extent of and Trends in Crime and Delinquency 64
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 66
Thought and Discussion Questions 66
Key Terms 67
Endnotes 67
4 Who Is Most Likely to Engage in Delinquency? 68
Is Social Class Related to Delinquency? 69
Early Studies Based on Arrest Data 70
Early Self-Report Studies 70
Criticisms of the Early Self-Report Studies 71
The Later Self-Report Studies 74
Summary 76
Are Race and Ethnicity Related to Delinquency? 76
Arrest Data 76
Criticisms of Arrest Data 77
Self-Report Data 77
Victimization Data 78
Is Race Related to Delinquency? 79
Are Race Differences in Serious Delinquency Explained by Social Class? 79 Is Age Related to Delinquency? 80
Is Gender Related to Delinquency? 82
Arrest Data 83
Self-Report Data 84
Summary 85
Are There Different Types of Delinquents? 85
An Overview of the Research on the Different Types of Delinquents 86
What Are the Different Types of Delinquents? 88
Summary 89
Teaching Aids 89
Exercise 1: Perceptions of Race and Crime 89
Exercise 2: Why Do Asian Americans Have Lower Crime Rates? 90
Exercise 3: Explaining the Association Between Gender and Crime 90
Exercise 4: Girls’ Delinquency 91
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 91
Thought and Discussion Questions 92
Key Terms 93
Endnotes 93
PART 2
The Causes of Delinquency: Theories 95
5 What Is a Theory and How Do We Test Theories?
What Is a Theory? 98
What Are the Basic Parts of a Theory? 98
Why Is It Important to Study Theories of Delinquency? 99
How Do We Test Theories of Delinquency (or Determine Whether Some Factor Causes Delinquency)? 99
The Scientific Method 100
Carefully Define Your Independent and Dependent Variables 100
Decide How to Gather Data to Test Your Belief or Theory 101
97
Develop Measures of Your Independent and Dependent Variables 103
Select a Sample of Juveniles to Survey 104
Analyze the Data You Have Collected 105
Summary 110
Teaching Aids 110
Some Challenges 110
Web-Based Resources for Your Criminological Research Project 111
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 112
Thought and Discussion Questions 112
Key Terms 113
Answers to the Challenges 113
Endnote 114
6 Strain Theory
115
What Are the Major Types of Strain? 117
The Failure to Achieve Your Goals 117
Loss of Positive Stimuli/Presentation of Negative Stimuli 121
What Impact Does Strain Have on the Juvenile? 123
Why Are Some Juveniles More Likely to Cope with Strain Through Delinquency? 125
Summary 126
Teaching Aids 126
Case Studies 126
Web-Based Exercise: Applying Strain Theory 128
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 128
Thought and Discussion Questions 129
Key Terms 129
Endnotes 129
7
Social Learning Theory 131
Juveniles Learn to Engage in Delinquency from Others 133
The Differential Reinforcement of Delinquency 133
The Frequency, Amount, and Relative Probability of Reinforcement 134
Positive and Negative Reinforcement 134
Punishment 134
The Sources of Reinforcement and Punishment 135
Some Individuals Are More Likely to Be Reinforced for Delinquency than Others 135
Intermittent Reinforcement 137
Discriminative Stimuli 137
Research on the Reinforcement and Punishment of Delinquency 138
Beliefs Favorable to Delinquency 138
Generally Approve of Minor Delinquency 139
Conditionally Approve of Delinquency, Including Some Serious Delinquency 139
General Values Conducive to Delinquency 140
Where Do the Beliefs Favorable to Delinquency Come From? 141
The Imitation of Delinquent Models 141
Summary 144
Teaching Aids 144
Controversial Cases 144
Web-Based Exercise: Learning to Hate 146
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 147
Thought and Discussion Questions 147
8
9
Key Terms 148 Endnotes 148
Control Theory 149
Why Do Juveniles Conform (and Sometimes Deviate)? 150
How Is Control Theory Similar to and Different from Social Learning Theory? 151
What Are the Major Types of Control (or Restraints to Delinquency)? 152
Direct Control 153
Stake in Conformity 155
Belief 157
Self-Control 159
Summary 160
Teaching Aids 161
Controversial Issue: The Nature of Human Nature 161
Controversial Methods for Increasing Direct Control 162
Web-Based Exercise: Where Do Theories Come From? 163
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 163
Thought and Discussion Questions 164
Key Terms 164
Endnotes 164
Labeling Theory 166
Background on Labeling Theory 168
How Do Others React to the Juvenile’s Delinquency? 169
Harsh/Rejecting Reaction 169
Failure to Respond to the Juvenile’s Delinquency 171
“Condemn the Delinquency but Accept the Juvenile” Reaction 172
Summary 173
Why Does the Harsh/Rejecting Reaction Lead to Further Delinquency? 173
Reduces Control 173
Increases Strain 174
Increases the Social Learning of Delinquency 174
Creates a Delinquent Self-Concept 175
What Determines Whether Juveniles Experience the Harsh/Rejecting Reaction? 175
Are Some Juveniles More Likely than Others to Respond to the Harsh/Rejecting Reaction with Further Delinquency? 179
The Evidence on Labeling Theory 180
Summary 182
Teaching Aids 183
Controversial Issue #1: Going Too Far? Zero-Tolerance
Policies in the Nation’s Schools 183
Controversial Issue #2: Is It Sometimes Best to Ignore Delinquency? 184
Web-Based Exercise: Applying Labeling Theory (Race and Labeling) 184
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 185
Thought and Discussion Questions 185
Key Terms 186
Endnotes 186
10
The Life Course 187
Why Do Most Individuals Increase Their Levels of Offending During Adolescence? 189
The Biological and Social Changes Associated with Adolescence 189
A Reduction in Control 190
An Increase in the Social Learning for Crime 191
An Increase in Strain 191
Summary 192
Why Do a Small Percentage of Individuals Offend at High Rates over Much of Their Lives? 192
Traits Conducive to Crime 195
Poor Parenting 195
High Rates of Offending over the Life Course 196
Summary 196
Summary 197
Teaching Aids 197
Web-Based Exercise: Comparing Adult and Juvenile Offenders 197
Controversial Issue: An Evolutionary Theory of Adolescence-Limited Offending 197
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 199
Thought and Discussion Questions 199
Key Terms 199
Endnotes 199
11 Is Delinquency More Likely in Certain Types of Situations? 201
What Types of Situations Are Most Conducive to Delinquency? 202
Strain Theory: Situational Strains 203
Strain Theory: Situational Factors that Increase the Likelihood of Delinquent
Coping 204
Social Learning and Control Theories: The Benefits and Costs of Delinquency 205
Attractive Targets 206
The Absence of Capable Guardians 208
The Presence of Delinquent Peers 208
Summary 208
What Factors Influence the Likelihood that Predisposed Offenders Will Encounter Situations Conducive to Delinquency? 209
The Nature of the Individual’s Routine Activities 210
Factors Influencing Routine Activities 211
Summary 212
Summary 212
Teaching Aids 212
12
Applying the Research: Examining the Routine Activities of College Students 212
Web-Based Exercise: Crime Prevention
Through Environmental Design 213
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 213
Thought and Discussion Questions 214
Key Terms 214
Endnotes 214
Group Differences in Delinquency 215
Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Some Communities than in Others? 216
What Are the Characteristics of High-Crime Neighborhoods and Cities? 217
Summary 219
Are Communities with Characteristics Conducive to Crime Becoming More Common? 219
Why Are Deprived Communities Higher in Crime? 223
Deprived Communities Are Higher in Strain 223
Deprived Communities Are Lower in Control 225
Deprived Communities Foster the Social Learning of Crime 227
Community Crime Rates Reduce Control, Foster the Social Learning of Crime, and Increase Strain 229
Overview of the Leading Theories of Delinquency 230
Teaching Aids 231
Exercise: Increasing Community Control 231
Exercise: Explaining Other Group Differences in Crime 232
Web-Based Exercise: Societal Differences in Crime and Delinquency 232
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 233
Thought and Discussion Questions 234
Key Terms 234
Endnotes 234
PART 3
The Causes of Delinquency: Research
13 Individual Traits 241
237
Are Juveniles with Certain Traits More Likely to Engage in Delinquency? 242
Low Verbal IQ 243
Low Self-Control 243
Irritability 244
Summary 245
Why Are Some Individuals More Likely than Others to Possess These Traits? 245
Biological Influences on Traits 245
Environmental Influences on Traits 248
Is Mental Illness Related to Violence? 250
Summary 252
Teaching Aids 252
Controversial Issue: Should Delinquents
Be Held Responsible for Their Behavior? 252
Web-Based Exercise: Programs for Mentally Ill Offenders 253
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 253
Thought and Discussion Questions 254
Key Terms 254
Endnotes 254
14 The Family 256
The Effect of the Family on Delinquency 257
Family Structure 258
Are Juveniles from Single-Parent Homes More Delinquent? 258
Does the Mother’s Employment Outside the Home Increase Delinquency? 259
Does Placing Juveniles in Childcare Facilities Increase the Likelihood of Delinquency? 260
Are Teenage Parents More Likely to Have Delinquent Children? 261
Are Juveniles from Large Families More Delinquent? 261
Parental and Sibling Crime/Deviance 262
Are Juveniles with Criminal or Deviant Parents and Siblings More Likely to Be Delinquent? 262
The Quality of Family Relationships 263
Are Juveniles Who Have Warm or Close Relationships with Their Parents Less Delinquent? 263
Parental Socialization 265
What Should Parents Do to Teach Their Children to Avoid Delinquency? 265
What Should Parents Do to Teach Their Children to Engage in Conventional Behavior? 268
Summary 269
Why Do Some Parents Employ Poor Parenting Practices? 269
A Note on Genes, Parenting, and Delinquency 270
Teaching Aids 271
Exercise: Putting Your Knowledge to Use 271
Web-Based Exercise: An Inside Look at a Troubled Family 271
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 271
Thought and Discussion Questions 272
Key Terms 272
Endnotes 273
15 The School 275
What School Experiences Contribute to Delinquency? 276
Do School Experiences Cause Delinquency? 277
Why Do Some Juveniles Have Negative School Experiences? 278
School Characteristics and Delinquency 279
How Much Delinquency Occurs at School? 279
How Can We Explain School Differences in Delinquency? 283
Teaching Aids 285
Applying Theories and Research 285
Web-Based Exercise: More Information on School Violence, Including Bullying 286
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 286
Thought and Discussion Questions 287
Key Terms 287
Endnotes 287
16
Delinquent Peers and Gangs 289
What Impact Do Delinquent Peers Have on Delinquency? 290
Under What Conditions Are Delinquent Peers Most Likely to Cause Delinquency? 291
What Are Delinquent Peer Groups Like? 292
Why Are Individuals in Delinquent Groups More Likely to Engage in Delinquency? 293
Why Are Some Juveniles More Likely than Others to Get Involved with Delinquent Peers? 294
What Impact Do Gangs Have on Delinquency? 295
What Is a Street Gang? 295
How Common Are Gangs? 296
Are Gangs Becoming More Common? 296
What Effect Do Gangs Have on Crime and Delinquency? 297
What Are the Characteristics of Gang Members? 299
How Are Gangs Organized or Structured? 300
What Are Female Gangs Like? 300
Why Do Some Juveniles Join Gangs? 301
Why Do Some Communities Develop Gangs? 304
How Can We Explain Long-Term Trends in Gang Activity? 304
Summary 306
Teaching Aids 306
Controversial Issue: What Is a Gang? 306
Web-Based Exercise: An Examination of Two Major Gangs 306
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 307
Thought and Discussion Questions 308
Key Terms 308
Endnotes 308
17
Other Social Influences 311
Does Religion Reduce Delinquency? 312
The Evidence 313
Does Work Reduce Delinquency Among Juveniles Attending School? 314
The Evidence 314
Does Mass Media Violence Cause Violence Among Juveniles? 315
TV and Movie Violence 315
Violent Video Games 317
Music with Violent Themes 318
Does Media Violence Affect Some Juveniles More than Others? 319
Summary 319
Does Social Media Engagement Increase the Risk of Delinquent Behavior? 321
The Evidence 322
Summary 323
Do Drugs Increase the Likelihood of Delinquency? 324
Reasons that Drugs May Affect Delinquency 324
The Evidence 327
Do Guns Increase the Likelihood of Delinquency? 327
How Common Is Gun Ownership and Possession Among Juveniles? 328
Do Guns Contribute to Delinquency? 330
Do Guns Prevent More Crime than They Contribute To? 332
Summary 333
Teaching Aids 333
Controversial Issue: Should Marijuana Be Legalized? 333
Web-Based Exercise: Guns Across the Globe 335
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 335
Thought and Discussion Questions 336
Endnotes 336
18 Pulling It All Together 339
A Brief Review of the Theories and Research on the Causes of Delinquency 341
Theories 341
Research 342
A General Theory of Delinquency 343
The Major Direct Causes of Delinquency and Why They Cause It 343
How All These Clusters Are Related 344
How Biological Factors and the Larger Social Environment Affect the Clusters 345
Explaining Group Differences In Delinquency 347
Using the General Theory to Explain Why Males Have Higher Rates of Delinquency than Females 347
The Special Role of Sexual Abuse in Explaining Serious Female Offending 349
An Overview of the General Theory of Delinquency 349
Teaching Aids 349
Web-Based Exercise: Applying the General Theory 349
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 350
Thought and Discussion Questions 350
Key Terms 351
Endnotes 351
PART 4
The Control and Prevention of Delinquency
19 Policies and Programs 357
The Experimental Model for Determining Program Effectiveness 358
The Importance of Doing Randomized Experiments 361
Problems in Doing Randomized Experiments 363
353
What If One Is Not Able to Do a Randomized Experiment? 364
Why Are Some Programs Ineffective at Reducing Delinquency? 365
Summary 366
Teaching Aids 366
Web-Based Exercise: The Importance (and Sometimes Neglect) of Good Evaluation Research 366
Some Challenges 367
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 367
Thought and Discussion Questions 368
Key Terms 368
Answers to Challenges 368
Endnote 369
20 The Police 370
How Do the Police Operate? 371
Preventive Patrol Is the Major Type of Policing 371
The Police Spend Only a Small Amount of Their Time Dealing with Crime 372
Policing Is Primarily Reactive in Nature 372
When the Police Do Discover or Hear About a Crime, They Usually Do Not Catch the Offender 372
If the Police Do Catch a Suspect, They Usually Do Not Arrest the Person 373
How Effective Is Preventive Patrol? 374
How Can the Police Increase Their Effectiveness? 374
Will Hiring More Police Reduce Delinquency? 374
Will Police Crackdowns Reduce Delinquency? 375
Will Community Policing Reduce Delinquency? 380
Summary 385
Teaching Aids 386
Web-Based Exercises 386
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 387
Thought and Discussion Questions 388
Key Terms 388
Endnotes 388
21 Juvenile Court and Corrections 390
What Happens When Juveniles Are Sent to Juvenile Court? 391
What Are the Major Goals of Juvenile Court? 391
How Many Cases Does Juvenile Court Handle, and What Types Does the Court Deal With? 392
What Are the Major Stages in the Juvenile Court Process? 393
Juvenile Corrections: What Happens to Juveniles Who Receive a Disposition or Sentence from the Court? 401
Formal Probation 401
Intermediate Sanctions 402
A Renewed Focus on Rehabilitation 403
Out-of-Home Placements 404
Aftercare Services 411
An Overview of the Juvenile Justice Process 412
Teaching Aids 413
Controversial Issue 413
Web-Based Resources and Activities 413
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 414
Thought and Discussion Questions 415
Key Terms 415
Endnotes 416
22 The Juvenile Justice System
417
Does the Juvenile Justice System Discriminate Against African Americans? 419
The Extent of Discrimination Varies Across Police Departments and Juvenile Courts 420
The Extent of Discrimination May Vary by Type of Crime 421
Small Amounts of Discrimination at Different Points in the Juvenile Justice Process Can Have a Large Overall Effect 421
Racial Discrimination May Be Direct or Indirect 421
What Can Be Done to Address the Overrepresentation of Minorities in the Juvenile Justice System? 422
Does the Juvenile Justice System Discriminate Against the Poor and Against Males or Females? 425
Summary 426
Teaching Aids 426
Controversial Issue 426
Race and Experiences with the Police 426
Web-Based Exercise: The Disproportionate Minority Contact Initiative 427
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 427
Thought and Discussion Questions 428
Key Terms 428
Endnotes 429
23
The Strategies of Deterrence and Incapacitation
430
Are the Juvenile Court and Correctional System Tough Enough in Dealing with Offenders, Especially Serious Offenders? 432
Efforts to Get Tough with Serious Offenders 433
Some Get-Tough Measures 434
How Effective Are Get-Tough Measures, and What Can Be Done to Increase Their Effectiveness? 436
Deterrence 436
Specific Deterrence 436
General Deterrence 440
Incapacitation: Will Locking Up Delinquents Reduce Delinquency? 443
Summary 449
Teaching Aids 450
Controversial Issue: Life Without Parole for Juvenile Offenders? 450
Web-Based Exercise: Restorative Justice in Practice 451
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 451
Thought and Discussion Questions 452
Key Terms 452
Endnotes 453
24 The Strategies of Prevention and Rehabilitation 454
A Brief History of Prevention and Rehabilitation 456
How Effective Are Prevention and Rehabilitation Programs? 458
General Characteristics of Effective Prevention and Rehabilitation Programs 458
What Are the Characteristics of Successful
Prevention/Rehabilitation Programs in Different Areas? 462
Programs Focusing on the Early Family Environment 462
Parent Training Programs 464
Programs Focusing on School Factors 466
Programs Focusing on Individual Traits 468
Programs Focusing on Delinquent Peers and Gangs 470
Selected Other Prevention and Rehabilitation Programs 473
The Critical Role of Larger Social Forces in Preventing Delinquency 475
Summary 477
Teaching Aids 477
Web-Based Exercise: Finding the Latest Information on Programs and Practices for Reducing Delinquency 477
Exercise: Extend Your Knowledge of Rehabilitation and Prevention Programs 478
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 479
Thought and Discussion Questions 479
Key Terms 480 Endnotes 480
25 What Should We Do to Reduce Delinquency? 483
We Should Place More Emphasis on Prevention and Rehabilitation 484
We Should Hold Juveniles Accountable for Their Behavior and Protect the Community 486
Teaching Aids 488
Exercise: What Should We Do to Reduce Delinquency? 488
Web-Based Exercise: Interested in a Career in Criminology/Corrections? 488
Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 488
Thought and Discussion Questions 488
Endnotes 489
References 490
Photo Credits 593
Author Index 594
Subject Index 604
An Important Message for Instructors
Criminologists often complain about the limited impact of their discipline on public perceptions and crime control policy. We believe that a major reason for this limited impact lies with our introductory textbooks. Our texts are perhaps the chief way in which we communicate with the larger community. Yet, with a few notable exceptions, they do not provide students with a clear sense of what causes delinquency and what can be done to control it. Rather, our texts tend to overwhelm and confuse students. Students get lost in all the theories of delinquency that are presented; they have trouble drawing conclusions from the discussions of empirical research, since contradictory studies are often described, with little effort to sort them; and they are not provided with a good overview of the most promising approaches to delinquency control and prevention. If the readers of such texts were asked to explain why juveniles engage in delinquency or what should be done to control it, we venture to say that most would respond with blank stares or jumbled answers.
This book is very different from most delinquency texts now on the market, and those differences are described next.
MORE FOCUSED
The book is more focused than current texts. The dominant texts attempt to cover all the major research on delinquency. This text does not attempt to cover all major areas in the field. Rather, it devotes serious attention to what we consider to be the three major questions in the field: What is the nature and extent of delinquency? What are the causes of delinquency? What strategies should we employ to control delinquency? Students reading this text should be able to give reasonable answers to these questions. We are not sure that this is the case with many current texts.
At the same time, you may feel that this text does not devote adequate attention to certain topics. But the relatively low cost of this text should make it easy for you to cover whatever additional topics you like with supplemental readings. In fact, we encourage this approach. We believe it is important for students to read articles and other books that describe original research and discuss particular issues in detail. There are many wonderful articles and books on delinquency, like Code of the Street by Anderson (1999) and “The Saints and the Roughnecks” by Chambliss (1973). We think it would be unfortunate for students to take a delinquency course without being exposed to these materials. And we believe that this view is becoming more common, as reflected in the increased number of delinquency readers and “companion” texts being offered by publishers.
MORE SYNTHETIC APPROACH TO DELINQUENCY THEORY AND RESEARCH
This text differs from most current texts in that it employs a more “synthetic” approach to delinquency theory and research. Most texts spend a great deal of time describing
delinquency theories and research but make little effort to synthesize such theory and research. For example, they describe (often superficially) the four or five different versions of strain theory that now dominate the literature. They also describe the research on each of these versions of strain theory, noting both supportive and nonsupportive studies. They do not, however, attempt to draw on this theory and research in the interest of developing an up-to-date, comprehensive version of strain theory. Students reading such texts get caught up in trying to memorize all the different versions of strain theory (and other theories) and the mixed evidence on each version. They come away confused and overwhelmed. Unlike virtually all other texts, our text does not describe the different versions of all the major delinquency theories. Rather, we attempt to synthesize the best of the current delinquency theories into a set of four “generic” theories: a strain-based theory, a social learning theory, a control-based theory, and a labeling-based theory. Since these generic theories represent a synthesis of the best of current theory and research, our empirical assessments of them are somewhat more optimistic than those found in other textbooks.
After presenting the four generic theories, we devote several chapters to the major research on the causes of delinquency, including the research on individual traits, family factors, school experiences, and delinquent peer groups and gangs. We make a special effort to state, in a clear, concise manner, the major conclusions that can be drawn from these different areas of research. At the same time, we make note of problems in the research, and we attempt to sort through contradictory studies where necessary. The final section of the book, Part 4, provides an overview of the police, the juvenile courts, and juvenile corrections. It then discusses four general strategies for controlling delinquency: deterrence, incapacitation, prevention, and rehabilitation. We describe the evidence on the effectiveness of these strategies and discuss ways to increase their effectiveness. While we provide examples of successful programs and policies in these areas, our major focus is on describing the general features of those programs and policies that appear to be the most successful.
Many instructors may object to this synthetic approach, especially as it applies to delinquency theories. We do not explicitly discuss certain popular theories. The four theories we present, however, dominate the delinquency literature, and we believe that they capture the essential ideas of most other theories. In particular, our discussion of these four theories presents the major arguments associated with rational choice, routine activities, self-control, life course, social disorganization, subcultural deviance, and certain aspects of conflict and feminist theories. To give a few examples, we describe how these theories explain patterns of offending over the life course, and in doing so we present the essential ideas from the leading theories of crime and the life course. We describe how these theories explain why crime is more likely in some situations than others, and in doing so we present the essential ideas of rational choice and routine activities theories. In addition, we describe how these theories explain why some communities have higher rates of delinquency than others, which allows us to present the essential ideas of social disorganization, subcultural deviance, and macro-strain theories. Like Bernard and Snipes (1996) and others, we believe that there are too many theories in criminology. We think that the essential ideas of most theories can be presented in terms of the four generic theories, making life much simpler for students and researchers and making criminology more useful for policy makers.
MORE STUDENT (AND INSTRUCTOR) FRIENDLY
We have done several things to make this text more student (and instructor) friendly. Unlike most other texts, this book is organized around questions rather than topics. For example, instead of a long section on “the sociodemographic correlates of delinquency,”
Part 1 of the text is entitled “Who Is Most Likely to Engage in Delinquency?” Students find questions more interesting than topics; questions invite students to become more actively involved in the learning process, and questions better convey what the research process is about—answering questions that researchers feel are interesting and important (see Goldsmid and Wilson, 1980). The subheadings under each question essentially form a sentence outline of the book. Students, then, can gain a quick overview of each chapter and part before reading it, and they can easily review the major points of each chapter/part after reading it.
The book also has a common theme: using the four delinquency theories to understand the basic facts about delinquency, to interpret the research on the causes of delinquency, and to evaluate and develop policies for the control of delinquency. For example, we stress that much of the research on delinquency was inspired by the four theories discussed and that all the research is interpretable in terms of these theories. To illustrate, the biopsychological research describes several traits that are conducive to crime, such as impulsivity and irritability. We stress that the effect of these traits on crime can be explained in terms of the four theories: Such traits increase strain, reduce concern for the costs of crime, make crime seem more rewarding, and increase the likelihood of negative labeling. The decision to use the four major delinquency theories as described helps students master the material, since the book comes across as an integrated whole rather than a series of discrete facts. Chapters build on one another, and certain points are re-emphasized throughout the text.
The book is written in a more informal, conversational style than is found in most texts. We believe this makes the material more interesting and accessible to students. Further, the book is divided into 25 relatively short chapters, each focusing on a particular topic, which makes it easier for instructors to assign readings. With other texts, instructors frequently end up assigning portions of a chapter (e.g., the four and a half pages that deal with strain theory). Students should also appreciate the fact that the chapters are shorter and generally more coherent than those in many other texts. Although the chapters build on each other, they also can stand alone. This fact, along with the relatively short length and focused nature of the chapters, makes it possible for instructors to adopt the textbook flexibly. Instructors may choose, for example, to assign some, but not necessarily all the chapters. And in most cases, it is reasonable to assign multiple chapters in a single week. (Note: See the sample syllabus included with the instructor resources for this textbook. Be sure to contact your local Oxford sales representative to gain access to the ancillary resource center).
Further, in the current edition of the text, “special topics” boxes are presented in most every chapter. The boxes, which cover events from the news, controversies, and case studies related to juvenile delinquency, are designed to stimulate student interest. We believe that students will find the material engaging and thought-provoking, and instructors can use the boxes as vehicles for launching classroom discussion. To this end, each box concludes with at least one discussion question.
Finally, each chapter contains a section titled Teaching Aids, including student exercises or controversial cases for students to consider, questions designed to test students’ knowledge of the chapter, a list of key terms, and questions designed to encourage independent thinking and foster further discussion. Many of the teaching aids can form the basis for classroom activities and discussions. (Additional suggestions for class activities and lectures are contained in the Instructor’s Manual that accompanies this text.)
Having said all this, we should note that this book does not contain a lot of illustrations or tables. These features are nice, but we avoid them for two reasons. First, we want to keep the cost of the book as low as possible. In our experience, students prefer a cheaper textbook to one with a lot of pictures. Second, many students ignore tables and figures,
and many others are overwhelmed by them. Rather than presenting students with a lot of numbers, we prefer to stress the essential points that the numbers are designed to convey.
PROMOTES ACTIVE LEARNING
Our text attempts to promote active learning, especially the application of text materials. Most notably, students are provided with numerous examples of how one might use the major theories of delinquency to explain the basic facts about delinquency, to understand the research on the causes of delinquency, and to develop and evaluate programs and policies for controlling delinquency. Also, students are frequently asked to engage in such applications themselves. Students are asked, as well, to apply the text materials to their own lives. In particular, we pose questions for students throughout the text. And we do the same at the end of each chapter, in the sections titled Teaching Aids. This emphasis on the application of text materials is crucial in our view: it dramatically increases the students’ understanding of the materials, which are of little use unless students develop the ability to apply them.
Further, the text not only describes what criminologists know about delinquency, it also gives students a sense of how criminologists know what they know, that is, how criminologists collect and analyze data. In particular, we spend much time discussing how criminologists measure delinquency, how they test theories—especially how they determine whether one variable causes another—and how they determine whether a program or policy is effective in controlling delinquency. Students, then, are not asked to accept the findings of criminology on faith. They are given a sense of what the research process is like. We frequently apply these materials, pointing to problems in research studies and noting the need for further research in certain areas. Further, we ask the students to apply these materials.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
• Greater emphasis throughout the textbook on the interplay of risk factors, with examples and illustrations showing how risk factors often work together in producing delinquency.
• New coverage of trauma, trauma-informed practice in juvenile justice, and cross-national differences in juvenile justice.
• Expanded coverage of police–community relations; “civil citation” diversion programs; Supreme Court decisions; children’s exposure to violence; and concentrated poverty, including trends and causes as they relate to delinquency.
• Additional special topics boxes that discuss and analyze current events, controversies, and case studies related to juvenile delinquency. Each box concludes with questions designed to stimulate student interest and discussion.
• Each chapter has been updated to fully reflect the latest research on juvenile delinquency and juvenile justice, including up-to-date statistical information.
WE APPRECIATE YOUR FEEDBACK
We are most interested in receiving your impressions of the text, including things that you like and do not like (e.g., topics that we should devote more coverage to, sections that are unclear or too dry, statements that you disagree with, literature that we should have cited). We will consider your comments carefully when revising the text. Please e-mail the second author at tbrezina@gsu.edu or write to him at the Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology, Georgia State University, P.O. Box 3992, Atlanta, GA 30302-3992.
