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IntroductiontoBioplastics Engineering
PLASTICSDESIGNLIBRARY(PDL)
PDLHANDBOOKSERIES
SeriesEditor:SinaEbnesajjad,PhD(sina@FluoroConsultants.com) President,FluoroConsultantsGroup,LLC ChaddsFord,PA,USA www.FluoroConsultants.com
The PDLHandbookSeries isaimedatawiderangeofengineersandotherprofessionalsworking intheplasticsindustry,andrelatedsectorsusingplasticsandadhesives.
PDLisaseriesofdatabooks,referenceworksandpracticalguidescoveringplasticsengineering, applications,processing,andmanufacturing,andappliedaspectsofpolymerscience,elastomers, andadhesives.
RecentTitlesintheSeries
Biopolymers:ProcessingandProducts,MichaelNiaounakis(ISBN:9780323266987)
Biopolymers:Reuse,Recycling,andDisposal,MichaelNiaounakis(ISBN:9781455731459) CarbonNanotubeReinforcedComposites,MarcioLoos(ISBN:9781455731954) Extrusion,2e,JohnWagner&EldridgeMount(ISBN:9781437734812)
Fluoroplastics,Volume1,2e,SinaEbnesajjad(ISBN:9781455731992)
HandbookofBiopolymersandBiodegradablePlastics,SinaEbnesajjad(ISBN:9781455728343) HandbookofMoldedPartShrinkageandWarpage,JerryFischer(ISBN:9781455725977)
HandbookofPolymerApplicationsinMedicineandMedicalDevices,KayvonModjarrad&Sina Ebnesajjad(ISBN:9780323228053)
HandbookofThermoplasticElastomers,JiriGDrobny(ISBN:9780323221368)
HandbookofThermosetPlastics,2e,HannaDodiuk&SidneyGoodman(ISBN:9781455731077)
HighPerformancePolymers,2e,JohannesKarlFink(ISBN:9780323312226)
IntroductiontoFluoropolymers,SinaEbnesajjad(ISBN:9781455774425)
IonizingRadiationandPolymers,JiriGDrobny(ISBN:9781455778812)
ManufacturingFlexiblePackaging,ThomasDunn(ISBN:9780323264365)
PlasticFilmsinFoodPackaging,SinaEbnesajjad(ISBN:9781455731121)
PlasticsinMedicalDevices,2e,VinnySastri(ISBN:9781455732012)
PolylacticAcid,Rahmatet.al.(ISBN:9781437744590)
PolyvinylFluoride,SinaEbnesajjad(ISBN:9781455778850)
ReactivePolymers,2e,JohannesKarlFink(ISBN:9781455731497)
TheEffectofCreepandOtherTimeRelatedFactorsonPlasticsandElastomers,3e,Laurence McKeen(ISBN:9780323353137)
TheEffectofLongTermThermalExposureonPlasticsandElastomers,LaurenceMcKeen(ISBN: 9780323221085)
TheEffectofSterilizationonPlasticsandElastomers,3e,LaurenceMcKeen(ISBN: 9781455725984)
TheEffectofTemperatureandOtherFactorsonPlasticsandElastomers,3e,LaurenceMcKeen (ISBN:9780323310161)
TheEffectofUVLightandWeatheronPlasticsandElastomers,3e,LaurenceMcKeen(ISBN: 9781455728510)
ThermoformingofSingleandMultilayerLaminates,AliAshter(ISBN:9781455731725)
ThermoplasticsandThermoplasticComposites,2e,MichelBiron(ISBN:9781455778980)
ThermosetsandComposites,2e,MichelBiron(ISBN:9781455731244)
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IntroductiontoBioplastics Engineering
SyedAliAshter
R&DEndovascular
MaquetGetingeGroup
Merrimack,NH,USA
WilliamAndrewisanimprintofElsevier
WilliamAndrewisanimprintofElsevier
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Preface
IntroductiontoBioplasticsEngineeringisapractical,user-friendly referenceforplasticsengineersworkingwithbiopolymersandbiodegradableplastics.Thisbookprovidesplasticsengineersandresearchers withafundamental,practicalunderstandingofthedifferencesbetween bioplasticsandbiodegradablepolymersandguidanceonthedifferent methodsusedtoprocessbioplastics.Thisbookalsocoversadditives andmodifiersforbiopolymersandtheireffectonproperties.Examples areincludedofcommercialapplicationsofbioplastics,aswellasnew bioplasticsbeingdevelopedandfuturetrendsintheindustry.
IntroductiontoBioplasticsEngineeringconsistsof10chaptersthat willenableengineers,researchers,technicians,andstudentsasound understandingonbioplasticbackgroundanditsmarket.Chapter1: Introductionprovidesdiscussiononglobalbioplasticmarket,current materialandmarkettrends,andlimitationtowardbiopolymercommercialization.Chapter2:OverviewofBiodegradablePolymersfocuseson definingbiodegradable,biopolymer,bio-based,andoxo-degradable terminologies.
Chapter3:MechanismsofPolymerDegradationreviewsdifferent mechanismsofpolymerdegradation.Inthischapter,degradationmechanismoffivedifferentengineeringpolymers,someofwhicharecommerciallyavailableandsomethathaspotentialforthefuture. Chapter4:FundamentalsonBiodegradabilitywilldiscussfundamentals onbiodegradability,testingstandards,andwaystomeasurebiodegradability.Chapter5:TypesofBiodegradablePolymerswillreview differenttypesofbio-basedandsyntheticbiopolymers.Itwillalsohighlightonpolymersderivedfrommonomersaswellasbio-derived polyethylene.
Chapter6:AdditivesandModifiersforBiopolymerstalksaboutdifferenttypesofadditivesandmodifiersforbiopolymersandstudytheir effectsonproperties.Chapter7:ProcessingBiodegradablePolymers includesdiscussionondifferentwaystoprocessbiodegradablepolymers.Processingofsomeofthecommercialbiodegradablepolymers willalsobediscussed.Chapter8:ExtrusionofBiopolymersreviews extrusionofbiopolymers.Inthischapter,conventionalextrusion
processforbiopolymerprocessing,starchextrusion,anddifferentextrusionscrewdesignswillbediscussed.
Chapter9:CommercialApplicationsofBioplasticsdiscussesdifferentareasofcommercialapplicationsofbiodegradableplasticssuchas packaging,bagsandsacks,disposablehousewares,agricultureand horticulture,medicaldevices,consumerelectronics,andautomotive. Newdevelopmentsofbioplasticinmaterial,processing,andapplicationsarereviewedinChapter10:NewDevelopments.
Acknowledgments
IwouldliketoshowmysincereappreciationtoProfessorStephen BurkeDriscollfromPlasticsEngineeringDepartment,Universityof MassachusettsLowellforprovidingvaluableinputsandguidance. IwouldalsoliketothankDrSinaEbnesajjad,PlasticsDesignLibrary HandbookSerieseditorforhissupportandconstantmentoringduring thebook-writingprocess.Iwouldalsoliketothankmyfamily especiallymywife,Tahira,andmytwokids,ZaynandNoorfortheir unconditionalsupport.Thisworkwouldhaveneverbeencompleted otherwise.
1.1Background
Overthelastseveralyears,productionofpolymersfromrenewable resourceshasshownsignificantgrowth.Someoftheplasticsproduced fromrenewableresourcessuchasvegetableoil,corn,andpeastarch havebeensynthesizedbymicrobesandareknownasbioplastics.Its developmentisdrivenbycurrentdemandstoreplacefossilfuel based polymers.Limitationinfossilfuelresources,pricevolatility,impacton theenvironment,andwastedisposalproblemsaresomeofthemain reasonsforthisshifttowardbio-basedplastics.
Theuseofnaturalpolymersisnotanewidea. Fig.1.1a c shows naturalresinslikeamber,shellac,andguttaperchathatwereused duringRomanTimesandtheMiddleAges [1 3].NativeAmericans weredevelopingandrefiningtechniquesformakingladlesandspoons fromanimalhornslongbeforetherewasanyEuropeancontact.Initial developmentworkbeganinthe1920swhenFordMotorCo.began experimentingwithsoybeansintheautomobiles.However,itallbegan inthe1940swhenFordMotorCo.gaveago-aheadtoproduceplastic partsfromsoybeanstosupporttheideaofsustainability [4]
Bioplasticsarebroadlyclassifiedasbio-basedand/orbiodegradable. Whenthefocusofthematerialisontheoriginofthecarbonbuilding blocksandnotbywhereitgoesattheendofitsproductlife,itis termedasbio-based.Itisimportanttounderstandthatallbio-based materialsarenotoftencharacterizedasbiodegradable,andsimilarly, notallbiodegradablematerialsarebio-based.Materialisconsidered biodegradablewhenmaterialsarebrokendownundertheinfluenceof microbesandrightconditionsandusethemasfoodsource.Whena completemicrobialassimilationofthefragmentedfoodsourcehappens within180daysinacompostenvironment,itisconsideredascompostable. Fig.1.2 showspictorialdifferencebetweentwobranchesof bioplastics—bio-basedandbiodegradable,respectively [5,6].
AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials(ASTM)developeda standardizedtestmethod,ASTMD6866todeterminebio-basedcontent. Originally,developedfortheUSDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)
IntroductiontoBioplasticsEngineering.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-39396-6.00001-4
© 2016ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
2INTRODUCTIONTO BIOPLASTICS ENGINEERING
Figure1.1 NaturalresinsusedduringRomanTimesandMiddleAges: (a)Amber,(b)Shellac,and(c)GuttaPercha [1 3]
“Bio-based” feedstock
Must be certifiable as bio-based Bio-based - ASTM D6866
Bioplastics
“Biodegradable” end of life
Must be defined as certified compostable - ASTM D6868 & ASTM D6400
Figure1.2 Differentiatingbetweenbiodegradableandbio-based [6]
Bio-Preferredprogram,thistestmethodusesradiocarbondatingto determinebio-basedcontentsofmaterials.Standardizedtestmethods, ASTMD6868andASTMD6400,weredevelopedtosetspecification forcompostableplastics [5,7,8]
Fig.1.3 providesanillustrationonthelifecycleofbioplastics.Itall startswithgrowingplantssuchassugarcaneandcornthatarehighin starches.Theplantsarethenharvestedandprocessedtoextracttheir starches.Theextractedstarchesarethenrefinedandfermentedusing specialenzymesproducingchemicalcompoundthatreacttomakeplastics.Plasticsintheformofpelletsareusedtomanufactureproducts. Theproductatthisstageisfullybiodegradable.Afteritsfulluse,the productisthenplacedinanorganicwastecontainer,whichstartsthe laststageofthecycle [9,10].
Fig.1.4 showsmaterialcoordinatesystemtoclassifytypebasedon theirbio-basedcontentandbiodegradability.Thecoordinatesystemis
Figure1.3 Thelifecycleofbioplastics [9]. CTCCleanTechConsultingGmbH; WSJreporting.
4INTRODUCTIONTO BIOPLASTICS ENGINEERING
Bio-based
eg, biobased PE, PET, PA, PTT
Nonbiodegradable
Bioplastics
Bioplastics Bioplastics
Conventional plastics
eg, PE, PP, PET
eg, PLA, PHA, PBS, Starch blends
Biodegradable
eg, PBAT, PCL
Fossil-based
Figure1.4 Materialclassificationsystembasedontheirbiodegradabilityandbiobasedcontent [11]
subdividedintofourquadrants:bio-based,biodegradable,fossil-based, andnon-biodegradable.Eachquadrantrepresentsagroupofbioplastics thatareclassifiedasfollows [11]:
•Group1—Bioplasticsthatarebio-basedorpartlybio-based non-biodegradablesuchasbio-basedPE,PET,PA,andPTT.
•Group2—Bioplasticsthatarebio-basedandbiodegradable, suchasPLA,PHA,PBS,andstarchblends.
•Group3—Bioplasticsthatarefossil-basedandnonbiodegradablesuchasconventionalPE,PP,andPET.
•Group4—Bioplasticsthatarefossil-basedandbiodegradable suchasPBATandPCL.
Tohavesustainableproductionandconsumption,bioplasticshave someaddedbenefits.Someoftheseveraladvantagesareasfollows:
•Increaseinefficiency
•Renewableresourcethatcanbecultivatedannually
•Reductionincarbonfootprint
Currently,bioplasticsisininfancyandgoingthroughgrowth phase.Therearelotsofexpectationspinnedonbioplasticsandmany aspectshavetobeevaluatedtomaketheprocesscommerciallyviable.
Costfeasibilityisthemostimportantofallhowever,otherfactorssuch asconcernsaboutgeneticallymodifiedorganisms,sustainablygrown biomass,compostingprogramsandinfrastructure,lackofadequate labeling,andconcernovercontaminationofrecyclingsystemshaveto bethoroughlyunderstood.Despiteallthesepoints,bioplasticshave manymeritsoverthepetroplasticsasshownin Fig.1.5[12].
1.2UnderstandingGlobalMarkets
Bioplasticsareatypeofplasticthatcanbemadefromnatural resourcessuchasvegetableoilsandstarches.Sincebioplasticsare plant-basedproducts,theconsumptionofpetroleumfortheproduction ofplasticisexpectedtodecreaseby15 20%by2025.By2025,Asia andEuropewillhavethelargestshareofbioplasticsmarket.Asiawill accountfor32%whileEuropeat31%ofthetotalmarketfollowedby theUnitedStatesat28%.Currently,bioplasticsmarketgrowthisat 10%annuallycoveringapproximately10 15%ofthetotalplastics market.Thisnumberwouldincreaseto25 30%by2020 [13]
NovaInstitutehasdoneaglobalsurveyof247corporationscovering almostallmajorbio-basedplastics.Basedonthesurvey,theyestimate thatthebioplasticproductioncapacitywillincreasetonearly12million tonsby2020.Thiswouldincreasethebio-basedsharefrom1.5%in2011 to3%in2020.Theyestimatethatmostinvestmentinbio-basedcapacities willtakeplaceinAsiaandSouthAmericabecauseofbetteraccesstothe feedsource. Fig.1.6 showsanoverviewofthechangeinglobalbioplastics productionsbyregions [14].Europe’ssharewilldecreasefrom20%to 14%andNorthAmericawillseeadecreasefrom15%to13%.Asia’sbioplasticsproductionsharewillseeanincreasefrom52%to55%,whereas thatofSouthAmericawillseeajumpfrom13%to18%.
Can be composted locally into a soil amendment
Can contribute to healthier rural economics
Plastics industry supports more drilling
Figure1.5 Differencesbetweenbioplasticsandpetroplastics [12].
Overviewofthechangeinglobalbioplasticsproductionsbyregions [14] 6INTRODUCTIONTO
EuropeanBioplasticsAssociationestimatedthat58%of1.16million metrictonsglobalbioplasticscapacityin2011wasbio-based.Global bioplasticscapacitywillseealmostafivefoldincreasefrom2011to 2016.Thecompositionofbioplasticsproductioncapacityisalso expectedtochangesignificantlyfrom58%bio-based/non-biodegradable in2012to87%by2016.Someofthemajorfactorsdrivingthebioplastic marketarehighconsumeracceptance,highfossilfuelprices,increasein thedependenceonfossilfuels,andtheneedformoreecofriendlyproducts.AccordingtoastudybyHelmutKaiserConsultancy,lessthan3% ofallwasteplasticworldwidegetsrecycled,comparedwithrecycling ratesof30%forpaper,35%formetals,and18%forglass.Currently,the demandforbioplasticsisincreasingduetoitsrenewabilityandavailabilityofrawmaterial,advancedfunctionalityandtechnicalproperties,and therecyclingoptionthattheypresent. [13].
SomeofthemajorplayerscompetinginthismarketareCargill’s NatureWorks,DuPont,Braskem(BAK),TorayIndustries,LanxessAG, Bayer,BASF,andEastman.
1.3CurrentMaterialTrends
Oneofthemostimportantadvancementsfromthelastfewyearshas beenthedevelopmentofmaterialsthatareproducedfrommonomer buildingblocksfromthenaturalfeedstock.Thesematerialsaretermed asdrop-insandcandirectlyreplaceconventionalfossil-basedplastics. Thesedrop-insopenanewroutetoproducebimonomersthatcaneasily fitintoexistingproductioncycle.
Figure1.6
Figure1.7 Globalproductioncapacitiesofbioplastics [15].EuropeanBioplastics, InstituteforBioplasticsandBiocomposites,nova-Institute(2014).More information: www.bio-based.eu/markets and www.downloads.ifbb-hannover.de
Amongalldrop-ins,partiallybio-basedPETleadsthefield.BiobasedPETaccountsforapproximately40%oftheglobalbioplastics productioncapacity. Fig.1.7 showsglobalproductioncapacitiesofbioplastics.A10-foldincreaseto80%oftotalbioplasticsproduction capacityisexpectedin2018to5.6milliontons.Bio-basedPE(polyethylene)followsbio-basedPET,anotherdrop-inmaterialstronglydriving bioplasticsgrowthwithmorethan4%ofthebio-basedproduction capacitypredictedfor2016. Fig.1.8 showsglobalproductioncapacities ofbioplasticsbymaterialtype.Therearematerialsthathavebeenor arebeingcommercializedwhichincludebio-basednylon,polypropylene,polystyrene,polycarbonate,polyvinylchloride(PVC),andmany othertraditionalplastics.Europehastheworld’slargestmarketforbioplastics;however,productioncapacitiesofAsiaandSouthAmericaare seentorapidlygrowing. [15,16]
Starch-basedresinsandpolylacticacid(PLA)areprojectedtolead bioplasticproductsthrough2017,combiningtoaccountforover60% ofdemand.PLAdemandwillbenefitfromthedevelopmentofresins andcompoundswithenhancedperformanceformoredurableapplicationssuchasfibers,automotiveparts,andelectronicparts.
Asignificantshiftfromthefirst-generationfeedstockstosecondgenerationfeedstockssuchascellulosicswillhappenincomingyears. Cellulosicfeedstocksconsistofcropresidues,woodresidues,yard
8INTRODUCTIONTO BIOPLASTICS ENGINEERING
Figure1.8 Globalproductioncapacitiesofbioplasticsbymaterialtype [16]. EuropeanBioplastics,InstituteforBioplasticsandBiocomposites,nova-Institute (2014).Moreinformation: www.bio-based.eu/markets and www.downloads.ifbbhannover.de
waste,municipalsolidwaste,algae,orotherbiomass.Theycanbeconvertedtosugarsviavarioustechnologies,includingenzymatichydrolysisandbiomasspretreatment.Cellulosicfeedstockscurrentlyproduced arecelluloseacetatesandlignin-basedpolymers.However,inorderto generatemorecellulosicfeedstocks,sophisticatedbiorefineriesare neededthatcanperformtheprocessstepsneededtoproducevarious bio-productsasshownin Fig.1.9.Oncetheseareinplace,astreamof nonfoodcrop basedfermentablesugarswillbecomeavailablefor energy,chemicals,andpolymers [17,18]
Bio-basedadditivesandmodifiersareanotherareawhichwillseea strongdevelopment.BecauseofitsaddedadvantageandenlargedconcernsthatplasticizersusedinPVCandBisphenol-Ainpolycarbonate imposetotheenvironment,thereisadrivetofindahealthandenvironmentallyfriendlysolutions.Bio-basedadditivesarenotonlyrelevant forengineeringdurablebiopolymerswithenhancedperformancepropertiesbutalsousedtodevelopanalternativetotheconventional modifiers.Increasingly,bio-basedformulationsarealsobeingusedto
Biorefinery concept
Biomass
Sugar platform “Biochemical”
platform “Thermochemical”
modifyconventionalmaterials,asthesehavebeenfoundtoenhancethe performanceofthesematerialsinvariouswayswhileatthesametime improvingtheircarbonfootprint [19]
MetabolixInc.hasdevelopedaseriesofPHA-basedpolymericmodifiersthatdemonstrateverygoodmiscibilitywithPVCandimproveits mechanicalandenvironmentalperformancecharacteristics.Thisadditive andmodifierissoldunderthetradenameMirelasshownin Fig.1.10 Similarly,MitsubishiChemicalproducesapolycarbonateinwhichthe Bisphenol-Aishasbeenreplacedbyisosorbide,abiomonomerthatcan
Figure1.10 PHA-basedpolymericmodifierdevelopedbyMETABOLIX [20]
Figure1.9 Aconceptofbiorefinery [18]
besafelyusedinfoodapplications.Isosorbide-basedcopolyestersare extremelypromisingmaterialsthatofferenhancedperformanceproperties.PLA,blendedwithPMMA,enhancestheprocessabilityandother propertiesfarbeyondthoseofconventionalacrylicresins [20].
1.4CurrentMarketTrends
Fig.1.11 showsglobalproductioncapacitiesofbioplasticsbymarket segment.Bioplasticsaresegmentedintoavarietyofapplicationsincludingpackaging,agriculture,foodservices,automotive,consumerelectronics,householdappliances,andconsumergoods.Bioplasticsmarkets willseehighgrowthsover6billionUSdollarsin2015whichisexpected tosignificantlygrowtoover12.5billionUSdollarby2020 [21].Rigid packagingwilloutpaceothermarketsbyshowinghighergrowthespeciallyinfoodandbeveragepacking,cateringproducts,andbags [16]
Figure1.11 Globalproductioncapacitiesofbioplasticsby2018 [16].European Bioplastics,InstituteforBioplasticsandBiocomposites,nova-Institute(2014).More information: www.bio-based.eu/markets and www.downloads.ifbb-hannover.de
Fig.1.12 showsbioplasticsapplicationbymarketshare.Thepackagingindustrybyitselfrepresentsthebiggestapplicationfieldofthese materials.Itisestimatedthat66%oftheglobalbioplasticproductionis usedinpackagingapplicationsanditwillrepresentupto80%ofits globalproductioninthecomingyears [22]
Fig.1.13 showspackagingapplicationsinthebioplasticsindustry. TheincreaseinpackagingismainlyduetotheincreaseinPETmanufacturedbottlesmadefromrenewablesources [23]
Packagingbeingthelargestapplication,themostcommonbioplasticsthatisusedforfoodpackagingapplicationsareplasticsbased onstarchorcellulose,PLA,polyvinylalcohol,aliphatic aromatic
Figure1.12 Bioplasticsapplicationbymarketshare [22]
Figure1.13 Packagingapplicationsinbioplasticsindustry [23]
copolyestersandpolyethylene(PE )andpolyethyleneterephthalate (PET)partiallyorcompletelyobtainedfromrenewablesources(BioPEand/orBio-PET).Someofthebioplasticsapplicationsbymarket shareareshownin Fig.1.14. Figure1.14
Figure1.14 (Continued)
1.5BarrierstoBiopolymerCommercialization
Biopolymerdevelopmentisstillinitsearlystages.Duetothegrowingneedsofthecustomers,thereisastrongdemandtodevelopproductsthatareenvironment-friendlyandsustainable.However, biopolymerinnovationstomarketposesignificanttechnologicaland applicationchallenges.Constantincreaseindemandtomanufacture biopolymersfromtheplantsputpressureonagriculturalcropsasthey havetosatisfytheneedsoftheevergrowingpopulation.Inaddition, poorperformancecharacteristicsandhighcostwhencomparedagainst conventionalpolymersarethekeydrawback.Highinvestmentcoststo processbiopolymersalsoposesasachallenge [36]
Thetechnologytodevelopnumberofbio-basednon-biodegradable biopolymerslikePA6,PA66,andBio-PPisstillinitsinfancyperiod, andthesebiopolymersareyettomatureatcommercialstages.Plastic processingtechnologiesthatcanefficientlyprocessnewgenerationof
Figure1.14 (Continued)
Bio-based 19501960197019801990 Time 20002010
Figure1.15 Majordifferencesbetweenconventionalplasticsandbioplastics [37].
biopolymersneedtobedevelopedandhenceposeanothermajor challenge.Theproductperformanceofbiopolymersinthemarketis directlyassociatedwiththeirbio-basedcontentinbioplastics.Theareaof challengeisindevelopingtherighttoolthatcanaccuratelymeasurebiobasedcontentforbio-basedbiodegradableaswellasnon-biodegradable bioplastics [37].
Biopolymersfacesignificantchallengesintakingproductstomarket fasterandfocusonquicksolutionsbyintegratingtheproductintothe existingstructures.Thegrowthofbiopolymersishamperedbytheirpoor pricecompetitivenessandlackofappropriatefeedstocks. Fig.1.15 shows howbiopolymermarketisdoingagainstconventionalpolymer.Overthe lastdecade,biopolymermarkethasseenlargegrowth;however,there existconsiderablegapforbiopolymermarketrealization [37].
Incomparisontoconventionalpolymers,biopolymersarestillin theirearlygrowthphase.Theyareyettoestablishproventechnologyto drivegrowththroughinnovation,haveaproductionplatformtooperate withreliability,establishareliablesupply-chainandestablishcustomer basebymarketingtheproduct.
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16INTRODUCTIONTO BIOPLASTICS ENGINEERING
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1:INTRODUCTION
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2OverviewofBiodegradable Polymers
2.1Introduction
Duetotheincreasedconsumptionoffossil-basedfuel,resource limitation,pricefluctuation,andimpactontheenvironment,therehas beenaconsiderableshifttowardusingbiodegradablematerials [1] Polymermaterialsarecomprisedofrepeatingmacromoleculesknown asmerunits.Eachmerunitiscalledamonomer,whilemultiplerepeatingunitsareknownaspolymers. Fig.2.1 showsexamplesofthemer unitsfordifferentpolymersystems [2].
Plasticsthatarederivedfromfossil-basedfeedstocksresistdegradation leadingtodiscussionsonhowtodisposethem.Thesediscussionshave beencriticaltowardthedevelopmentofbiodegradablepolymers.As shownin Fig.2.2,biodegradablepolymerscomefromvarioussources, fromnaturaltosyntheticpolymers.Naturalpolymersareavailablein largequantitiesfromrenewablesources,whilesyntheticpolymersare producedfromnonrenewablepetroleumresources [3,4].Renewable resourcefeedstocksalsoincludemicrobiallygrownpolymersandthose extractedfromstarch [5].
Fig.2.3 showsatypicalbiodegradationprocess.Inthisprocess, organicmoleculesintheenvironmentarebrokendownintosimpler compoundsbybreakingbonds,eitherhydrolyticallyorbyusingbacteria,fungi,yeast,andtheirenzymes [6].Undertheidealconditionsof temperature,moisture,andoxygen,biodegradationprocesshappens relativelyfast [6].Materialusageandfinalmodeofbiodegradation aredependentonthecompositionandprocessingmethodemployed. Anintegratedwastemanagementsystemmaybenecessaryinorderto efficientlyuse,recycle,anddisposeofbiopolymermaterials.Reduction intheconsumptionofsources,reuseofexistingmaterials,andrecycling ofdiscardedmaterialsmustallbeconsidered.
Biodegradablepolymersarethesolutiontodisposalproblems commonlyencounteredwithconventionalpolymers.Inthecaseof biodegradablepolymers,itisnotnecessarytorecycleaftertheendof itsusefullifeandtheycanbeleftintheenvironmenttobiodegrade.
IntroductiontoBioplasticsEngineering.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-39396-6.00002-6
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