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InnovationStrategiesin EnvironmentalScience Editedby CharisM.Galanakis
Research & InnovationDepartment, GalanakisLaboratories, Chania,Greece FoodWasteRecoveryGroup, ISEKIFoodAssociation, Vienna,Austria
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Contributors LauraM.Avellaneda-Rivera UniversityofCastilla-LaMancha,Albacete,Spain
MarcoBellucci DepartmentofEconomicsandManagement,UniversityofFlorence, Florence,Italy
LauraBini DepartmentofEconomicsandManagement,UniversityofFlorence,Florence,Italy
LeonardoBorsacchi ARCO(ActionResearchforCO-development),PINScrl-Universityof Florence,Prato,Italy
PauloAugustoCauchick-Miguel Post-graduatePrograminProductionEngineering,Universityof Sa ˜ oPaulo(USP),Sa ˜ oPaulo,Brazil;DepartmentofProductionandSystemsEngineering,Federal UniversityofSantaCatarina(UFSC),Floriano ´ polis,Brazil
AttilaGere SzentIstva ´ nUniversity,Budapest,Hungary
FrancescoGiunta DepartmentofEconomicsandManagement,UniversityofFlorence, Florence,Italy
PeiSeanGoh AdvancedMembraneTechnologyResearchCentre,SchoolofChemicaland EnergyEngineering,FacultyofEngineering,UniversitiTeknologiMalaysia,JohorBahru, Johor,Malaysia
A ´ ngelaGonza ´ lez-Moreno UniversityofCastilla-LaMancha,Albacete,Spain
NidalHilal CentreforwaterAdvancedTechnologiesandEnvironmentalResearch(CWATER), CollegeofEngineering,SwanseaUniversity,Swansea,UnitedKingdom
AhmadFauziIsmail AdvancedMembraneTechnologyResearchCentre,SchoolofChemicaland EnergyEngineering,FacultyofEngineering,UniversitiTeknologiMalaysia,JohorBahru, Johor,Malaysia
DanielJugend ProductionEngineeringDepartment,Sa ˜ oPauloStateUniversity(UNESP), Bauru,SP
AngeloVarandasJunior Post-graduatePrograminProductionEngineering,Universityof Sa ˜ oPaulo(USP),Sa ˜ oPaulo,Brazil
XiaodongLai SchoolofEconomicsandManagement,SouthChinaNormalUniversity,Guangzhou,China
JunWeiLim DepartmentofFundamentalandAppliedSciences,UniversitiTeknologiPETRONAS,SeriIskandar,Perak,Malaysia
Joa ˜ oVictorRojasLuiz ProductionEngineeringDepartment,SaoPauloStateUniversity (UNESP),Bauru,SP
OksanaMakarchuk NationalUniversityofLifeandEnvironmentalSciencesofUkraine-NULES, Kiev,Ukraine
LisaMelander DepartmentofTechnologyManagementandEconomics,ChalmersUniversityof Technology,Gothenburg,Sweden
PiergiuseppeMorone Unitelma-SapienzaUniversityofRome,Rome,Italy
HowardMoskowitz MindGenomicsAdvisors,WhitePlains,NY,UnitedStates
PetraqPapajorgij UniversitetiEuropianiTiranes,Tirane,Albania
PatriziaPinelli DepartmentofStatistics,ComputerScience,Applications“GiuseppeParenti” (DiSIA),UniversityofFlorence,Florence,Italy
MarcoAntonioPaulaPinheiro ProductionEngineeringDepartment,Sa ˜ oPauloStateUniversity (UNESP),Bauru,SP
DalmaRadva ´ nyi CentreforAgriculturalResearch,HungarianAcademyofSciences,Plant ProtectionInstitute,Martonva ´ sa ´ r,Hungary
FranciscoJ.Sa ´ ez-Martı´nez UniversityofCastilla-LaMancha,Albacete,Spain
QianShi SchoolofEconomicsandManagement,TongjiUniversity,Shanghai,China
EdgardoSica DepartmentofEconomics,UniversityofFoggia,Foggia,Italy
TuckWhyeWong AdvancedMembraneTechnologyResearchCentre,SchoolofChemicaland EnergyEngineering,FacultyofEngineering,UniversitiTeknologiMalaysia,JohorBahru,Johor, Malaysia
RyanZemel LimbicReviews,Inc.,DownersGrove,IL,UnitedStates
Preface Environmentalscienceandtechnology(wastewatermanagement,renewableenergy technologies,wastedisposal,etc.)helpinimprovingthenaturalenvironmentsthatgive healthylifetohumanbeingsbyprovidingpurewater,air,andlandandalsokeepingthe areapollution-free.Inaddition,consumersandcompaniesnowadaysarelookingfor alternativestomitigatepressingenvironmentaldemandsresultingfromcontinuous populationandeconomicgrowth.Nevertheless,itisnotasecretthattheenvironmental sectorislatelyfacingtechnicalandeconomicchangesinspiteofsociety,processing,and legislation.Thisfacthassignificantlyaffectedtheentiresector,forcingpublicauthorities andinvolvedcompaniestopaygreaterattentiontodevelopingprocesses,services,and productsthatmeetpeople’sdemandsforacleanerenvironment,cleanerproduction,anda moresustainableworld.Atthesametime,companiesmustdealwithanincreasingly competitivescenarioinwhichinnovationisasurvivalrequirementinmostmarkets.
Asaconsequence,thereisanextensivedialogueabouttheneedtointroduceeconomically viableinnovationsinordertooptimizeperformanceandmakeforevenmoreenvironmental sustainability.Innovationsintheenvironmentalsectortargetthegenerationofmore effectiveprocesses,technologies,services,solutions,andproductsthatarereadilyavailable tomarkets,publicauthorities,andsociety.However,eventhoughresearchersand companiesdevelopcontinuouslyinnovativeproducts,servicesandtreatmenttechnologies, theirapplicationsencounterseveralobstacles.Thelastisconcernedmorewiththe introductionofinnovationsduetolegislation,publicopinion,andotherissuesandlesswith thetechnologicaladequacyoftheinnovativetechniques.Forinstance,ecodesignisknown tocontributetoenvironmentalsustainabilityviathedevelopmentofeco-friendlyproducts; however,manystudieshavepointedoutdifficultiesinadoptingecodesignforpractitioners andscholars.
Ontheotherhand,mostbooksreportthecharacteristicsofinnovativetechnologies, products,etc.,butlackinformationabouthowtheseinnovationscouldbeimplementedin theenvironmentalsector e.g.,overcominglimitations,interactionsbetweenacademia andindustry,transferofknow-how,andmeetingpublicexpectationsandenvironmental concerns.Thereisalsoalackofinterpretationbetweentheinformationreceivedby researchersandtechnologyendusers.
TheFoodWasteRecoveryGroup(www.foodwasterecovery.group oftheISEKIFood Association)isorganizingdifferenttraininganddevelopmentactionsinthefieldoffood andenvironmentalscienceandtechnology e.g.,abasictheory(“TheUniversalRecovery Strategy”),areferencemodule,ane-course,trainingworkshops,webinars,anexperts’ database,andnewschannels(socialmediapages,videos,andblogs)forthetimely disseminationofknowledgeandanopeninnovationnetworkaimedatbridgingthegap betweenacademiaandthefoodindustry.Inaddition,thegrouphaspublishedbooksdealing withfoodwasterecoverytechnologies,differentfoodprocessingby-products’valorizations (fromolives,grapes,cereals,coffee,meat,etc.),sustainablefoodsystems,andinnovations inthefoodindustry,amongothers.Followingtheseefforts,thecurrentbookaimstoaddress theongoinginnovationsintheenvironmentalsectorbyprovidingtools,ideas,andstrategies toovercomebottleneckstotheirpracticalimplementation.Theultimategoalistobridgethe gapbetweenresearchers,strategydevelopers,andtechnicalassociates(scientistsand engineers).
Thebookconsistsof9chapters.Nowadays,thechallengesrelatedtothetransformationof thewastemanagementsystemintoa“green”systemcannotbeaddressedonlyby consideringincremental(technological)improvementsinrecoveringwastebecause addressingthesechallengesrequiresanoverallparadigmshift.Startingfromthesepremises, Chapter1discussesthepressurespushingcurrentwastemanagementsystemstobecome greener,emphasizingtheUkrainiancasestudy.Theanalysisisframedwithinthetheoryof sociotechnicaltransitionsandamultilevelperspective,investigatingtheroleplayedby landscapeactorsinexerting“narrativepressure”upontheongoingwastesector.
Thegrowingawarenessofenvironmentalsustainabilityhasfullyreachedbusinessreality; meanwhile,systematicacademicresearchisparamounttoguidingcompaniestosucceedin productinnovationtowardthisapproach.Chapter2consolidatesextantresearchand aggregatefindingsofdifferentstudiesonenvironmentallysustainableproductinnovation throughaninterpretativeframeworkofpublishedliteratureonthetopicandmapscritical successfactorsthatdriveproductinnovationdevelopedwiththisnewlogicofproduction andconsumption.
InChapter3,similarities,differences,andpotentialconnectionsbetweentwo complementaryapproachesarepresented,aimedatunderstandingopinionsregardingthe controversialtopicofpowersources.Thefirstmethodistheemergingandincreasingly populartechnologyof“textmining,”whichusestextasinputsfrompeopleandanalyzesthe structureofsuchtexts.Freelyemittedtextallowsunderstandingoftheunderlyingmind-sets ofthepeoplegeneratingthetext.Thesecondmethod,“mindgenomics,”comprises designedexperiments,usingpeople’ssystematicallyvariedtextstounderstandthe“algebra ofthemind.”Thereferredempiricalstudyinvolvedthemindgenomicsassessmentofsolar andnuclearenergy,respectively.
Chapter4discussestheintersectionsamongenvironmentalsustainabilityengagementof companies,processinnovationandsustainablebusinessmodels.Manytheoretical
frameworks(includingstakeholder,legitimacy,institutional,andsignalingtheories)offer economicandinstitutionalrationalesthatelucidatewhyenvironmentalsustainabilityhas becomeapriorityforcompanies.Sincethediscussiononenvironmentalsustainabilityof companieshasshiftedonthemechanismsthatallowanimplementationintheirbusiness models,thischapterdiscussestheroleofinnovationtowardsustainablebusinessmodels, alsofromabusinesscaseperspective,andreviewsasetofframeworkscapableoforienting theimplementationsofsustainabilitywithintheoperationsofacompany.
InChapter5,thestudyofnewknowledgeopportunitiesthroughopeninnovationtoachieve environmentalimprovementsintraditionalindustriesisdiscussed.Bystudyingthe propertiesofsuchcooperationnetworks,theresultsintwoindustriesarepresentedusing datafromPITEC(2011)foramanufacturingagrifoodindustryandatourismservice industry.BothindustrieshaveconsiderableeconomicweightincountrieslikeSpain,but eachhasadifferentstrategicbehaviortowardeco-innovation,includingindustriesthatproducesimilarproductsorservices.Inaddition,thechapterhighlightstheimportanceof studyingthedepthandbreadthofrelationshipswithexternalsourcesforenvironmentalpurposes,reachingdifferentconclusionsdependingontheanalyzedindustry.
Ecodesignistodayrecognizedasapracticetoreduceenvironmentalimpactsintheearly phasesofnewproductdevelopmentaswellasduringtheproductlifecycle.Therefore, Chapter6discussesecodesignpracticesandtoolsfromthreenewproductdevelopment perspectives.Thefirstemphasizestheimportanceofintegratingecodesignintheprocessof newproductdevelopmentandproductportfoliodecision-making.Thesecondperspective dealswithmethodsandtoolsthatfosterpracticalapplicationsofecodesignlike environmentalqualityfunctiondeployment,materials,energy,andtoxicitymatrix. Thereafter,thepredominantissuesthatmotivateecodesignarediscussedinadditiontosome barrierstoadoptingit.Finally,thechapterdescribessomeexamplesofecodesignresearch andapplicationsinBraziliancompanies.
Chapter7aimstohelpresearchersandpractitionersunderstandwhatissuesorsubjectshave beenaddressedingreenandlow-carbontechnologyinnovationandinitiateajourneyforthe nextgenerationofsustainable-orientedresearch.TheresearchofWesternEuropeandNorth Americaishighlyadvancedcomparedwiththatofdevelopingcountries,especiallyinterms ofnewresourceandrenewableenergytechnologyinnovation.Likewise,empiricalresearch isprevalentoverothermethods e.g.,samplesurveysandfieldstudieswithprimarydata comparedwithconceptual,qualitative,andformalmodelresearch.Sofar,theresearch fieldshavemainlyfocusedontechnologyadoption,diffusion,transfer,policymakingor implementation,andadvancedtechnologydevelopment.Newvibrancyofadvancedtheoreticalandmethodologicalresearchisparticularlyneeded,especiallyforlow-carbontechnologyinnovationtrajectory,performanceevaluation,governmentpolicyinstruments,and multilevelcooperationamongenterprises,governments,andnongovernmental organizations.
Sustainabilityisalsoamajorconcerninthewatersector.Indeed,compliancewithcurrent legislationalonedoesnotseemtobeenoughforfacingmajorchallengessuchasclimate changeorpopulationgrowthandconcentration;thereby,companiesshoulddecidetotakea stepforward.Chapter8focusesontheenvironmentalresponsibilityofsmall-and medium-sizedenterprisesinthewaterandwastemanagementsector,analyzingthedrivers thatleadthesefirmstoadoptionofmoresustainableandinnovativepractices.Marketpull hasalowincidenceinencouragingenvironmentalresponsibility,whilevaluesandthe strategicdecisionsofentrepreneursseemdecisive.Policymakersshouldprioritizesubsidies overfiscalincentivesbecausetheyshowgreaterpotentialtopromotetheadoptionof environmentalresponsibilityamongthesefirms.
Chapter9discussestheapplicationofmembranetechnologiesforwastewatertreatmentand desalination,highlightingadvantages,disadvantages,bottlenecks,andinnovationbarriers upontheactualandsustainableimplementationofthesetechnologiesinthefield.The chapterfocusesonthedevelopmentofmembraneprocessesforseveralnicheareas includingheavymetalandcolorremoval,oilywastewatertreatment,desalination,and energygeneration.Atthemoment,manyfabricationmethodshavebeenestablishedand successfullyimplementedformembranemodificationinordertoimprovemembrane separationperformance,andlong-termstability.Theselectionofanappropriatemethod stronglyreliesonthecompatibilityofmembranematerialswithadditives,durabilityof membranematerialstowardmodificationsthatmightinvolveharshconditions, cost-effectiveness,purposeofseparation,andtypesofoperationsaswellaspracticability forlarge-scaleoperationssothattheyarecommerciallyattractive.
Conclusively,thebookaddressesenvironmentaltechnologists,professionals,specialists, andstudentsworkingorstudyingintheenvironmentalsector.Itconcernsresearchers workinginthewholeenvironmentalscienceandtechnologyfieldaswellasscientistsin transitionfromactiveresearchtoadministration,inboththeacademyandindustry.Itcould beusedbyuniversitylibrariesasatextbookandasancillaryreadingingraduate-and postgraduate-levelcoursesinenvironmentalscience,technology,andinnovationfieldsas wellasenvironmentalmanagementprogramsandbusinessschools.Thebookcanalsobea usefulguideforresearchanddevelopmentcompanieswhointendtoinvestigateandutilize technologiestoreduceandcontrolenvironmentalpollution.
Iwouldliketoacknowledgealltheauthorsfortheacceptanceofmyinvitationandtheir fruitfulcollaborationinthisbookproject.Theirdedicationtoeditorialguidelinesand timelinesishighlyappreciated.Inaddition,Iconsidermyselffortunatetohavehadthe opportunitytoworktogetherwithinternationalexpertsfromAlbania,Brazil,China, Hungary,Italy,Malaysia,Sweden,Spain,theUK,Ukraine,andtheUSA.Iwouldalsolike tothankacquisitioneditorJancoCandice,bookmanagerKaterinaZaliva,andElsevier’s productionteamfortheirhelpduringeditingandproduction.
Lastbutnotleast,Ihaveamessageforeveryindividualreaderofthisbook.Thisbook containsscientificfeedbackdescribedbymorethan100,000words.Itistherefore impossibleforittonotcontainanyerrorsorgaps.Ifyoufindanythingamissorhaveany suggestionorcomment,pleasedonothesitatetocontactmeforfurtherdiscussion.
CharisM.Galanakis http://charisgalanakis.info
FoodWasteRecoveryGroup http://foodwasterecovery.group ISEKIFoodAssociation
Vienna,Austria foodwasterecoverygroup@gmail.com
Research&InnovationDepartment GalanakisLaboratories https://chemlab.gr/ Chania,Greece cgalanakis@chemlab.gr
Fromwastetovalue:assessingthe pressurestowardasustainability transitionoftheUkrainianwaste managementsystem PiergiuseppeMorone1,EdgardoSica2,OksanaMakarchuk3
1Unitelma-SapienzaUniversityofRome,Rome,Italy; 2DepartmentofEconomics,Universityof Foggia,Foggia,Italy; 3NationalUniversityofLifeandEnvironmentalSciencesofUkraine-NULES, Kiev,Ukraine
ChapterOutline
1.Introduction1
2.Theoreticalframework4
2.1Thehierarchyofwaste4
2.2Wastesectorandsociotechnicaltransitions7
3.TheUkrainianwastemanagementsystem10
3.1Background10
3.2Statisticaldata15
4.Methodology22
5.Results23
6.Conclusions27 References29
1.Introduction
Wasterepresentsoneofthemostimportantenvironmentalproblemsworldwide. Calculationofthequantityofwastegloballyproducedremainsproblematic,butits amountcontinuestorisemainlyowingtotheincreasingworldpopulation,urbanization, andthechangeinconsumptionpatterns(Xueetal.,2008).AccordingtoWorldBank estimations,theamountofsolidwastegeneratedintheworld’scitiesin2016reached2.01 billiontonsandisexpectedtoincreaseby70%to3.40billiontonsin2050(Kazaetal., 2018).Indeed,thequantityandcontentofwastegeneratedinacountryarerelatedtosome
extenttothesizeofthepopulationandmaydiffersignificantlyacrossregionsorcities; developingeconomiesexhibitalargerproportionofwastecomparedwithdeveloped ones(WorldBank,2012;HoornwegandBhada-Tata,2012).Datasuggestthatdailyper capitawastegenerationinhigh-incomeandlow/middle-incomecountriesisexpectedto increase,respectively,by19%and40%by2050(Kazaetal.,2018).
AccordingtoDirective2008/98/EuropeanCommunity(EC),wasteis“anysubstanceor objectwhichtheholderdiscardsorintendsorisrequiredtodiscard.”Alargepartofitis representedbymunicipalsolidwaste,whereaswastewaterisgenerallyclassifiedwithinthe waterorindustrysectorsandwastefromminingandquarryingandfromconstructionand demolitionasmajormineralwastes.Municipalsolidwasteiscomposedofelectronic waste(e-waste)(e.g.,discardedcomputers,mobilephones,homeelectricalequipment suchTVs,fridges,etc.),constructionanddemolitionwaste,healthcarewaste,agricultural residues,andwasteproducedbyhouseholds,offices,shops,schools,andindustries.The lastoneincludesfoodwaste,gardenandparkwaste,paper,wood,textiles,rubber,plastics, metal,andglass(UNEP,2013).Theincorrectdisposalofwastecancausedirectand indirectproblemsfortheenvironmentandhumanhealththroughmanypathwaysand mechanisms(UNEPandUNU,2009).Forinstance,methaneproducedinlandfillsby microorganismsfrombiodegradablewaste(e.g.,food,paper,andgardenwaste)isoneof themostpowerfulgasescontributingtoairpollutionthroughozonelayerdepletion. Moreover,ifliquidleachateescapesfromlandfillsintothesurroundingsoil,arelevant threattolocalsurfaceandgroundwatersystemsisposedowingtothehighlevelsof chemicalcompounds,pesticides,andsolventsreleased.Similarly,heavymetals,polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons,polychlorinatedbiphenyls,andbrominatedflameretardants containedine-wastehavepotentiallydangerousoutcomesifimproperlydisposedof. Alongwithenvironmentalconsequences,poorwastemanagementcanhaveanegative impactonhumanhealth,mainlyintermsofbirthdefectsandreproductivedisorders. Indeed,peoplelivingintheproximityofalandfillareexposedtoanumberofhealthrisks resultingfromexposuretopollutantsthroughtheinhalationofsubstancesemittedbythe site,contactwithpollutedsoil,andtheconsumptionofcontaminatedwater(WorldHealth Organization,2016).Theappropriatemanagementofwaste(inwhichgeneration,storage, collection,transport,processing,andwastedisposalareaccomplishedinawaythatbest addressestherangeofpublichealth,economic,engineering,andotherenvironmental considerations)-isthereforerecognizedasessentialforachievingthegoalofsustainable development(UNHSP,2010;UNEP,2011a).
Fromahistoricalpointofview,thewastemanagementsystem(WMS)essentially dealtwithremovingpotentiallyharmfulmaterialsfromurbanizedareas (Papargyropoulouetal.,2014;Wilsonetal.,2012).However,thisapproach,whichis basedoncollectingwasteandtransportingitdisposalsites,seemstobeoutdated (Jouharaetal.,2017).Indeed,theincreasingemergenceofenvironmentalandhuman
healthproblemsassociatedwithwastehasraisedtheneedforagreenerWMSwhose primarygoalsshouldbetoreducetheadverseimpactsofwasteandsupporteconomic developmentandasuperiorqualityoflife(BringezuandBleischwitz,2009).
Accordingtothisperspective,theWMSneedstobetransformedintoamoreholistic approachwhoserelatedchallengesshoul dbeaddressedthroughan overallparadigm shift,i.e.,aradicalchangeinvolvingtheinfrastructural,institutional,andsocial dimensions(Markardetal.,2012).Inotherwords,followingacirculareconomy approach,thegreeningoftheWMSshouldbeaccompaniedbyasociotechnical transitiontowardanewandmoresustainableregime(Geels,2018 ).Indeed,along withincrementaltechnologicalimprovementsinrecoveringanddisposingofwaste, wastemanagementproblemsencompassanumberofelementssuchasmarkets,user practices,culturalmeanings,infrastructures,policies,industrystructures,andsupply anddistributionchains,whichcanbeunitarilyconsideredthroughthe multidimensionalandcoevolutiveperspectiveofsociotechnicaltransitions(Zarate etal.,2008).Acoreissueinthisapproachistherelationbetween stability and change.Greeninnovationsandpracticesinthefieldofwastemanagementstruggle againstthecurrentlocked-insystemthatcreatesstableandpath-dependenttrajectories (Walker,2000).Thetransitionapproachinvolvesalong-termhorizonthatconsiders thetimeneededforchangesintechnologies,fromtheirearlyemergenceinsmallapplicationnichestowidespreaddiffusionaswellasthetimenecessarytodestabilize andunlockthedominantsystemandovercomeresistancefromincumbentactors (Rotmansetal.,2001).
Startingfromthesepremises,thecurrentchapterinvestigatesthecaseoftheUkrainian WMSbyidentifyingactorsthatexertpressureonthesystemtobecomegreener,aswellas thechannelsthroughwhichsuchactorsapplypressure.Inotherwords,weanalyzethe pressuresthecurrent(unsustainable)regimeisreceivingregardingasystemapproachfor reducing,recycling,andreusingwaste,encouragingtherecyclingofrawmaterialsfrom products,movingtowardnear-zerowaste,andpreparingandpromotinginnovation procurementforresourceefficiency.
TheUkrainiancasestudyisparticularlyrelevantbecauseofthemagnitudeoftheproblem (i.e.,theamountofwastegeneratedatthecountrylevel,comparedwithotherdeveloped economies)andthegenerallackofadequateinfrastructuresforefficientwaste management.Thehighlevelofwasteproducedandthelowrateofitsuseassecondary rawmaterialsledtothesignificantaccumulationofwastefromtheindustrialand municipalsectors,whichendedupinlandfills.TheUkrainianCabinetofMinisters approvedthe2030NationalWasteManagementStrategyonNovember8,2017.Its priorityistheconversionofwasteintoenergythroughextensivetechnological modernization.Thestrategyenvisagesintroducingcirculareconomyprinciplesby encouragingwastepreventionandrecycling.
2.Theoreticalframework 2.1Thehierarchyofwaste Asdiscussedin Section1,therelevanceofenvironmentalandhealthimplicationsarising fromimproperwastedisposalmakesthegreentransformationoftheWMSanescalating concern.Atoolcommonlyemployedtodescribetheorderofpreferredactionsfor reducingandmanagingwasteaccordingtotheassumedenvironmentalimpactsis representedbythewastehierarchy,whichassessesprocessesthatprotecttheenvironment andhumanhealthfromleasttomostfavorable(HultmanandCorvellec,2012).Thewaste hierarchycanbetracedbacktothe1970s,whentheenvironmentalmovementstartedto critiquethepracticeofdisposal-basedWMS.Themovementsupportedtheideathatwaste isawholeofdifferentmaterialsthatshouldbetreateddifferentlyratherthana homogeneousmasstobeburied(Schall,1992).Inparticular,somematerialsshouldnotbe producedatall,othersoughttobereused,recycled,orcomposted,othersburned,and othersburied(GertsakisandLewis,2003).Thediffusionofthewastehierarchy significantlyinfluencedwastemanagementinmanycountries,evenwhenthegreen transformationofWMShadalreadybegun(Partoetal.,2007;DijkgraafandVollebergh, 2004).ItwasintroducedforthefirsttimeintheEuropeanUnion(EU)policyin1975 throughtheWasteFrameworkDirective(1975/442/EEC).Later,theCommunityStrategy forWasteManagement(EC,1989)arguedthatpreventionrepresentsthefirstguidelinein wastemanagementandthatwastethatcannotbepreventedshouldberecycledorreused, andthatonlywhentheselasttwooptionsarenotfeasibleshoulditbedisposed.In2008, Directive2008/98/ECintroducedanewfive-stephierarchytotheEU’swastelegislation whichmemberstatesmustintroduceintonationalwastemanagementlaws.Althoughthe Directive2008/98/ECadvisesmemberstatestoconsiderbothsocialandeconomicimpacts alongwithenvironmentalones,thewastehierarchyfocusesprimarilyonenvironmental overeconomicfactors(Papargyropoulouetal.,2014).
Overall,thehierarchyisfoundedontheprinciplesofminimizingthedepletionofnatural resources,preventingwaste,andusinglifecyclethinking,byestablishingpreferred programprioritiesbasedonsustainability(UNEP,2011b).Thepriorityorderbetween alternativesisrelatedtotheabilityofeachoptiontoachievediversionfromthelandfill (VanEwijkandStegemann,2016).Accordingly,themostpreferredoptionisrepresented byprevention,followedbyreuse,recycling,andrecovery(includingenergyrecovery)and, asalastoption,safedisposal.Inthisframework,thefirstpriority(prevention)aimsto avoidandreducethegenerationofwastebyencouragingconsumers,producers,and governmenttominimizetheamountofmaterialsextractedandused.Preventioncanbe achievedbyfollowinganumberofnewbehaviorssuchasselectinggoodswiththeleast packagingorthatrequirethefewestresourcestobeproduced,avoidingdisposablegoods orsingle-usematerials,buyingrecycled,reusable,orbiodegradableproducts,andusing
leftoverfoodratherthanthrowingitaway.Thesecondpriority(preparingforreuse)aims atprovidingproductswithasecondlifebeforetheybecomewastethroughsubstitution(so thatnonewmaterialisnecessarytofulfilltheneed)and/orpostponing(byextendingtheir lifethroughgoodmaintenancepractices,repair,andrefurbishment).Reusedoesnot requirefurtherprocessing,sothethirdprioritywithinthewastehierarchy(recycling) consistsofprocessingwastematerialstoproducethesameoranewgood,thuskeeping materialsintheproductiveeconomyandminimizingtheneedfornewmaterialsandwaste absorption.Recyclingcaninvolveanumberofdifferentmaterialssuchasaluminum, copper,steel,rubbertires,polyethyleneandpolyethyleneterephthalatebottles,glass, paperboardcartons,andlightpaper.However,whenwastecannotbepreventedand materialscannotbereusedorrecycled,thefourthpriority(recovery)aimstopromote technologiesforextractingenergyfrommaterialsinsteadofmassburningorganicwaste withnoenergyrecovery.Onlyfromthispointon,discardedmaterialsareconsidered waste.Morespecifically,energyrecoveryrepresentstheconversionofnonrecyclablewaste materialsintousableandrenewableenergy(heat,electricity,andfuel)throughavarietyof processes.Thiscontributestoreduceairemissionsbyreducingmethanegeneratedfrom landfillsandoffsettingtheneedforenergyproducedfromtraditionalfossilsources.One ofthemostwidespreadthermaltreatmentsemployedtorecoverenergyisrepresentedby incineration,whichreducesthevolumeofdisposedwastebyupto90%andproducesgas thatcanbeexploitedtocreatesteam(MarshallandFarahbakhsh,2013).Pyrolysisand gasificationaretwomoreadvancedthermalwastetreatments:thefirstrepresentsthe thermochemicaldecompositionoforganicmaterialatahightemperatureintogas,oil,and charintheabsenceorpresenceofasmallamountofoxygen,whereasthesecondtakes placeinanatmospherepoorinoxygen,whichproducescharandsynthesisgas (KlinghofferandCastaldi,2013).However,bothofthemstillhaveanumberoftechnical limitationsandinefficienciesmainlybecausesomeoftheenergyproducedmustbe necessarilybeemployedtopowertheprocess,whichreducestheoverallbenefits (DEFRA,2013;Linetal.,2013;Mohanetal.,2006).Incontrast,aparticularlyviable optionforrecyclingtheorganicfractionofmunicipalsolidwasteisrepresentedby anaerobicdigestion,whichproducesbiogas,amixofmethane,carbondioxide,andother gasesinsmallquantitiesthatcanbeconvertedtogenerateelectricityandheat,andasa substitutefornaturalgasandtransportationfuel(Xuetal.,2016).Moreover,thedigested slurrycanbefurtherprocessedtoobtaincompostandliquidfertilizer(Khalidetal.,2011). Alongwithturningwasteintoaresource,thecontributionofbiogastothegreenhouse effectislimited,whichisamainreasonwhyanaerobicdigestioncanhaveakeyrolein meetingtheenergyneedsofthefuture.Finally,whenmaterialsareinappropriateforreuse, recycling,orrecoveryforenergy,thefifthandleastpreferredoptioninthewastehierarchy isrepresentedbydisposal,whichrequiresspecifictreatmentstominimizeenvironmental andhealthimpacts.
Arelevantcriticismregardingthewastehierarchyisthatitorganizesprioritiesaccording toaconsensusrankingthatdoesnottakefullyintoaccountthepossibleenvironmental andhumanhealthconsequencesarisingfromadoptingeachoption(Rasmussenetal., 2005).Forinstance,recyclingcanproduceenvironmentaleffectsduringthetreatment associatedwithtransportation,energyuse,andotherresidualsthatoccurinrelationtothe recyclingprocess.Forthisreason,weshouldhavedifferenthierarchiesaccordingtothe typeofwaste,andeventhecountryanalyzed.Moreover,reuseseemsnotbeapplicablein municipalsolidwastemanagement,inwhichtheopportunitiestoachievesignificant reductionsinwastevolumesthroughreusearelimited.Similarly,thepossibilityof achievingrealenvironmentalsavingsfromrecyclingcanbelimitedorexcessively expensiveinthecaseofmanymultimaterialproducts,whichmakesthisoptionnotalways feasible.Furthermore,theliterature(Wilkinson,2002;MazzantiandZoboli,2008; Finnvedenetal.,2013)suggeststhatimplementationofthewastehierarchyhasfailedso fartoachievethemostpreferablealternativestolandfills:inparticular,preventionseems tobefarfrombeingfullyattained.Thiscanarisefromaconceptualproblemregardingthe hierarchyofwasteandmoregenerallytheWMS,whichincludespreventionalthough wastemanagersseemsubstantiallypowerless(VanEwijkandStegemann,2016).Indeed,a WMSisconceivedofasasetoftasksrangingfromwastegeneration(i.e.,thewholeof activitiesinvolvedinidentifyingmaterialsthatarenolongerusable)toonsitehandling andprocessing(i.e.,activitiescarriedoutatthepointofwastegenerationtofacilitate collection),wastecollection(i.e.,activitiessuchasplacingwastecollectionbinsand collectingwastefromthosebins),wastetransferandtransport(i.e.,activitiesinvolvedin movingwastefromlocalwastecollectionsitestoregionalones),wasteprocessingand recovery(i.e.,activitiesaimedatrecoveringreusableandrecyclablematerialsfromthe wastestream),anddisposal(i.e.,activitiesforthedisposalofwastematerialsinlandfills andwaste-to-energyfacilities).Withinthisframework,althoughpreventionistraditionally associatedwiththefirsttaskexecutedfromtheWMS(i.e.,wastegeneration),itshouldbe morecorrectlyrelatedtoconsumersandcompanies’behavior,becauseoncematerialsare discardedandcollected,thereisnofurtheropportunityforprevention.Whengoodsare disposedof,thepossibilitytheirbeingreusedbecomesmuchmorecomplicatedthanthe reuseofgoodsthathavenotbeendiscarded,becausetheycannoteasilyberemovedfrom controlsonwastemanagement.Fromthisviewpoint,aradicalchangeinthewaypeople approachenvironmentalandhealthproblemsarisingfromincorrectwastedisposalis necessarybecauseevenweight-orvolume-basedcollectionfeesthatactasadeterrentto disposaldonotdiscriminatebetweengoodsthatmustbedisposedofandthosethatcanbe reusedorrecycled.
Despitesuchshortcomings,thehierarchyofwasterepresentsarelevantand environmentallydesirableapproachtoachievingthegreeningoftheWMSbasedonthe
importanceofwastediversionfromthelandfilltosafeguardtheenvironmentandhuman health.However,itspracticalapplicationrequiresadeepchangeinthewastemanagement technologiesemployedaswellasthebehaviorsofallactorsinvolvedintheprocess.In otherwords,itmustbesustainedbyasociotechnicaltransitionabletoencompassthe radicalchangesnecessaryattheinfrastructural,institutional,political,andsociallevelsto achievethegoalofagreenwastesector.Forthisreason,inthecurrentwork,we investigatethegreeningoftheWMSintheframeworkofsustainabletransitions,i.e., sociotechnicaltransitionstowardamoresustainableregime.
2.2Wastesectorandsociotechnicaltransitions Environmentalandhealthhumanproblemsarisingfromtheincorrectdisposalofwaste involvealargescaleandcomplexlevel;consequently,theymustbeaddressedthrough moresubstantialshiftsthanbymeansofincrementalgreentechnologies(Elzenetal., 2004).Withinthisperspective,theapproachofsociotechnicaltransitionsconsidersthe multipleactorsanddisruptive,long-term,andnonlinearprocessessurroundingtheshift towardagreenWMS,otherthantocaptureuncertaintystemmingfromthenonlinear characterofpolitical,sociocultural,andinnovationprocessesrelatedtowaste management.Thesetransitionsarelabeledsociotechnicalbecausethey“notonlyentail newtechnologies,butalsochangesinmarkets,userpractices,policyandcultural meanings”(Geels,2010:495).Oneofthemainorientingframeworksemployedinthe literaturetoinvestigatesociotechnicaltransitionsisrepresentedbythemultilevel perspective(MLP),whichdescribestransitionsintermsofalignmentwithinandamong threeanalyticallevels:nicheinnovations,sociotechnicalregimes,andthesociotechnical landscape(foragraphicalrepresentationofthebasicmodel,see Geels,2011,p.28).
Accordingtothisviewpoint,theMLPrepr esentsaninnovativeanalyticalframeworkthat ismorecomprehensivethanamicrofocusonsingleeconomicagentsandatthesame timemoreconcretethanamacrofocusonthegreeneconomy(Geels,2018).
Thesociotechnicalregimerepresentsthemesolevelunitofanalysis.Itcanbedefinedasa stableconfigurationofinstitutions,techniquesandartifacts,rules,andpracticesthat determinethenormaldevelopmentanduseoftechnologies.Inotherwords,theregime representstheexistingwayofdoingthings,suchasdesigningandmanufacturingproducts, framingexpectations,andassigningvalues(Pesch,2014).Thedifferentsocialgroups (engineers,scientists,policymakers,andusers)involvedintheregimeembeda semicoherentsetofrulesandcognitiveroutinessupportiveoftheexistingsystem, opposingresistancetoanypossibletransitiontowardanewsociotechnicalsystem(Fallde andEklund,2015).Normally,aregimeacceptsnormallyincrementalinnovationsinthe shorttermandradicalinnovationsonlyinthelongterm.
Thenicheinnovationslevelrepresentsthemicrolevelandconsistsofprotectiveapplication spacesorincubatorrooms(niches)fortechnologiesthatdeviatefromexistingregimes. Nichesaimtoenhancethefurtherdevelopmentandrateofapplicationofnew technologies,enablinglearningregardingexpectations,networks,andtechnicalfeatures. Althoughnicheinnovationsmayperformpoorlyinmoreconventionalterms(forexample, intermsofprice),theyaregiventheopportunitytobeevaluatedandtomaturethrough gradualexperimentationandlearningbynicheactors(producers,users,researchers,andso on)(Steinhilberetal.,2013).
Finally,thesociotechnicallandscaperepresentsthemacrolevel.Itcanbeconsideredan externalstructureorcontextforinteractionsofactorsinwhichanumberofdifferentand heterogeneousforcesexertpressureuponthemesolevelandmicrolevel(i.e.,theregime andtheniche).Thelandscapeincludesfactorsthatdonotchangeorthatchangeonly slowly(e.g.,theclimate,culturalvalues,demographictrends,broadpoliticalchanges)as wellasrapidexogenousshocks(e.g.,wars,economiccrises,shocksinoilprices) (SoderholmandWihlborg,2015).
Therelationamongthesethreelevelscanbeexplainedasfollows.Thesociotechnical regimeaccountsforthedynamicstabilityofexistingtechnologicaldevelopments,because itguidesinnovativeactivitybymeansofincrementalinnovationsalongtrajectories.The sociotechnicallandscapeconsistsofchangingexternalfactorsthatprovidedeepstructural gradientsofforce,makingsometrajectorieseasierthanothers.Finally,theniche innovationslevelaccountsforthedevelopmentofradicalinnovations(GeelsandSchot, 2007).Thethreelevelsaremorethanontologicaldescriptionsofthereality:theyrepresent “analyticalandheuristicconceptstounderstandthecomplexdynamicsofsociotechnical change”(Geels,2002,p.1259).
Atransitionrepresentstheemergenceofanewsociotechnicalsystemthat,inthelong term,willreplacetheexistingsystem.Itistheconsequenceofcoevolutionarydynamics thatarenotlimitedtoashiftinthetechnologiesbeingused,butthatinvolvechangesin productiontechniques,distributionnetworks,regulations,symbolicmeaning,etc.In particular,itoccurswhenpressuresfromthelandscapelevelcouplewithsufficiently developedniches(Uphametal.,2014).Accordingtothemodel,nicheinnovationsstruggle againsttheexistingregime,needingtopropagatesufficientlytotransformexisting arrangements.Theselectionandintegrationofniche-levelinnovationsbyregimesismore thanadoption,becauseregime-levelactorshavetointegratenewtechnologiesintheir practices,organizations,androutines.Whenthesociotechnicallandscapeexertsdestabilizing pressuresontheexistingregime,nicheinnovationshavetheopportunitytoemergeand competewiththeexistingregimeandeventuallygointothemainstreammarkets( Turnheim andGeels,2012).Theseconditionsdonotcause,orunidirectionallydrive,theothers,
buttheylinkupwithandreinforceeachother,followingaprocessofcircularcausality. Moreover,interactionsamongniche,regime,andlandscapeoccurfollowingseveralphases: forexample,emergence,takeoff,acceleration,andstabilization(Binderetal.,2017).
Withinthisframework, sustainability transitionscanbeconceivedofastransitionstoward amoresustainableregimeinwhichthesociotechnicalsystemencompassesthecreation, adoption,anddiffusionofsustainabletechnologiessupportedbychangesatthesocial, institutional,andpolicylevels(Loorbachetal.,2017).Comparedwithothersociotechnical transitions,theyarepurposiveandnot“emergent”becausetheyaddresspersistent environmentalissues(Geels,2011).Moreover,theymustdealwithfreeriderproblems owingtothepublicgoodnatureofthegoaladdressed(i.e.,environmentalsustainability) (Smithetal.,2005).WhenasustainabilitytransitionconcernstheWMS,itinvolvesa deepchangeinconsumers’attitudetowardwastepreventionandreuseofmaterials, accompaniedbyimprovementsinrecyclingtechniquesaswellasintechnologiesnormally employedtorecoverenergyfromwaste(KempandvanLente,2011).Afteratransition occurs,theamountofnaturalresourcesconsumedissignificantlyreduced,materialstaken fromnaturearereusedasmanytimesaspossible,andwastegeneratedisgenerallykeptto aminimum.Therefore,thetransitiontowardagreenWMSshouldbeinspiredbythe principlesofthewastehierarchy,asdiscussedintheprevioussection.
Asarguedin Section1,inthischapterweconcentrateexclusivelyonthepressuresthat thecurrentWMSreceivesatthelandscapelevel,aimedatmakingitgreenerconsistently withthecirculareconomyprinciplesmentionedearlier.Tothisend,wefollow Morone etal.(2016) and Falconeetal.(2018) bydistinguishing unintentional from intentional pressures.Thefirstrepresentsexogenousandunpredictableshocks(e.g.,earthquakes, wars)occurringatthelandscapelevelthatprovideadestabilizingpressureonthecurrent sociotechnicalregime.Incontrast,thesecondisactivitiesthataredeliberatelyexertedby actorstoinduceamisalignmentoflandscapefactorsfromtheregime.Inthiswork,we focusspecificallyon intentional pressures,assumingthatth eycanbeexertedfromtwo broadcategoriesofactors:(i) global and(ii) national actors.Morespecifically,global actorsareinstitutionsororganizationsthatcaninfluenceasustainabilityshiftina countrybyoperatingatthesupranationalorinternationallevel,whereasnational actorsareinstitutionsororganizationsactmainlyatthecountrylevel,suchasnational policymakers,grassrootsassociations,and stakeholders.Moreover,weassumethat bothglobalandnational actorsexertpressurebyadoptingeitheran(i) informal or (ii) institutional route.Thefirstworksbymeansofinformaltoolsofinfluence,andthe secondthroughdesignedpoliticalactions.Inthislight,wearethereforeabletoidentify which landscapeactors exertpressureonthegreeningoftheWMS(i.e.,“thesourceof pressure”)and theway inwhichsuchpressure isexerted(i.e.,“thetypeofpressure”).
Consequently,weidentifyfourpossiblepressuresoriginatingfromthelandscapelevel thatarisefromthecombinationofthesourceandtypeofpressure:
1.global/informalpressure(GLOB/INF)
2.global/institutionalpressure(GLOB/INST)
3.national/informalpressure(NAT/INF)
4.national/institutionalpressure(NAT/INST)
Todestabilizeanexistingsociotechnicalregime,pressureoriginatingfromthelandscape mustbebalanced.Inotherwords,anunbalancedpressure,i.e.,comingonlyfromoneor twosource(s)/type(s)couldbecompletelyineffective(CentolaandMacy,2007). Therefore,alongwithidentifyingthesourceandtypeofpressure,wewillassesstheextent towhichitisbalancedoverallacrossthefourcategories.
3.TheUkrainianwastemanagementsystem 3.1Background TheUkrainianWMSrepresentsarelevantcasestudybecausethecountrylagswell behindintermsofwasteprevention,reuse,andrecovery.Indeed,despiteaterritoryof 603,628km 2 andapopulationof44.03millionpeople,Ukrainehasonly2incineration plants,15wasteseparationplants,andnowasteprocessingplants,solargeamountsof wastearestillburiedinlandfills.Asaconsequence,thewastesectorischaracterizedby thegeneralaccumulationofwasteinboththeindustrialanddomesticsectors,the impropertreatmentanddisposalofhazardouswaste,thestorageofhouseholdwaste withoutconsideringpossiblehazardousconsequences,andtheinadequateuseofwasteas asecondaryrawmaterial(DLF,2018).Asreportedin Table1.1,theseproblemsstem
Table1.1: MainproblemsaffectingtheUkrainianwastemanagementsystem. LegalEconomic
• Imperfectsystemofresponsibilityforconsumer, producers,andauthoritiesaswellasoftender proceduresinwaste-relatedservices
• Ineffectivestatecontroloverwasteformation andlackofstructuredfinessystem
• Absenceofpublic privatepartnershipsin wastesectorowingtocomplexlegalframework
• Poorstandardsofcitizens’ecological cultureandenvironmentalconsciousness
• Generalreluctanceinhouseholdstosort garbage
• Underdevelopeddomesticmarketforrecycled materials
• Limitedinvolvementofforeigninvestorsowing toriskofcarryingoutinnovativeprocessesin thecountry
• Absenceofmotivationalcontrollingmechanism toincentiveeco-innovationsincompanies, whichlimitslandfilling
• Unsolvedlogisticsinseparationandtreatment processes
• Saturated,unsafe,andoutdatedwaste infrastructures
OwnelaborationbasedonBrauweiler,H.C.,Shkola,V.,Markova,O.,2017.Economicandlegalmechanismsofwastemanagementin Ukraine.MarketingandManagementofInnovations2,359 368. https://doi.org/10.21272/mmi.2017.2-33
fromacompositeoffailuresintheWMSthatinvolvelegal,economic,social,and technicaldimensions.
Fromalegalpointofview,theabsenceofcoordinatedwastecollectionmechanisms causesthefragmentationofresponsibilitiesinstateagenciesacrossthecountrythat hinderstheeffectivemanagementofwastedisposalandprocessing.Furthermore,Ukraine facesdifficultiesinenforcingenvironmentallegislationinthewastesector,mainlyowing toinsufficientadministrativecapacityotherthanalackoffinancialresources.Thelegal frameworkatthenationalleveliscomplex,whichlimitstheestablishmentof public privatepartnershipsthatcouldhaveadrivingroleinachievinganeffectiveand sustainableWMS.Fromaneconomicpointofview,collectiontariffsaretoolowtocover retreatmentcosts,whichlimitsprivateinvestors(includingforeignones)fromenteringthe marketforrecycledmaterials,andthuswhichisunderdeveloped.1 Moreover,theabsence ofeffectivemechanismstoidentifynormsofpaymentforgeneratedwastealongwiththe lackofgovernmentalsupportforcompaniestoemployingmodernandcleanwaste processingtechnologiesdiscourageenterprisesfromeco-innovation.Fromthesocialside, thesystemofenvironmentaleducationtopromoteenvironmentalconsciousnessin producersandconsumersisinsufficientlydeveloped,withtheconsequencethatthe standardofcitizens’ecologicalcultureislimited.Recyclingispoorlyperformedinthe countryandiscircumscribedtopaper,glass,andmetals.Indeed,awarenessofthe populationislimitedandseparatecollectionisgenerallynotimplementedevenforthe mosthazardousitems.Despitethelargerelianceofthelocalpopulationondumpingwaste inpoorlycontrolledsitesforsolidwastedisposal,someprivatecompanieshavestarted investingintherecyclingsector.Theyoperatemainlybypurchasingwastefromcitizensat specificrecyclingpointsormaterialsfromscavengers,butthevolumeofwastecollected remainstoolow,sothatmostsuchsortingfactoriesarelargelyunderused.Ontheother hand,wasteinfrastructuresareoutdated.Somelandfillswerebuiltmorethan40yearsago. Moreover,fewcompaniesinthecountryarespecializedinprocessingwasteelectricaland electronicequipment.
Thesignificantvolumesofwasteaccumulated;thelackofeffectivemeasuresaimedat preventingitsformation,useanddisposal;andtheabsenceofappropriateinfrastructures forhandlingitdeepentheecologicalcrisisofthecountryandhavebecomeabarrierto developingthenationaleconomy.Suchasituationnecessitatestheestablishmentand properfunctioningofanationwidesystemofwasteprevention,collection,recycling,and ecologicalandsafedisposalevenundertheconditionsofrelativelylimitedeconomic
1 ThecostforrecyclingwasteinUkraineisincorporatedintotariffsforhouseholdwasteandisregulatedbythe resolutionoftheCabinetofMinisters“Onapprovaloftheformationoftariffsforhouseholdwaste.”According tothisresolution,thetariffrepresentsafeeforthecollection,storage,transport,processing,recycling, disposal,anddumpingof1m3 ofwasteanditsaverageratein2016amountedonlyto65.3UAHper1m3
opportunitiesofboththestateandthemainwastegenerators.Atransitiontowardagreen andintegratedWMS,inspiredbytheprinciplesofthewastehierarchyandofthecircular economyingeneral,thusrepresentsamatterofurgencyforthecountryandiscrucialfor itsenergyandresourceindependence,tosavenaturalmaterialsandenergyresources.
Ukrainehasalargepotentialtoincreasewasterecoveryratessignificantly,reducing greenhousegasemissionsandenvironmentalandhealthrisks,butthisrequiresthe substantialreformofitswastemanagementsector(DemusandZhechkov,2014).
Ukrainiangovernmentregulationsalreadycontainanumberofbasicrequirementsfor wastemanagementcorrespondingtocertainnormsofEUlegislation.Inparticular,after issuingtheFrameworkLawonEnvironmentalProtectionin1991,thecountryadopteda numberofrelevantlegislativeinitiativesaimedatharmonizingnationalstandardswithEU directivesandcomplyingwithEUrequirements.However,themaindocumentdefiningthe UkrainianWMSisrepresentedbytheLawofMarch5,1998,No.187/98-BP(amendedin 2002,2005,and2010),knownastheAboutWastelaw.Itconsiderstherequirementsof Directive75/442/EUonwasteandofDirectiveonHazardousWaste91/689/EU.InArticle 1,thelawdefinesthemeaningoftheterm“wastemanagement”as“actionsaimedat preventingthegenerationofwaste,theircollection,transportation,sorting,storage, processing,recycling,utilization,removal,disposalandburialincludingcontrolofthese operationsandoverseeingremovallocations.”Accordingly,thewastemanagementprocess includescollection,transportation,sorting,storage,processing(recycling),utilization, removal,disposal,andburial(Fig.1.1).Thelawrecognizeswasteandresource managementasstrategicareasofcooperationregardingenvironmentalprotection, sustainabledevelopment,andthegreeneconomyunderthe EU-UkraineAssociation Agreement(2014).However,itdifferssubstantiallyfromEUlegislationindefiningthe hazardouspropertiesofwasteandtheirbasis-assignmenttothesafeorhazardouslistof waste(Zhukovskyietal.,2016).
AlthoughtheAboutWastelawrepresentedasignificantsteptowardestablishingan integratedregulationofnationalWMS,itfailedtoaddresssomerelevantaspects.In particular,itdidnotpromotetheprincipleofproducerresponsibilityforwaste,themarket principleofwastetreatmentofrecyclables,anddidnotdefineaneconomicincentivefor increasedvolumesofgreengoodsandservicesproduced.Later,theMinistryofEcology andNaturalResources(followingOrderNo.1-1/1047,May30,2011ofthePresidentof Ukraine,“OnImprovingtheEffectivenessofPublicPolicyintheFieldofWaste Management”)draftedtheResolutionoftheCabinetofMinisters,“OnApprovalofthe ConceptofNationalEnvironmentalProgramonWasteManagement,”whichwasaccepted withOrderNo.22-r,Jan.3,2013oftheCabinetofMinisters.Theprogramestablisheda numberofrelevantpointsconcerningwastecollectionandtreatment:
(i)Thedepositofmunicipalwasteofcitieswithapopulationofmorethan250,000 inhabitantsintospecializedandenvironmentallysafelandfills;
Wastes collection
Wastes transportation
Waste sorting
Wastes storage
Wastes processing (recycling)
Wastes utilization
Wastes removal
Wastes disposal
Wastes burial
Activities related to elimination, accumulation and the placement of waste in specially designated areas or objects, including waste sorting for purpose further utilization or disposal or objects, including waste sorting for purpose further utilization or disposal
Transportation of wastes from the places of their generation or storage to places or objects where they utilization or disposal
Mechanical waste distribution for their physical and chemical properties, technical components, energy value,commodity indices for the purpose of waste preparation
Temporary placement of waste in a special places or objects (before their utilization or disposal)
Carrying out of any related technological operations with a change in physical, chemical or biological properties of wastes, in order to prepare them for environmentally safe storage, transportation, utilization or disposal
Use of waste as secondary material or energy resources
Carrying out operations of wastes, which are not subject to their utilization
Reduce or eliminate waste hazard by mechanical, physical and chemical biological treatment
Final disposal of waste when removed in specially designated places or on objects in such a way that long-term harmful effects of wastes on the environment and human health not exceeding the established standards
Figure1.1
ListofwastemanagementprocessesaccordingtotheAboutWastelawofUkraine.
(ii)a1.5timesincreaseinvolumeofwasteprovision,use,anduseasrecyclable materialsuntil2020;and (iii)implementationofthelatesttechnologiesformunicipalsolidwasteuse(Demusand Zhechkov,2014).
Moreover,in2012,thegovernmentapprovedanationalplanforimplementingthe StockholmConventiononPersistentOrganicPollutants(DecreeNo.589-p,Jul.25,2012).
Morerecently,itadoptedtheNationalStrategyforWasteManagementUntil2030,which definesthemaindirectionsofthestateregulationincomingdecadesregardingwaste management.ThestrategyisinspiredbyprinciplesofEUregulationsinthisfield,andany normativeandlegalactthatwillbedevelopedandadoptedforitsimplementationwillbe basedsolelyonprovisionsofrelevantactsoftheEUlegislation,inparticularFramework DirectiveNo.2008/98/EU,“Aboutwasteandabolitionofsomedirectives,”DirectiveNo. 1999/31/EU,“Aboutdisposalofwaste,”DirectiveNo.2006/21/EC,“Onwastemanagement ofextractiveindustries,whichamendsDirectiveNo.2004/35/EU,”DirectiveNo.94/62/EU, “Onpackagingandpackagingwaste,”DirectiveNo.2012/19/EU,“Aboutwasteofelectrical andelectronicequipment,”andDirectiveNo.2006/66/EU,“Aboutbatteriesand accumulatorsandspentbatteriesandaccumulators.”Whendrawingupinternationaland nationalwastemanagementplansandstrategies,EUlegislationrecommendsgenerally followingthehierarchyofwasteprinciples.Consistently,thestrategyaimedtoapplya systemicapproachtowastemanagementatthenationalandregionallevelsandtoreduce wastegenerationbyincreasingtheamountofrecyclingandreuse.Inparticular,its implementationwillbecarriedoutoverthreetimeframes(2017 18,2019 23,and 2024 30)andisexpectedtofacilitatetheimplementationofaWMSonaninnovative basis;thedevelopmentofarelevantlegislationbase;andimprovementoftheenvironment aswellasofthesanitaryandepidemiologicalwell-beingofthepopulation.2 Thestrategyis alsoexpectedtoattractinvestmentsinthefieldofwastemanagementintermsofcreating moderninfrastructures,applyingthelatesttechnologies,divertingwastefromlandfills,etc. Inparticular,itforeseesthemanufactureof800newfacilitiesby2030forrecyclingused materials,compostingbiowaste,reducingthetotalamountofhouseholdwastedisposalfrom 95%to30%,minimizingthetotalamountofburiedwastefrom50%to35%,andcreatinga networkof50regionallandfills.Toensurethemonitoringandcontrolofwaste management,aninformationsystemwilloperatethatwillincludeinformationaboutthe
2 Morespecifically,thestrategyisenvisagedto:
1. modernizethematerialandtechnicalbaseofbusinessentitiesinemployingnaturalresourcesand processingandusingwaste;
2. createauniversalinformationwebportalconcerningthemultipleuseofnaturalresourcesandtherecyclinganduseofwaste;
3. developalogisticalschemeformanagingnaturalresources(theirextraction,gettingusefulproductsfrom them,andformingwastethatisprocessedandused);
4. implementanationalregisterofsourcesofwastegeneration,wastemanagementcapacitiesbyusingthe bestavailabletechnologies;
5. ensurethefunctioningofaninformationsystemforelectronicreportingbyentitiesconductingactivities inthefieldofwastemanagement;and
6. establishastateregisterofwasteandsecondaryresourcesthatarecreatedandaccumulatedinthe country.
nomenclatureandamountofwastethatisgenerated,processed,disposedof,andremoved, aswellasthecreationoftheNationalRegisterofWasteGenerationSources.
AdoptionoftheAboutWastelawandaboveall,oftheNationalStrategyforWaste ManagementinUkraineUntil2030hasinitiatedaqualitativelynewstageintheformation anddevelopmentofthenationalWMS,basedontheexperienceofadvancedforeign countries.However,theprocessofdevelopingaregulatoryframeworkinUkraineis controversial.Nationallegislationislargelyfragmentaryandincompleteandhasanumber ofweaknessessuchasuncertaintyaboutthepriorityofobjectivesandthelackofintegration ofenvironmentalissuesinthesectoralstrategy.Indeed,manywastemanagementissuesin Ukraineremainunsolvedandsomeaspectsrequirefurtherchangesorreforms.
3.2Statisticaldata StatisticaldataonwasteproductionandvalorizationpracticesinUkrainearenotalways reliable.Indeed,statisticsonthevolumeanddangerousnessofwasteproducedare generallygatheredfrommunicipalitiesandcompanieswithnoregularandcentralizeddata collectionandanalysis,whichhampersmonitoringandplanningprocessesatboththe nationalandregionallevels.However,availabledataallowustodrawaninteresting pictureaboutthecurrentstateofthenationalWMS.
Table1.2 reportsmainindicatorsshowingwastegenerationandtreatmentinUkraine accordingtodatafromtheNationalStatisticsService.
Table1.2 demonstratesthatwastereducedconstantlyover2010 16reacheda30% reductionby2016comparedwith2010.Wasteperpersonincreaseduntil2012andthen wassteadilyreduced,registeringasignificantdecreasein2016(6934kg).Similarly,used wastefirstincreasedanddecreased,reaching84,630thousandtonsin2016.Incontrast, exportedwastedecreasedin2016comparedwith2014and2015butincreasedcompared with2010 13.However,lookingataccumulatedwaste,itamountedto1239milliontons attheendof2016,whichrepresentsonly6%lessthan2010.Atthesametime,wasteper squarekilometerandpercapitawasteremainedalmostunchangedover2010 16.
Table1.3 reportswastegenerationinUkrainebyeconomicactivityandhouseholds.
Table1.3 showsthattheminingandquarryingsectorexhibitedthelargestshareintotal wastegeneration(74%in2016).Inthemanufacturingindustry,arelevantroleinwaste generationwasplayedbymetallurgyproduction,whoseshareintotalamountedto15%in 2016.Wastegenerationbyfoodproductionintotalwasteinthemanufacturingindustry was10%in2016,2%higherthanin2015.Wasteinagriculture,forestry,andfisheries remainedalmostunchangedduring2010 16,amountingto8,715thousandtonsin2016 (3%intotalwastegeneration).Similarly,theamountofhouseholdwasteremained unchangedover2010 16(withtheexceptionof2013).
Table1.2: MainindicatorsofthewastegenerationandtreatmentinUkraine. Indices2010201120122013201420152016
Formed,1000tons(t)425914.2447641.2450726.8448117.6355000.4312267.6295870.1 -Includingfromeconomicactivity 419191.8442464.4442757.3439091.4348686.1306214.3289523.6
Percapitawaste,kg9,2859,7949,8869,8518,2567,2886,934 Collected,receivedhouseholdand similarwaste,1000t 9765.510356.513878.014501.010748.011491.811562.6
Imported,1000t4.140.6113.3169.633.43.47.9 Burned,total,1000t1058.61054.51215.9918.7944.71134.71106.1 -Withoutgettingenergy
-Withaimofreceivingenergy
Used,1000t145710.7153687.4143453.5147177.9109280.192463.784630.3 Preparedtouse,1000t6037.37962.26105.25093.62903.91940.52920.5
Useinspeciallyassignedplacesor objects,1000t
Usedbyotherremovalmethods,1000t24318.023742.723856.320923.334279.055248.139390.4 Deactivate,1000t 311.32616.0186.7 Placedonspontaneouslandfills,1000t87.4299.682.186.8141.514.412.4 Exported,1000t281.385.8556.6318.7653.3675.4415.6 Immobilizeowingtoleakage, evaporation,fires,thefts,1000t 1367.6433.9519.9373.927.76.519.8
Accumulatedwasteduringexploitation inplacesofwasteuseatendofyear, milliont 13267.514422.414910.115167.412205.412505.912393.9 -Persquarekmofcountryterritory,t 21984.223897.924706.125132.321171.521692.821495.6 -Perperson,kg 289,236315,546327,024333,425283,838291,888289,274
Source:StateStatisticsServiceofUkraine.
