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History of Education Policymaking in India, 1947–2016
History of Education Policymaking in India, 1947–2016
. .
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
Published in India by Oxford University Press
2/11 Ground Floor, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 002, India
© Oxford University Press 2017
The moral rights of the author have been asserted.
First Edition published in 2017
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
ePub ISBN-13: 978-0-19-909154-6
ePub ISBN-10: 0-19-909154-4
Typeset in Adobe Garamond Pro 11/13.5 by The Graphics Solution, New Delhi 110092
Printed in India by Rakmo Press, New Delhi 110 020
Contents
Preface
List of Abbreviations
1 The Early Years of Republic
2 The Kothari Saga (1965–85)
3 Making of National Policy on Education, 1986
4 Education Secretary Has No Time for Education
5 Tale of a Committee (Ramamurti Committee)
6 The Mikado and the Shogun (P.V. Narasimha Rao and Arjun Singh)
7 Revision of National Policy on Education, 1986
8 Revision of Programme of Action, 1986
9 The Present Is a Foreign Country (Global Trends)
10 Winds of Change Begin to Blow (Stints of Madhavrao Scindia and S.R. Bommai)
11 The Old Order Changeth, Yielding Place to the New (Murli Manohar Joshi’s Tenure)
12 The Lord Giveth and the Lord Taketh Away (Judicial Policymaking)
13 Restoration: The Shogun Reigns Again (Second Stint of Arjun Singh)
14 From Equity to Preferential Equity
15 Reform Impulses in a Bipolar Government
16 The Blitzkrieg That Turned into a Stalemate (Kapil Sibal’s Tenure)
17 The Last Flicker (Pallam Raju’s Stint)
18 The Show Goes On
Glossary
Bibliography
Index
About the Author
Preface
This book chronicles the history of education policymaking in India. The focus of the book is on the period from 1964 when the landmark Kothari Commission was constituted; however, to put the policy developments in this period into perspective the developments since Independence had been covered in some detail. Even some of the important policy developments during the Raj had been touched to some extent. All in all, this book provides a fairly good idea of policy developments since the Indian Education Commission (1882). Even in a book of this magnitude, it is impossible to cover every conceivable topic, and one cannot help being judiciously selective. Therefore, while this book does cover elementary and adult education it chooses to complement the narrative in the author’s previous book The Holy Grail: India’s Quest for Universal Elementary Education1 rather than cover everything as a standalone book would do. In addition, the book focussed on a few major themes of education policy. Those themes include the organization of education, the role of the State and private actors, the role of the Central and State Governments, financing of education and the policy levers for furthering policy objectives. A distinctiveness of the book is that comparative and historical perspectives are brought to bear on the narrative.
Another distinctiveness of this book lies in the attention it pays to the process and politics of policymaking and the larger setting—or to use jargon the political and policy environment—in which policies were made at different points of time. By and large, education policy discourse had confined itself to an abstract debate over what the policy ought to be simplistically assuming that if only it had political will Government could adopt and implement the best policy. Strange but true even the praxis of policy analysis is not anchored in policy analysis. There is often no realistic assessment of the problem which needs to be addressed, no realistic identification of the various alternatives, no rigorous evaluation of alternatives, and no roadmap offered for realization of the policy objectives. Policy discourse as well praxis often do not concern itself with how, how actually one could go about to realize what ought to be or whether what was proposed as something that ought to be done could indeed be done in the face of objective conditions. And further, education policy discourse often misses out the fact that major policy issues are not considered in isolation, and that politics and process have a vital bearing on policy development and adoption. Education policy discourse often misses out the ineluctable fact that Governments cannot address any major policy issue without regard to the possible linkages of that issue with issues in other policy areas, and further cannot disregard competing priorities and demands on limited resources
organizational and financial. To illustrate, public expenditure had been hovering around four per cent of the GDP half a century after the Kothari Commission recommended that that Central and State Governments should together expend at least six percent of the GDP on education. The failure to implement the Kothari Commission recommendation cannot be attributed to lack of political will, as often it is, for there had been Governments of different political hues over the last fifty years; one can understand the failure only through an analysis of the fiscal capacity of the Central and State Governments and the competing demands and priorities. Gross attributions like lack of political will, surrender to vested interests, and class background of the ruling class have a ring of truth, but they are often devoid of substance, and used as substitutes for a detailed analysis necessary to understand why what was expected or promised did not materialize, or why a particular policy and not others were chosen in a given context. And further a basic premise of educational discourse is that ‘politics’ ought not to intrude in the hallowed area of education. This premise is unexceptionable with politics in the sense of partisan activities aimed at securing undue advantage for the ruling party or conferring an undue advantage on some. However, such politics is not the be all and end of politics. People have different, conflicting views about how the polity, the society the economy should be organized, and these differences impact on policy issues in all area including education. An example is the organization and financing of higher education. Should private universities be allowed or not? Should they be allowed to recover the cost of providing education through fees or should they not be? These are not solely questions of education but of politics and economics as well, or more accurately of political and economic beliefs. By its very nature, any policy entails costs for some and benefits for some others; all those who gain do not necessarily gain to the same extent, and vice versa. Therefore, no policy can be disassociated from politics, whose classical definition is who gets what, when, and how. The French word politique connotes policy as well as politics, and captures the cardinal truth that policymaking is not just a technical exercise but is as well as a matter of politics. For any major policy to come into being it is necessary to resolve conflicting views and interests, and in a democracy it is the political system and process that resolves conflicts of views and interests. Suffice to say, to think educational policymaking can be made solely based on expert advice or that education should be left to educationists is to live in cloud cuckoo-land. It is imperative to always bear in mind the sagacious remark of J.P. Naik regarding the relationship between education and politics.
When the Education Commission was appointed, Mr. M.C. Chagla boasted that it consisted only of academics and that he had not appointed a single politician on it. But this isolation makes educationists blind too many aspects of the educational reality … (many issues) cannot be solved except jointly by politicians and educationists … educationists desire full political support without any political interference (which is their concept of autonomy) …. A situation of this type does immense harm.2
In addition to politics educational discourse also ignores the fact that the process of policy development and adoption has a decisive influence on whether a policy comes into being and if so what are its contours. To take a trivial example, driving in a city like Bangalore or Hyderabad is anything but a smooth process; when you arrive at the destination and in what shape very much depends upon the path along which you drive, what you encounter along the path and how you drive; on a day when a mammoth rally is expected on the path one has to travel, one may as well stay at home and give up altogether the idea of going out. And further a policy which requires approval by the Parliament is bound to have a longer process than that which requires approval by the executive, and whether it secures passage or not depends upon the strength of the Government in the Parliament. Suffice to say the political standing of the Government, the configuration of forces for and against the policy, and the deftness with which the Government manages the policy development and approval process are decisive factors in policymaking. Educational development is actually a series of untidy and overlapping episodes in which a variety of people and organizations with diverse perspectives are involved— politically and technically—in the processes through which the policy is developed and implemented. Hence, education policymaking is not a mere rational technical exercise, and the how and when of policymaking are as important as the what of policy 3 This book breaks a new path by dealing with the real world of policymaking instead of treating policymaking as a technical exercise.
Yet another distinction of the book is its attempt to subject regulation of education to a systematic analysis the way regulation of utilities or business or environment had been. Regulation of education is a vast area with many dimensions and there is no study which explores that regulation in its entirety and in depth. That being so, it would be expedient to study regulation starting from first principles exploring answers for the questions like what is regulation? Why regulate? Whom to regulate? How to regulate? What to regulate? Who is to regulate? What are the alternatives? What are the criteria to choose among the alternatives? This book attempts to place the regulation of education in a proper perspective, outline the evolution of the regulation of higher education, changes in the thinking on regulation of education, evaluate the functioning of regulatory organizations like the All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE), describe the failed attempt of the UPA-II Government to put in place a new regulatory architecture for higher education in place and do away with established organizations like the UGC and AICTE, and outline the proposals of the Modi Government to revamp the regulatory architecture. Discussion of regulation, or for that matter any major policy is incomplete without an examination of the role of judicial review and case law. In fact, ‘the courts have tended to move from the byways onto the highways of policy making’ as a result of the replacement of the black letter law tradition by a judicial philosophy and interpretational activism which sanctify discerning the purpose underlying a constitutional provision and applying the purpose so discovered to rectify failures of public policy and governance as well as to correct wrongs of all types. No wonder that the exercise of the power of judicial review in Yash Pal and
Another v State of Chhattisgarh and others [(2005) 5 SCC 42] had led to the metamorphosis of the UGC from an ineffective regulatory organization into a powerful organization whose regulations bind even State Legislatures and State Governments, not to speak of universities; a New UGC was born which is a species different from that created by the Parliamentary statute. A Madras High Court judgement said it all when it observed that ‘today, Albert Einstein cannot be appointed as the Vice Chancellor of any university unless he fulfils the qualifications prescribed by UGC’.4 True to the saying ‘ The Lord giveth, and the Lord taketh away’ judicial review virtually demolished the power of the AICTE to regulate degree-granting technical education institutions and universities, and curtailed the power of State Governments to regulate the admission of private selffinancing colleges. Suffice to say a policy discourse without judicial policymaking is like Hamlet without Prince of Denmark. This book breaks a new path by integrating judicial policymaking with the making and implementation of education policies. This book would not have been written but for an attempt to reflect on my experiences and to that end place them in context. I was inspired by the counsel I received from Chitra Naik, eminent educationist and better half of the legendary J.P. Naik, and from S.V. Giri, Union Education Secretary with whom I was privileged to work. While presenting me a copy of Naik’s The Education Commission and After, Chitra Naik inscribed on the book ‘with compliments, for continuing the dialogue’. And Giri advised me on many occasions to write about the political economy of education. Anil Bordia, Giri’s predecessor, from whom I learnt what education was about and who encouraged me to study the history of education, often used to pose the question ‘what would Naik sahib say (about this issue)?’—a legitimate question for ‘in his person he [J.P. Naik] is the quintessence of educational India … he carries in his head not only facts and their history but also the whys and wherefores of each educational event which he is able to conceptualize and build into a systematic and integrated theory’.5 Without the illumination provided by the Past one cannot grasp the Present, cannot grasp when had changed and what continues. Study of the Past helps us to understand ‘how we got here’ which is as interesting as understanding how different is the Present from the Past. The study of history dispels the facile belief of many decision-makers that ‘the world was new, all problems fresh’, and controls the tendency ‘to offer quick fixes for complex problems’.6 Quite a few of the contemporaneous educational challenges were also addressed in the Past by great minds and statesmen, and their thoughts and actions are of great value in understanding the nature of contemporaneous challenges. The lessons of history help identify promising avenues and blind alleys, and cure one of solipsism and hubris. While the Past is a useful guide to address some of the present challenges, one should be discerning enough to recognise that some of the changes are discontinuities which call from a departure from Past beliefs and policy approaches. A good example is higher education; going by the well-known schema of Martin Trow,7 with Gross Enrolment Ratio crossing 15 per cent in 2011–12 the Indian higher education system had transited from the elite to ‘massified’ stage. The United
States made that transition in 1949–50, and countries of Western Europe, United Kingdom, Japan, and South Korea in the 1980s and 1990s. World over, that transition was associated with systemic changes, the most important of which is the extraordinary diversification of the purpose of higher education, financing, student body, and content and process of higher education. Old beliefs and nostalgia for the Past would be grave impediments to address the challenges of massification and post-massification. The experience and policy developments of countries which made the transition earlier would be valuable in identifying policy options. And very importantly, apart from trying to look at the ‘Present’ from the perspective of the ‘Past’ I also attempted the converse of it, namely look at the ‘Past’ from the perspective of the ‘Present’.
Naik’s historical writings cover educational developments during the British era and post-Independent period till 1979. For the period subsequent to 1979, there have been articles—may be a book or two—on some aspects of these developments individually; however, there is no comprehensive narrative that covers developments as a whole and place them against the backdrop of national and global political, economic and educational developments. As one who was a witness to many of the developments, and associated with quite a few, I felt it was incumbent on me to act on the advice of Chitra Naik and Giri, and document the developments so that the Great Conversation could go one uninterrupted. This book meticulously documents the course of education policymaking from 1964 onwards. Such documentation had a special value in a country like ours in which in spite of legal provisions public records do not reach archives as they ought to, a fact of which I have experiential knowledge from my stint as Secretary, Culture, Government of India whose remit includes supervision of the National Archives.
This book is the narrative of a participant-observer During 1988–97, I was intensely associated with many of the policy and programme initiatives at the State, national, and international levels. Each of these experiences was valuable, and my experiential knowledge would have been incomplete without anyone of them. Experience of working as State Education Secretary gave me the opportunity to understand the challenges of implementing national policies in the field, and to gain experience of formulating State-specific policies, of universalizing elementary education, of vocationalizing secondary education, of managing the trade-off between expansion of access and maintenance of quality and standards, of the heavy burden of administering and regulating a vast education system, of setting up the country’s first State Council of Higher Education, and of managing the delicate interface between the Government and the universities. That experience also helped me grapple some of the questions in the development and regulation of higher education which loomed large later in my career, and continue to do so. What is a university? Is a language university an oxymoron, a contradiction in terms? Should an institution encompass almost all significant branches of knowledge, combine teaching, and research, and be engaged in the creation of knowledge if it were to be called a university? Can a university established with the objective of promoting Telugu language and literature should also discharge the functions of the Sahitya,
Sangeet Natak, and Lalit Kala Akademies? How is a woman’s university different? What could be the State-level mechanism for regulation of and coordination among universities? Given the acute scarcity of budgetary resources how should private participation in the expansion of access be encouraged? What should be the policy towards minority education institutions? Later in the Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), as head of the policy planning division and then Additional Secretary, I had the privilege of being closely associated with every major education policy development during the period 1990–7 including revision in 1992 of the National Policy on Education, 1986 and its Programme of Education, changes in the financing of IITs, IIMs, and Indian Institute of Science, and the development of District Primary Education Programme which along with its progeny Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan was responsible for bringing the nation to the current stage of the long march towards universal elementary education. I was also the pointsman for managing the interface between the Union Department of Education and external agencies including SIDA and agencies administering British, Dutch and German development assistance, European Commission, UNESCO, UNICEF, and the World Bank. During 1995–7, I was one of the six members of the External Advisory Panel, appointed by the World Bank President to advise him on education, a member of the High Level Committee appointed by the Director General, UNESCO to consider setting up the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, and Chairman of a committee appointed by ESCAP to review the Jakarta Plan of Action for human resource development. The opportunity to interact with external agencies and their functionaries acquainted me with the international trends in the thinking on education policy, the organizational dynamics of major agencies as well as of country-agency relationships, and of interactions among agencies. By happenstance, even after retirement, I was associated with the Oversight Committee appointed by the Central Government (2006) to introduce reservation for Other Backward Classes in Central Government educational institutions and with the task force appointed by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (2009) to draw up a bill for establishing a National Commission for Human Resources for Health. These associations helped me to update myself with the developments in the areas of higher and professional education. I also led Missions to review the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (National Secondary Education Mission). I was one of the select educationists in the world invited by the East West Centre, Honolulu, to a workshop on ‘New educational paradigms and leadership programs’, at the University of Hong Kong (2003). I was invited by the World Bank to be a key note speaker at workshops of African countries on capacity building for educational development at Cape Town (July 2007) and Tunis (December 2007), and by the European Union at a retreat of its functionaries in social sectors at Hanoi (October 2007). All in all, these associations helped me understand key issues of education policy, the contested terrains and the praxis of policymaking to a degree which no amount of reading would have helped. After all, there is a certain element of truth in the
assertion of the eminent historiographer Giambattista Vico that those who make or create something can understand it as mere observers of it cannot.
In writing this narrative as participant observer I tried to be as objective and selfcritical as a human being could be However, I am conscious of the fact that being human and only all too human I did not succeed in totally eschewing my personal preferences and prejudices, and what follows is not so much history as his-story. Yet I think this narrative has merit by virtue of the fact that when dust settles down and a historian could write of this period as an outsider and not as one lived through by him he needs sources. Suffice to say this his-story would serve as a source for future historians of Indian education.
I am grateful to Professor N. S. Gopalakrishnan and Dr P.S. Seema, Law Faculty, Cochin Technological University, for invaluable assistance in locating the case law, and vetting some of the chapters. However, I am fully responsible for any errors which remain.
I would like to express my gratitude to my parents, R. V. Venkataramana Ayyar and R. V. Seshambal, who have contributed so much to my Being and Becoming. This book would not have been possible without the encouragement and forbearance of my wife Seetha Vaidyanathan. For years I had been and continue to be engrossed in writing; such engrossment is burdensome for a spouse at a stage of life when loneliness is an ineluctable existential condition. I would also like to thank the editorial team at Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
1 R.V. Vaidyanatha Ayyar, The Holy Grail: India’s Quest for Universal Elementary Education, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2016.
2 J.P. Naik, The Education Commission and After, New Delhi: A.B.H. Publishing Corporation, 2nd edition, 1997, pp. 238–9.
3 For a full exposition of policy process and politics see R.V. Vaidyanatha Ayyar, Public Policymaking in India, New Delhi: Pearson Longman, 2009; also see Wadi D. Haddad with the assistance of Terri Demsky, The Dynamics of Education Policymaking: Case Studies of Burkina Faso, Jordan, Peru and Thailand, Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1994.
4 K.Y. Jeyaraj and Another v. State of Tamil Nadu and Others, MANU/TN/0879/2014.
5 M. Adiseshiah, ‘Foreword’ to J.P. Naik, The Education Commission and After, p. viii.
6 Richard E. Neustadt and Ernest R. May, Thinking in Time: The Uses of History in Decision-making, New York: The Free Press, 1985, p. xi.
7 Martin Trow, ‘Reflections on the Transition for Elite to Mass to Universal Access: Forms and Phases of Higher Education in Modern Societies since World War II’, Daedalus, Volume 90, Number 1, 1970, pp. 1–42.
Abbreviations
ABVP Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad
AEC Atomic Energy Commission
AEIF Australian Education International Foundation
AICTE All India Council of Technical Education
AIDMK All India Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
AIIMS All India Institute of Medical Sciences
AIU Association of Indian Universities
AMU Aligarh Muslim University
APECL Andhra Pradesh Electronic Corporation Limited
APPEP Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project
ASER Annual Status of Education Report
ASSOCHAM The Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India
B.Ed Bachelor of Education
BCI Bar Council of India
BEP Bihar Education Project
BHU Benares Hindu University
BITS Birla Institute of Technology and Sciences
BJP Bharatiya Janata Party
BKD Bharatiya Kranti Dal
BRIC Brazil, Russia, India, and China
CABE Central Advisory Board of Education
CBSE Central Board of Secondary Education
CBSE-I Central Board Secondary Education (International)
CCE Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation
CII Confederation of Indian Industry
CLASS Computer Literacy and Studies in Schools
CMP Common Minimum Programme
CPM Communist Party of India (Marxist)
CSIR Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
CSS Centrally Sponsored Scheme
DCI Dental Council of India
DEC Distance Education Council
DFID Department for International Development
DGTD Director General of Technical Development
DIET District Institute of Education and Training
DISE District Information System for Education
DMK Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
DOE Department of Education
DPEP District Primary Education Programme
ECCE Early Childhood Care and Education
ECE Early Childhood Education
EdCIL Educational Consultants India Limited
EFA Education for All
EFA-9
EFA Summit of Nine High Population Countries (New Delhi, December 1993)
EPSI Education Promotion Society of India
EU European Union
FICCI Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry
GATS General Agreement on Trade in Services
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GER Gross Enrolment Ratio
GNP Gross National Product
GO Government Order
GoI Government of India
GoMs Group of Ministers
HEFCEs Higher Education Funding Councils
HPS Hyderabad Public School
HR Human Resources
IAS Indian Administrative Service
IB International Baccalaureate
ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Education and Research
ICCR Indian Council of Cultural Relations
ICDS Integrated Child Development Services
ICHR Indian Council of Historical Research
ICS Indian Civil Service
ICSSR Indian Council of Social Science Research
ICT Information and Communication Technologies
ICU Indian Council of Universities
IES Indian Education Service
IGNOU Indira Gandhi National Open University
IHC Indian Historical Congress
IIM Indian Institute of Management
IIT Indian Institute of Technology
IMA Indian Medical Association
IPS Institute of Professional Studies
IRAHE Independent Regulatory Authority for Higher Education
CISCE Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations
ISCE Indian School Certificate Examinations
ISRO Indian Space Research Organisation
ITI Industrial Training Institute
JCVE Joint Council of Vocational Education
JRM Joint Review Mission
KSSP Kerala Sastra Sahitya Praishad
KVR K.V. Ramanthan
LKA Lalit Kala Academi
MAHE Manipal Academy of Higher Education
MBA Master of Business Administration
MCA Master of Computer Applications
MCI Medical Council of India
MEA Ministry of External Affairs
MHFW Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
MHRD Ministry of Human Resource Development
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MIU Manipal International University
MLL Minimum Levels of Education
MNC Multinational Corporation
MOCCs Mass Open Online Courses
MOS Minister of State
MoU Memorandum of Understanding
MP Member of the Parliament
MSDE Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship
NAAC National Assessment and Accreditation Council
NARA National Accreditation Regulatory Authority
NBA National Board of Accreditation
NCERT National Council of Educational Research and Training
NCF National Curricular Framework for School Education
NCHER National Commission for Higher Education and Research
NCHRH National Council for Human Resource in Health
NCMEI National Commission for Minority Education Institutions
NCTE National Council of Teacher Education
NDA National Democratic Alliance
NDC National Development Council
NEET National Eligibility-cum-Entrance Test
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NIEPA National Institute of Educational Planning
NKC National Knowledge Commission
NLM National Literacy Mission
NPE National Policy on Education
NRI Non-resident Indian
NSDA National Skill Development Agency
NSDC National Skills Development Corporation
NSQF National Skills Qualification Framework
NSSO National Sample Survey Office
NSU National Science University
NTR N. T. Rama Rao
NUEPA National University of Educational Planning and Administration
ODA Overseas Development Administration
ODL Open and Distance Learning
OECD Organization for European Cooperation and Development
PAC Public Accounts Committee
PIL Public Interest Litigation
PISA Programme for International Student Assessment
PLCE Post-literacy and Continuing Education
PMO Prime Minister’s Office
POA Programme of Action
PV P. V. Narasimha Rao
QAA Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education
REC Regional Engineering College
RMSA Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan
RSS Rashtriya Swamsevak Sangh
RTE Act The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
RTE Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education
RUSA Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan
SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
SAHMAT Safdar Hashmi Memorial Trust
SCHE State Council of Higher Education
SCVE State Council of Vocational Education
SIET State Institute of Education Technology
SSP Samyukta Socialist Party
TLC Total Literacy Campaign
TRIPs Agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Rights
TVET Technical Vocational Education and training
UAE United Arabs Emirate
UEE Universal Elementary Education
UGC University Grants Commission
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UPA United Progressive Alliance
UPE Universal Primary Education
UT Union Territory
UWC United World Colleges
VEC Village Education Committee
Vyapam
Vyavsayik
Pariksha
Mandali (Madhya Pradesh Professional Examination Board)
WTO World Trade Organization
WUN World Universities Network