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HazardousandTrace MaterialsinSoilandPlants
Sources,Effects,andManagement
Editedby
M.Naeem
PlantPhysiologySection,DepartmentofBotany,AligarhMuslimUniversity, Aligarh,UttarPradesh,India
TariqAftab
PlantPhysiologySection,DepartmentofBotany,AligarhMuslimUniversity, Aligarh,UttarPradesh,India
AbidAliAnsari
DepartmentofBiology,FacultyofScience,UniversityofTabuk,Tabuk,SaudiArabia
SarvajeetSinghGill
CentreforBiotechnology,MaharshiDayanandUniversity,Rohtak,Haryana,India
AncaMacovei UniversityofPavia,Pavia,Italy
AcademicPressisanimprintofElsevier 125LondonWall,LondonEC2Y5AS,UnitedKingdom 525BStreet,Suite1650,SanDiego,CA92101,UnitedStates 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom
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1.Anoverviewofthehazardousand tracematerialsinsoilandplants3
AbidAliAnsari,SarvajeetSinghGill,TariqAftab, RukhsarParwez,RituGillandM.Naeem
1.1Introduction3
1.2Conclusion6 References6
2.Biologicalcontaminationandthe controlofbiologicalcontaminantsin theenvironment9
RobabSalami,MasoumehKordi, NasserDelangiz,EbrahimMoghiseh, BehnamAsgariLajayer,ChetanKeswaniand TessAstatkie
2.1Introduction9
2.2Effectofbiologicalcontamination9
2.2.1Biologicalcontaminationoffood9
2.2.2Biologicalcontaminationofwater10
2.2.3Biologicalcontaminationofair11
2.2.4Biologicalpollutantsrelatedto humanhealth11
2.3Measurestocontrolbiological contaminants11
2.3.1Physicalremoval12
2.3.2Chemicaladditives12
2.3.3Changingenvironmentalconditions12
2.4Biotechnologyandbiological contamination12
2.5Conclusion13 References13
3.Long-termchallenges,the characteristicsandbehaviorof varioushazardousmaterialand traceelementsinsoil15
FarhanRafiq,MuhammadIjaz,AbdulSattar, MuhammadShahid,AhmadSher, SamiUl-AllahandAneesUrRehman
3.1Introduction15
3.2Soilcontaminationfromthefertilizer traceelement16
3.2.1Introduction16
3.2.2Variousfertilizerandfertilizersfor micronutrients16
3.2.3Overtocropsandgrazinganimals fortraceelement17
3.2.4Managementstrategiesoftoxic element17
3.3Traceelementdeficientsoils18
3.3.1Introduction18
3.3.2Thetraceelementsoilsdefinition18
3.3.3Soilfactorswithdeficitsintrace elements19
3.4Arsenic,antimony,cadmium,zinc,copper21
3.4.1Arsenic21
3.4.2Antimony22
3.4.3Cadmium23
3.4.4Zinc24
3.4.5Copper25
3.5Conclusionanddirectionsforthefuture26 References26
4.Effectofseleniumonsoilsand plantsanditsmanagement33 KavitaKhatanaandJitendraK.Nagar
4.1Introduction33
4.2Generalcharacteristicandoccurrence ofSe33
4.3Occurrenceinsoil34
4.4Occurrenceinplants34
4.5EffectsofSeonplantsandsoils35
4.6Methodsofanalysisofselenium36
4.7Seleniumdeficientregions36
4.8Seleniumenrichmentofcrops37
4.9Seleniumandhumanhealth37
4.10ToxicityofSe37
4.11Seleniumgeneticsinplantsandtheir biofortificationhandling38
4.12Seleniummetabolismgenetic engineeringforplantrestoration39
4.13Conclusion39 References40
SectionB
Hazardousandtracematerials inthesoilenvironment
5.Heavymetalsincontaminatedsoil: abird’seyeviewoncauses,risks, andstrategiesforremediation45
SaloniSoniandAparnaPareek
5.1Introduction45
5.1.1Listingofheavymetals45
5.1.2Heavymetaltoxicityand environmentalcrisis45
5.2Heavymetalcontaminationinsoil46
5.2.1Causesofheavymetal depositioninsoil46
5.2.2Impactofheavymetalcontaminated soilonlives48
5.2.3Strategiestoovercomeandremediate heavymetalcontaminationinsoil51
5.3Conclusion55 References55
6.Soilchemicalpollutionand remediation57
MaheshR.GhuleandPurushottamK.Ramteke
6.1Introduction57
6.2Soilpollution57
6.2.1Soilpollutioncauses57
6.2.2Modernagriculturepractices57
6.2.3Urbanwastematerials59
6.2.4Industrialwastematerials59
6.2.5Biologicalagents59
6.2.6Radioactiveagents59
6.2.7Typesofchemicalsthatcausesoil pollution59
6.3Remediationofsoilpollutants62
6.3.1Insitu62
6.3.2Exsitu62
6.3.3Insitu:naturalorbiological-based62
6.3.4Microbialremediation63
6.3.5Physicalremediation66
6.3.6Exsituphysicaltreatment66
6.3.7Chemicalremediationtechnique67
6.3.8Thermalremediation68
6.3.9Exsituthermalremediation68
6.4Conclusion69 References69
7.Soilheavymetalpollution: impactonplantsandmethodsof bioremediation73 MuhammadAhsan,AdnanYounis, MoazzamJamil,MuhammadNafees, MuhammadAmmarRazaandImranAhmad
7.1Introduction73
7.2Occurrenceofheavymetal(loid)sinsoil74
7.3Heavymetalpollutedsoils75
7.4Heavymetalsimpactonsoil microorganisms76
7.5Impactofheavymetalscontaminated soilonplantgrowth76
7.6Bioremediationofheavymetal contaminatedsoils77
7.6.1Bioremediationofheavymetals pollutedsoilsbyusingmicroorganisms79
7.7Phytoremediation80
7.7.1Phytoextraction80
7.7.2Phytovolatalization80
7.7.3Phytostabilization80
7.7.4Phytodegradation80
7.8Combinationofplantsand microorganismsfortheremediationof heavymetalcontaminatedsoils81
7.9Conclusion81 References81
SectionC Hazardousandtracematerials intheaquaticenvironment
8.Removalofpharmaceuticalsand personalcareproductsfromwater andwastewaterthroughbiological processes:anoverview87 BehnamAsgariLajayer,KhaterehNobaharan, EbrahimMoghiseh,ZahraBiglariQuchanAtigh, NasserDelangiz,MohammadMosaferi, TariqAftabandTessAstatkie
8.1Introduction87
8.2Occurrenceandtoxicityofpharmaceuticals andpersonalcareproducts88
8.3Biologicaltreatmenttechnologiesfor pharmaceuticalsandpersonalcareproducts removalfromwaterandwastewater88
8.3.1Biologicaltricklingfilters88
8.3.2Biologicalnitrificationand denitrification88
8.3.3Biologicalactivatedcarbon89
8.3.4Microalgaeandfungalbioreactors89
8.3.5Activatedsludge90
8.3.6Membranebioreactors91
8.3.7Constructedwetlands93
8.3.8Biosorption94
8.3.9Aerobicandanaerobicdigestionof sludge94
8.4Concludingremarksandfuture perspectives95 References95
9.Sedimentpollutioninaquatic environmentsofthemetropolitan regionofBuenosAires,Argentina97
GabrielBası´lico,ValeriaIonno,GabrielaIglesias, MelisaS.OlivelliandLauradeCabo
9.1Introduction97
9.2Sedimentpollutionbybasinsandwater bodies99
9.2.1Luja ´ nbasin99
9.2.2Reconquistabasin100
9.2.3Matanza-Riachuelobasin102
9.2.4Basinsofsouthmetropolitan regionofBuenosAires102
9.2.5LowerParana ´ delta104
9.2.6Rı´odelaPlataestuary104
9.3Sedimentmanagementandremediation105
9.4Finalremarks107 References108
SectionD Hazardousandtracematerialsin plants
10.Hazardouselementsinplants: sources,effectandmanagement113
ParulTyagi,AyushiSinghandRajivRanjan
10.1Introduction113
10.2Sourcesof“hazardouselements”115
10.2.1Arsenic(As)115
10.2.2Lead(Pb)115
10.2.3Mercury(Hg)115
10.3Consequencesofhazardouselements onplantgrowth116
10.4Uptakemechanismsofhazardous element117
10.4.1Pathwaysofmetaltransportin plants119
10.4.2Mechanismsofmetalstress toleranceandmetaldestinyin plants119
10.4.3Sourcesofmetalsinfoodcrops: genotoxicityandhealthrisks120
10.5Managementofhazardouselements121
10.5.1Reductionofthesource122
10.5.2Eco-remediation122
10.5.3Physicochemicalandchemical strategies124
10.6Nanoparticletechniques125 10.7Conclusion125 References125
11.Bioaccumulationandtranslocation ofsometraceelementsin co-occurringhalophytes (Amaranthaceae)fromAlgerian salineareas129
BouzidNedjimi
11.1Introduction129 11.2Plantdescription130
11.2.1 Salicorniaarabica L.130
11.2.2 Suaedamollis (Desf.)Del.130
11.2.3 Traganumnudatum Del.130
11.3Traceelementcontentsinsoil130 11.4Traceelementcontentsinhalophytic species130
11.4.1Antimony(Sb)132
11.4.2Barium(Ba)133
11.4.3Bromine(Br)133
11.4.4Calcium(Ca)133
11.4.5Cerium(Ce)134
11.4.6Cobalt(Co)134
11.4.7Chromium(Cr)134
11.4.8Cesium(Cs)134
11.4.9Europium(Eu)134
11.4.10Iron(Fe)134
11.4.11Hafnium(Hf)135
11.4.12Potassium(K)135
11.4.13Lanthanum(La)135
11.4.14Rubidium(Rb)135
11.4.15Scandium(Sc)135
11.4.16Samarium(Sm)135
11.4.17Terbium(Tb)135
11.4.18Zinc(Zn)136
11.5Theprincipalcomponentanalysis136
11.6Bioaccumulationandtranslocation factors137
11.7Estimationofthedietaryintakeofsome essentialelementsbysmallruminants138 11.8Conclusion138 Acknowledgments139 References139
12.Heavymetaltoxicityand underlyingmechanismsforheavy metaltoleranceinmedicinal legumes141
RukhsarParwez,M.Naeem,TariqAftab, AbidAliAnsari,SarvajeetSinghGilland RituGill
12.1Introduction141
12.2Heavymetalstoxicity-tolerance mechanismsinplants144
12.3Effectsofheavymetalstresson medicinallegumes146
12.3.1Aluminum146
12.3.2Copper148
12.3.3Zinc149
12.3.4Cadmium149
12.3.5Chromium(Cr)150
12.3.6Lead(Pb)151
12.3.7Arsenic(As)152
12.3.8Silver(Ag)153
12.3.9Mercury(Hg)153
12.3.10Nickel(Ni)154
12.4Alleviationofheavymetalstressin legumenousplants155
12.4.1Plantgrowthregulators application155
12.4.2Nutrientapplication162
12.4.3Ecologicalapproaches164
12.5Useofnanotechnology/nanoparticles164
12.6Productionofheavymetal-tolerant transgenicplants165
12.7Conclusion166 Acknowledgment166 References166
13.Biochemicalresponsesofplants towardsheavymetalsinsoil179
GurvarinderKaur,NehaDogra,ShrutiKaushik, IshaMadaan,AnmolSidhuandGeetikaSirhindi
13.1Introduction:heavymetalsaspollutants179
13.2Lead180
13.3Mercury(Hg)181
13.4Cadmium182
13.5Chromium(Cr)183
13.6Arsenic(As)184
13.7Copper185
13.8Nickel(Ni)186
13.9Zinc(Zn)187
13.10Iron189
13.11Conclusion189 References190
14.Spatialdistributionofarsenic speciesinsoilecosystemand theireffectonplantphysiology197
MonikaYadavandNarSinghChauhan 14.1Introduction197 14.2Arsenicaroundtheglobe198 14.2.1Oxidationofthearsenic sulfideores198 14.2.2Competitiveexchangeof phosphatefromfertilizers198 14.2.3Changeinsoilphysiology198 14.2.4FeOOHreductionand dissolution198 14.3Arsenictoxicityandepidemiology199 14.4Arsenicexposureinplants200 14.4.1Arsenateuptake200 14.4.2Arseniteuptake200 14.4.3Mechanismofentryof methylatedarsenicforms201 14.5Effectsofarseniconplantsgrowthand development201 14.5.1Reductionintherateof photosynthesis201 14.5.2Reductionintheamountof chlorophyll201 14.5.3Reducedmineralintake202 14.5.4EffectonATP(Adenosine triphosphate)synthesis202 14.5.5Effectoncellmembranes202 14.5.6Stuntedgrowth202 14.6Arsenicresistancemechanismsin microbes202 14.6.1Arseniteeffluxpump203 14.6.2Arsenatereductase203 14.6.3Arsenicrepressor/regulatory protein204 14.6.4ArseniteeffluxATPase204 14.6.5Metallochaperones205 14.6.6Methyltransferases205 14.6.7Proteinsforarsenicresistance205
14.6.8Aquaglyceroporins206
14.6.9ArsTandArsOproteins206
14.6.10ArsenicresistanceproteinArsN206
14.7Arseniteoxidationandarsenate respiration206
14.7.1As(III)Oxidation (aox and aro system)206
14.7.2arrsystemofAs(V)reduction207
14.8Arsenicmitigationstrategies207
14.8.1Bioremediation207
14.8.2Biosorption207
14.8.3Phytoremediation208
14.8.4Geneticengineering209
14.9Conclusion209 References210
15.Aluminuminteaplants: phytotoxicity,toleranceand mitigation217
DipanjaliRay,PoojaMoniBaruahandNiraj Agarwala
15.1Introduction217
15.2AbsorptionandtransportationofAl218
15.3FactorsthatincreasethetoxicityofAl218
15.4Alphytotoxicity218
15.4.1Mechanism219
15.4.2MetaboliceffectofAltoxicity220
15.5AssociationofAlwithnutrients220
15.5.1Interferecalciumuptake220
15.5.2Alalleviatesirontoxicity220
15.5.3Alalleviatesmanganesetoxicity221
15.6Tolerancemechanism221
15.6.1Exclusionmechanism221
15.6.2Internaltolerancemechanism222
15.7MitigationofAltoxicity224
15.7.1AlterationinthesoilpH224
15.7.2Industrialbyproduct224
15.7.3Applicationofmineralnutrients224
15.8Conclusionandfutureperspectives225 References225
16.Roleofphytohormonesinmitigating theharmfulimpactsofhazardousand tracematerialsonagriculturecrops231
ShamiyaJahanandSheelaRautela
16.1Introduction231
16.2Impactofhazardousandtracemineral elementsoncropplants232
16.3Zinctoxicity233
16.4Cadmiumtoxicity234
16.5Leadtoxicity234
16.6Arsenictoxicity234 16.7Mercurytoxicity235
16.8Plantresponseoverhazardousand tracemetalexposure235
16.9Phytohormonesroleinreversingthe impactofmetal-inducedstresson plants236
16.9.1Phytohormones236
16.10Cytokininsresponseover metal-inducedtoxicity237
16.11Auxinresponseovermetal-induced toxicity238
16.12Salicylicacidresponseover metal-inducedtoxicity238
16.13Gibberellinsresponseover metal-inducedtoxicity239
16.14Jasmonatesresponseover metal-inducedtoxicity239
16.15Conclusion240 References240
17.Cadmium-inducedoxidative stressandremediationinplants247 KankanDattaandAryadeepRoychoudhury 17.1Introduction247
17.2Cdsourceandcontamination247 17.3FactorsaffectingCdaccumulationin plants248
17.3.1pH248
17.3.2Organicmatter248 17.3.3Aging249 17.3.4Plantspecies249
17.4EffectsofCdonplantsystems249 17.4.1Seedgermination249
17.4.2Plantgrowthanddevelopment250 17.4.3Oxidativedamages250 17.5AlleviationofCdtoxicity251 17.5.1Antioxidantenzymes251 17.5.2Plantgrowthregulators251 17.6Applicationofbiochars251 17.7 Phytochelatinsynthase genesand theirexpression252
17.8Metallothioneinandrelatedgene expression253
17.9Transgenicdevelopmentusing PC and MT genes254 17.10Phytoremediation255 17.11Organicmanureandothercompounds255 17.12Conclusionandfutureperspectives255 Acknowledgements256 References256 Furtherreading261
18.Plantgrowth-promoting rhizobacteriaasbioremediators ofpollutedagriculturalsoils: challengesandprospects265 AbdulMajeed,ZahirMuhammad, RehmanUllah,KaleemUllah,HazratAliand NailaInayat
18.1Introduction265
18.2Thegeneralsignificanceofplant growth-promotingrhizobacteria266
18.3Rhizobacteria(plantgrowth-promoting rhizobacteria)asbioremediatorsof pollutedsoil267
18.4Mechanismofplantgrowth-promoting rhizobacteria-assistedphytoremediation267
18.5Biodegradation270
18.6Phytoextraction270
18.7Phytostabilization270
18.8Challengesandprospects271
18.9Conclusion271 References272
19.Bacterialpolyamines:akey mediatortocombatstress toleranceinplants277
AyeshaSadiqa,BismaShahzadiand MuhammadFaisal
19.1Introduction277
19.2Biosynthesisofpolyamines277
19.3Regulatoryfunctionsofpolyamines278
19.4Strategiesofbacterialpolyaminesto combatstress278 References280
20.Plantsandmicrobesassisted remediationofcadmiumcontaminatedsoil283
NehaVerma,RituGill,KanuPriyaandAnilKumar
20.1Introduction283
20.2Cadmiumuptakeandtransportinplants283
20.2.1Cadmiumuptakebyroots283
20.2.2Xylemloadingandtranslocation284
20.2.3Phloemtransport284
20.2.4Factorscontrollingthecadmium uptake284
20.3Cadmiumtoxicityanditsimpacton plantshealth284
20.3.1Impactonseedgermination285
20.3.2Impactonplantgrowthand development285
20.3.3Oxidativedamage285
20.3.4Impactonthephotosynthetic system285
20.3.5Impactonreproductivetissue286
20.3.6Effectsonmineralandnutrients uptake286
20.4RemediationstrategiesforCdtoxicity286
20.4.1Phytoremediation286
20.4.2Phytoremediationofcadmiumcontaminatedsoil288
20.4.3Microbialremediation290
20.5Conclusionandfutureperspectives291 References292
21.Theefficiencyofarbuscular mycorrhizalfungionsequestration ofpotentiallytoxicelementsinsoil297
ZahraGerami,ArashHemati, EhsanMofidiChelan,ZahraKazemi, EbrahimMoghiseh,TariqAftab, BehnamAsgariLajayerandTessAstatkie
21.1Introduction297
21.2Potentiallytoxicelements298 21.3Mycorrhiza298
21.3.1Typesofmycorrhiza298
21.3.2Arbuscularmycorrhizae300
21.3.3Arbuscularmycorrhizal classification300
21.3.4Arbuscularmycorrhizal structures300
21.3.5Theimportanceofmycorrhizal coexistence301
21.3.6Factorsaffectingmycorrhizal coexistence301
21.3.7Theconcentrationofnutrients inthesoil301
21.3.8Theimportanceofarbuscular mycorrhizaeinsoil-plant relationships301
21.3.9Theroleofarbuscular mycorrhizaeinthetransportof potentiallytoxicelements302
21.3.10Theroleofarbuscularmycorrhizae incadmiumtransport302
21.3.11Arbuscularmycorrhizalsolutions inthestabilizationofpotentially toxicelements302
21.3.12Theeffectofpotentiallytoxic elementsonarbuscular mycorrhizalactivity304
21.4Glomalin304
21.5Conclusionandfutureperspective305 References305
SectionF
Managementandremediationof hazardousandtracematerials
22.Biomonitoringofheavymetals contaminationinsoilecosystem313
GeetanjaliSageena,KavitaKhatanaand JitendraK.Nagar
22.1Introduction313
22.1.1Overviewofheavymetals314
22.1.2Heavymetalsinteractions314
22.1.3Heavymetalsdetoxification mechanisms314
22.1.4Biomonitoringusingbiosensors315
22.1.5Plantsusedasbiosensors315
22.2Conclusion319 References320
23.Roleofnanoparticlesinremediation ofenvironmentalcontaminants327
AnkurSinghandAryadeepRoychoudhury
23.1Introduction327
23.2Interactionbetweennanoparticlesand bioticandabioticfactors327
23.3Carbon-basednanoparticlesforthe ameliorationofpollutants328
23.4Silica-basednanomaterialsforthe removalofenvironmentalcontaminants329
23.5Polymer-basednanoparticlesforthe eliminationofwastematerials331
23.6Metalandmetaloxide-based nanoparticles333
23.7Economicimportanceof nanotechnology336
23.8Conclusionandfutureperspective336 Acknowledgments337 References337
24.Genomicapproachesfor phytoremediationoftraceand hazardousmetals341
DeepuPanditaand RamachandraReddyPamuru
24.1Introduction341
24.2Mechanismsofmetaluptake, accumulationandexclusion342
24.3Geneticengineeringformetal tolerance/accumulation343
24.3.1Metallothioneinsand phytochelatins343
24.3.2Metaltransporters344
24.3.3Modificationofmetabolic pathways346
24.3.4Alterationofoxidativestress mechanisms346
24.3.5Alterationinroots347
24.3.6Alterationinbiomass347
24.4Geneticallyengineeredplantsin remediationoftraceandhazardous materials348
24.5Conclusion351 References351 Index359
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Listofcontributors
TariqAftab PlantPhysiologySection,Departmentof Botany,AligarhMuslimUniversity,Aligarh,Uttar Pradesh,India
NirajAgarwala DepartmentofBotany,Gauhati University,Guwahati,Assam,India
ImranAhmad DepartmentofHorticulture,The UniversityofAgriculture,Peshawar,Pakistan
MuhammadAhsan DepartmentofHorticultural Sciences,FacultyofAgriculture&Environment,The IslamiaUniversityofBahawalpur,Bahawalpur, Pakistan
HazratAli DepartmentofBotany,Universityof Peshawar,Peshawar,KhyberPakhtunkhwa,Pakistan
AbidAliAnsari DepartmentofBiology,Facultyof Science,UniversityofTabuk,Tabuk,SaudiArabia
BehnamAsgariLajayer DepartmentofSoilScience, FacultyofAgriculture,UniversityofTabriz,Tabriz, Iran
TessAstatkie FacultyofAgriculture,Dalhousie University,Truro,NS,Canada
PoojaMoniBaruah DepartmentofBotany,Gauhati University,Guwahati,Assam,India
GabrielBası´lico MuseoArgentinodeCienciasNaturales “BernardinoRivadavia”–ConsejoNacionalde InvestigacionesCientı´ficasyTe ´ cnicas,Ciudad Auto ´ nomadeBuenosAires(CABA),Argentina
ZahraBiglariQuchanAtigh Departmentof Environment,FacultyofNaturalResourceand Environment,FerdowsiUniversityofMashhad, Mashhad,Iran
NarSinghChauhan DepartmentofBiochemistry, MaharshiDayanandUniversity,Rohtak,Haryana,India
KankanDatta Post-GraduateDepartmentof Biotechnology,St.Xavier’sCollege(Autonomous), Kolkata,WestBengal,India
LauradeCabo MuseoArgentinodeCienciasNaturales “BernardinoRivadavia”–ConsejoNacionalde InvestigacionesCientı´ficasyTe ´ cnicas,Ciudad Auto ´ nomadeBuenosAires(CABA),Argentina
NasserDelangiz DepartmentofPlantBreedingand Biotechnology,FacultyofAgriculture,Universityof Tabriz,Tabriz,Iran
NehaDogra DepartmentofBotany,PunjabiUniversity, Patiala,Punjab,India
MuhammadFaisal InstituteofMicrobiologyand MolecularGenetics,Quaid-e-AzamCampus, UniversityofthePunjab,Lahore,Pakistan
ZahraGerami DepartmentofSoilScience,Facultyof Agriculture,FerdowsiUniversityofMashhad, Mashhad,Iran
MaheshR.Ghule DepartmentofResearchand Development,VasumitraLifeEnergiesPvt.Ltd., Pune,Maharashtra,India
RituGill CentreforBiotechnology,MaharshiDayanand University,Rohtak,Haryana,India
SarvajeetSinghGill CentreforBiotechnology,Maharshi DayanandUniversity,Rohtak,Haryana,India
ArashHemati DepartmentofSoilScience,Facultyof Agriculture,UniversityofTabriz,Tabriz,Iran
GabrielaIglesias LaboratoriodeBioindicadoresy Remediacio ´ n,FacultaddeIngenierı´a,Universidadde Flores,CiudadAuto ´ nomadeBuenosAires(CABA), Argentina
MuhammadIjaz CollegeofAgriculture,Bahauddin ZakariyaUniversity,Bahadursub-campusLayyah, Punjab,Pakistan
NailaInayat DepartmentofBotany,Universityof Peshawar,Peshawar,KhyberPakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
ValeriaIonno LaboratoriodeBioindicadoresy Remediacio ´ n,FacultaddeIngenierı´a,Universidadde Flores,CiudadAuto ´ nomadeBuenosAires(CABA), Argentina
ShamiyaJahan DepartmentofPlantPhysiology, CollegeofBasicSciencesandHumanities,G.B.Pant UniversityofAgricultureandTechnology,Pantnagar, Uttarakhand,India
MoazzamJamil DepartmentofSoilSciences,Facultyof Agriculture&Environment,TheIslamiaUniversityof Bahawalpur,Bahawalpur,Pakistan
GurvarinderKaur DepartmentofBotany,Punjabi University,Patiala,Punjab,India
ShrutiKaushik DepartmentofBotany,Punjabi University,Patiala,Punjab,India
ZahraKazemi DepartmentofSoilScience,Facultyof Agriculture,UniversityofTabriz,Tabriz,Iran
ChetanKeswani AcademyofBiologyand Biotechnology,SouthernFederalUniversity,Rostovon-Don,Russia
KavitaKhatana DepartmentofAppliedSciencesand Humanities,IIMTCollegeofPolytechnic,Greater Noida,UttarPradesh,India
MasoumehKordi DepartmentofPlantSciencesand Biotechnology,FacultyofLifeSciences& Biotechnology,ShahidBeheshtiUniversity,Tehran,Iran
AnilKumar CentreforMedicalBiotechnology, MaharshiDayanandUniversity,Rohtak,Haryana, India
IshaMadaan DepartmentofBotany,PunjabiUniversity, Patiala,Punjab,India
AbdulMajeed DepartmentofBotany,Government DegreeCollegePabbiNowshera,Nowshera,Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,Pakistan
EhsanMofidiChelan DepartmentofAnimalBiology, FacultyofNaturalSciences,UniversityofTabriz, Tabriz,Iran
EbrahimMoghiseh NuclearAgricultureResearch School,NuclearScienceandTechnologyResearch Institute,Karaj,Iran
MohammadMosaferi HealthandEnvironment ResearchCenter,TabrizUniversityofMedical Sciences,Tabriz,Iran
ZahirMuhammad DepartmentofBotany,Universityof Peshawar,Peshawar,KhyberPakhtunkhwa,Pakistan
M.Naeem PlantPhysiologySection,Departmentof Botany,AligarhMuslimUniversity,Aligarh,Uttar Pradesh,India
MuhammadNafees DepartmentofHorticultural Sciences,FacultyofAgriculture&Environment,The IslamiaUniversityofBahawalpur,Bahawalpur, Pakistan
JitendraK.Nagar DepartmentofEnvironmental Studies,BhimRaoAmbedkarCollege,Universityof Delhi,NewDelhi,NewDelhi,India
BouzidNedjimi LaboratoryofExplorationand ValorizationofSteppeEcosystem,FacultyofScience ofNatureandLife,ZianeAchourUniversityof Djelfa,Cite ´ Aı´nChih,Djelfa,Algeria
KhaterehNobaharan BrownsAvenue,Ringwood, Melbourne,VIC,Australia
MelisaS.Olivelli InstitutodeInvestigacio ´ neIngenierı ´ a Ambiental-IIIA,UniversidadNacionaldeSanMartı ´ n, 3iA,CampusMiguelete–ConsejoNacionalde InvestigacionesCientı´ficasyTe ´ cnicas,SanMartı ´ n, ProvinciadeBuenosAires,Argentina
RamachandraReddyPamuru Departmentof Biochemistry,YogiVemanaUniversity,Kadapa, AndhraPradesh,India
DeepuPandita GovernmentDepartmentofSchool Education,Jammu,JammuandKashmir,India
AparnaPareek DepartmentofBotany,Universityof Rajasthan,Jaipur,India
RukhsarParwez PlantPhysiologySection,Department ofBotany,AligarhMuslimUniversity,Aligarh,Uttar Pradesh,India
KanuPriya DepartmentofLifeSciences,Sharda University,GreaterNoida,UttarPradesh,India
FarhanRafiq CollegeofAgriculture,Bahauddin ZakariyaUniversity,Bahadursub-campusLayyah, Punjab,Pakistan
PurushottamK.Ramteke DepartmentofBotany,Raja ShripatraoBhagawantraoMahavidyalaya,Aundh, Dist-Satara,Maharashtra,India
RajivRanjan PlantMolecularBiologyLab,Department ofBotany,DayalbaghEducationalInstitute (DeemedUniversity),Dayalbagh,Agra,UttarPradesh, India
SheelaRautela DepartmentofPlantPhysiology,College ofBasicSciencesandHumanities,G.B.Pant UniversityofAgricultureandTechnology,Pantnagar, Uttarakhand,India
DipanjaliRay DepartmentofBotany,Gauhati University,Guwahati,Assam,India
MuhammadAmmarRaza CollegeofFoodScienceand Biotechnology,KeyLaboratoryofFruitsand Vegetables,ZhejiangGongshangUniversity, Hangzhou,P.R.China
AneesUrRehman DepartmentofAgronomy,University ofAgriculture,Faisalabad,Punjab,Pakistan
AryadeepRoychoudhury Post-GraduateDepartmentof Biotechnology,St.Xavier’sCollege(Autonomous), Kolkata,WestBengal,India
AyeshaSadiqa InstituteofMicrobiologyandMolecular Genetics,Quaid-e-AzamCampus,Universityofthe Punjab,Lahore,Pakistan
GeetanjaliSageena DepartmentofEnvironmental Studies,KeshavMahavidyalaya,UniversityofDelhi, NewDelhi,NewDelhi,India
RobabSalami DepartmentofPlantSciencesand Biotechnology,FacultyofLifeSciences& Biotechnology,ShahidBeheshtiUniversity,Tehran,Iran
AbdulSattar CollegeofAgriculture,Bahauddin ZakariyaUniversity,Bahadursub-campusLayyah, Punjab,Pakistan
MuhammadShahid DepartmentofBioinformaticsand Biotechnology,GovernmentCollegeUniversity, Faisalabad,Punjab,Pakistan
BismaShahzadi InstituteofMicrobiologyand MolecularGenetics,Quaid-e-AzamCampus, UniversityofthePunjab,Lahore,Pakistan
AhmadSher CollegeofAgriculture,Bahauddin ZakariyaUniversity,Bahadursub-campusLayyah, Punjab,Pakistan
AnmolSidhu DepartmentofBotany,PunjabiUniversity, Patiala,Punjab,India
AnkurSingh Post-GraduateDepartmentof Biotechnology,St.Xavier’sCollege(Autonomous), Kolkata,WestBengal,India
AyushiSingh PlantMolecularBiologyLab,Department ofBotany,DayalbaghEducationalInstitute(Deemed University),Dayalbagh,Agra,UttarPradesh,India
GeetikaSirhindi DepartmentofBotany,Punjabi University,Patiala,Punjab,India
SaloniSoni DepartmentofBotany,Universityof Rajasthan,Jaipur,India
ParulTyagi PlantMolecularBiologyLab,Department ofBotany,DayalbaghEducationalInstitute (DeemedUniversity),Dayalbagh,Agra,UttarPradesh, India
SamiUl-Allah CollegeofAgriculture,Bahauddin ZakariyaUniversity,Bahadursub-campusLayyah, Punjab,Pakistan
KaleemUllah DepartmentofBotany,Government DegreeCollegePabbiNowshera,Nowshera,Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,Pakistan
RehmanUllah DepartmentofBotany,Universityof Peshawar,Peshawar,KhyberPakhtunkhwa,Pakistan
NehaVerma DepartmentofBotany,BabaMastnath University,Rohtak,Haryana,India
MonikaYadav DepartmentofBiochemistry,Maharshi DayanandUniversity,Rohtak,Haryana,India
AdnanYounis InstituteofHorticulturalSciences, UniversityofAgricultureFaisalabad,Faisalabad, Pakistan
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Foreword
Mywholeresearchcareerhasbeendedicatedtopursuingactiveresearchinplantbiologyandgoodbooksalwayshave beenagreattoolinunderstatingthebasicconceptsofresearch.Ireadthebook, HazardousandTraceMaterialsinSoil andPlants:Sources,Effects,andManagement anditisagreatcontributiontothefieldofsoilscienceandprovidesa wealthofdetailabouthazardousmetalsinsoilimpedingthecropproductivityandsustainabilityaswellasthreatening thehumanhealth.
TheeditorsM.Naeem,TariqAftab,AbidAliAnsari,SarvajeetSinghGill,andAncaMacoveididacommanding jobtocompileacomprehensivevolumeontheveryimportantandchallengingarea HazardousandTraceMaterialsin SoilandPlants:Sources,Effects,andManagement.Soil,beinga“universalsink”,bearsthegreatestburdenofenvironmentalpollution.Thebasisofagricultureissoil.Allcropsforhumanfoodandanimalfeeddependuponit. Anthropogenicactivitiesaddseveraltoxicmetalsatextraordinarilyhighconcentrationsinsoils,plants,animals,and waterbodiesallacrosstheworld.Toxicmetalslikezinc,lead,aluminum,cadmium,nickel,manganese,arsenic, andironpollutebothsurfaceandundergroundwater,soil,andfood,alteringbiologicalfunction,endocrinesystems, andgrowth.Besidestheseelements,thesoilcanalsobecontaminatedwithbiologicalcontaminantslikezooplankton, bacteria,viruses,fungi,insectpupae,rotifers,andprotozoa,whichcanbecontrolledthroughbiologicalandbiotechnologicaltools.Ontheotherhand,plantgrowth-promotingbacteria,rhizobia,andarbuscularmycorrhizalfunguscanbe widelyappliedintheremediationofcontaminatedsoils.Rhizobacteriaareknownforsupportingplantgrowthincontaminatedsoils.CadmiumisaubiquitouslyavailabletoxicheavymetalintheEarth’scrustanddoesnothaveanybeneficialroleintheplantsystem.Itsremediationcanbemanagedbytheinteractionbetweenplantandmicrobes,and mycorrhizalfungusisimportantforsequesteringthetoxicelements.
Phytohormonesupplementationapproachesaregainingattentionforprotectingcropplantsfromastressfulenvironmentandaresaferforhumans.Phytohormoneapplicationeffectivelyprotectstheplantduringthemetal-mediatedstress byupregulatingthedetoxificationandsequestrationmechanismwhilepromotingtheantioxidativesystem.Wastefrom pharmaceuticalindustriesisanuisanceineverycountryandcanberemovedbyconventionalandunconventionalmethodssuchasactivatedsludge,membranebioreactors,aerobic,anaerobic,microalgae,andfungalbioreactors,trickling filters,denitrification,nitrification,andbiosorption,andconstructedwetlands.Nonstopanthropogenicandgeological activitiesaddtoxicelementstosoilsthatareendangeringthehealthoflivingorganisms.Theconjunctionofplantsand microbeshasproventobethemostefficientapproachthatensurestheclean-upofthepollutedsoils.Heavymetalslike zinc,nickel,copper,andchromiumwhenpresentinlowamountsareessentialforplantmetabolicpathwaysand becometoxiconlyathigherconcentrations.However,someotherslikeHg,Pb,As,andCd(sameastheabovecomment)arenonessentialandtoxicevenatlowconcentrations.Twochaptersdiscussthemolecularbasisofheavymetal responseandtheirvarioustoxicityalleviationmethodsandtheresponsesofplantsproducedagainstheavymetals.
Thehigheramountofseleniumpresentinsoilcanbehazardousforplantgrowth.Thereforeitisimportanttostudy theeffectsofSeonplantsandsoilsandhowitcanbemanagedbybiofortificationandthephytoremediationprocess. Higheraluminumconcentrationsinteaplantscancausetoxicitythatcanbereducedbyusingexogenousapplications oflime,phosphorus,magnesium,andotherminerals.Arsenicimpartscellulartoxicityandaffectsplantgrowthand yieldbyaffectingvariousphysiologicalprocesses.Takingtheleadfrommicroorganisms,whicharecontinuously exposedtothetoxicconcentrationofarsenicandthushaveevolvedvariousphysiologicalprocessestoresistarsenicinducedtoxicity.Someoftheseprocessescouldbeutilizedforarsenicbioremediation/bioaccumulationforplantstoo. Halophytesarecharacterizedbytheiraptitudetogrowandreproduceinsalinesoilsthatareunsuitabletosupportthe growthofmostoftheothercropspecies.Thischapterhighlightstheimportanceofhaptophytesplantsthatcanbecultivatedinsalinesoilsforfodderusewithoutriskinganimalhealth.Oneuniquechapteralsoaddressestheconcerns relatedtoSedimentpollutioninaquaticenvironmentsofthemetropolitanregion.Basedontheanalyzedworks,some alternativesareproposedforthemanagementandremediationofcontaminatedsediments.Thelastthreechaptershighlighttheimportanceofusingmodemtoolsforbiomonitoringofheavymetalscontaminationinthesoilecosystem,
applicationofnanoparticlesinremediation,andgenomicapproachesforthephytoremediationoftraceandhazardous materials.
Thecreativewritingandconsolidatedinformationprovidedinthisbookabouttheuptakeofheavymetalsbyplants andsubsequentaccumulationalongthefoodchainasapotentialthreattoanimalandhumanhealthshouldhelpinmitigatingtheseissuesfromtheenvironment.
ThechallengesofhazardousandtracematerialsinsoilandplantsarevisibleandIheartilyappreciatetheeditors andcontributingauthors’dedicationtodiscussingtheimpactofhazardousandtracematerialsinsoilandplants.
ShashiRhode MicrobialEngineering,IntegrativeBiologyGroup,InternationalCentrefor GeneticEngineeringandBiotechnology,NewDelhi,India
Preface
Anthropogenicandgeologicalcontaminationoftheenvironmentduetohazardousandtracematerialshasposedaseriousthreattoagriculturallandaswellastohumanhealth.Researchershaveobservedthataconsiderablenumberofhazardouselementsintheenvironmenthasincreaseddramaticallyoverthelastfewdecades.Varioustraceelements, metals,metalloids,andothertoxicsubstancesarecontinuouslypollutingwater,agriculturalsoil,food,andsignificantly alteringthebiologicalfoodchain.Environmentalpollutionduetohazardousandtracematerialshasnowbeenconsideredaglobalissueofconcern,withsevererepercussionsfortheenvironment,plants,animals,andhumanhealth. Additionally,traceelementsalsohavehazardouseffectsonagriculturalsoilandplants,thereforeimposingmaximum admissiblerestrictionsontheirconcentrationsinsoilbygovernmentsandnongovernmentorganizations.Agriculture environmentreceivingtraceelementsthroughtheair,primarilyinindustrialareas,includingdiverseplants,powerstations,miningplants,andtransportationnetworksoftraceelements.Inmostdevelopingcountriesthebulkofhazardous elementsistheresultofindustryandinadequateeffluenttreatmentandmanagement.Themainsourcesofcontaminationinsoil-cropsystemsindevelopedcountriesarethedepositionofparticulatematteronfoodcropsandtheuseof industrialeffluentsandsewagesludgeasfertilizers.Incontrast,indevelopingcountries,untreatedsewageorsludge irrigationisthemostcommonwayforsoilcontamination.Therearevariousconventionalandunconventionalremedial strategiesthathaveprovedeffectivetoimprovesoilandcropproductivity.Soilwashing,soilrepair,solidifications,stabilization,excavation,andelectroremediation,whichhavebeenexploredinbothfieldandcontrolledenvironment,are someoftheimportantstrategiesofsoilremediation.Environmentallyfriendlyandcost-effectivebiologicalremediation techniqueslikephytoremediationandPGPRareofferedformoderatelycontaminatedsoils.Plantgrowth-promoting bacteria(PGPR),rhizobia,arbuscularmycorrhizalfungus(AM),phytohormoneapplicationsareeffectivelyusedinthe ameliorationofcontaminatedsoils.Ontheotherhand,theapplicationofplantgrowthregulators,mineralnutrients, nanoparticlesisrelativelycost-effectiveandeco-friendly.
Currentremedialmeasuresareaimedtolowertheconcentrationsofhazardousmaterialsandtraceelementsinsoil andthefoodchaintoreducehealthrisks.Torestrictmetalcontaminantsfromenteringthefoodchainandtodevelop remediationproceduresthatareeffective,rapid,andprecisemappingofsoilpollutionistheneedofthehour.
Editorsintendtobringforthacomprehensivevolume“HazardousandTraceMaterialsinSoilandPlants:Sources, Effects,andManagement”highlightingthevariousprospectsthatarebeinginvolvedinthecurrentscenario.Thisbook consistsof24chapterscategorizedindifferentsections,writtenbyglobalresearchexperts.Wearehopefulthatthis comprehensivevolumewouldfurnishtheneedofallresearcherswhoareworkingorhavegreatinterestinthisparticularfield.WearehighlythankfultotheAcademicPress,Elsevier,USA,Inc.,forcompilingthisscientifictask.Heartfelt thanksareexpressedtotheteammembers(NancyMaragioglio,CatherineCostello,andothers)fortheirdedication,sincerity,andfriendlycooperationinproducingthisvolume.
Withgreatpleasure,weextendoursincerethankstoalltheesteemedcontributorsfortheirtimelyresponse,their outstandingandup-to-dateresearchcontribution,andtheirsupportandconsistentpatience.
Lastly,thanksarealsoduetowellwishers,friends,andfamilymembersfortheirmoralsupport,blessings,andinspirationinthecompilationofthisbook.
M.Naeem1,TariqAftab1,AbidAliAnsari2,SarvajeetSinghGill3 andAncaMacovei4 1PlantPhysiologySection,DepartmentofBotany,AligarhMuslimUniversity,Aligarh,UttarPradesh,India, 2DepartmentofBiology,FacultyofScience,UniversityofTabuk,Tabuk,SaudiArabia, 3CentreforBiotechnology, MaharshiDayanandUniversity,Rohtak,Haryana,India, 4UniversityofPavia,Pavia,Italy
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Chapter1
Anoverviewofthehazardousandtrace materialsinsoilandplants
AbidAliAnsari1,SarvajeetSinghGill2,TariqAftab3,RukhsarParwez3,RituGill2 andM.Naeem3 1DepartmentofBiology,FacultyofScience,UniversityofTabuk,Tabuk,SaudiArabia, 2CentreforBiotechnology,MaharshiDayanandUniversity, Rohtak,Haryana,India, 3PlantPhysiologySection,DepartmentofBotany,AligarhMuslimUniversity,Aligarh,UttarPradesh,India
1.1Introduction
Soilplaysanimportantroleinthebiosphereandisimportantforfoodproductionandasustainableenvironment.Aregularincreaseinpopulation,scientific,andtechnicaladvancementsarethemajorenvironmentalissuesoftheglobe; environmentalpollutionandperturbationsinthesoilecosystemsaretheresults(Saghafi,Bagherifam,Hatami,& AsgariLajayer,2020).Therefore,thereisaneedtobeawareofthepotentialsoilcontaminantsandtopaymoreattentiontotheappropriatesolutionsfortheirmanagement.Variousphysical,chemical,andbiologicalmethodshavebeen appliedforthepurificationofthesoilfromthesepotentiallytoxicelements(PTEs),degradingthephysicalandchemicalstructuresandvitalactivitiesofthesoilresultinginamarkedreductionincropproductivity(Heidarpour, Aliasgharzad,Khoshmanzar,Khoshru,&AsgariLajayer,2019).Appropriate,natural,cost-effective,andon-sitebiologicalmethodsneedtobedevelopedandappliedappropriatelytoprotectthesoilquality.Amongall,phytoremediationis oneofthemostrecommendedandacceptablemethodstoremoveanddeactivatethemetalsfromthecontaminated soils.Plantgrowth-promotingbacteria(PGPR),rhizobia,andarbuscularmycorrhizalfungus(AM)arewidelyappliedin theremediationofcontaminatedsoils(Kazemalilou,Delangiz,AsgariLajayer,&Ghorbanpour,2020).
Chapter2 (Salamietal.)presentstheinformationonthesources,consequences,andcontrolmeasuresofvarious biologicalcontaminantsintheenvironment.Zooplankton,bacteria,viruses,fungi,insectpupae,rotifers,andprotozoa arethemajorbiologicalcontaminantsintheenvironment.Sincethesemicroorganismscancontaminatewater,air,food, etc.,theircharacteristicsandbehaviorareimportanttostudy(Carraturoetal.,2020).Managementstrategiesofbiologicalcontaminantssuchasfilteringandchemicalandbiologicaltreatmentsneedtobediscussed.Biotechnologyisalways apromisingtechnologytocontrolbiologicalcontaminants(Price&Wildeboer,2017).Traceelements,whichnaturally occurinsoilarevitalnutrientsforplant,humanandanimalhealth.However,thesetraceelementscanbepotentially dangerousinhigherconcentrationsandareapotentialthreattoenvironmentalhealth(Tabassumetal.,2019). Chapter3 byRafiqetal.,elaboratesthelong-termchallenges,thecharacteristics,andbehaviorofvarioushazardousmaterialsand traceelementsinthesoil.Thechapterprovidesinformationonthesources,effects,andremedialmeasuresofthesoil contaminatedwithtraceelements.
Inthefollowing Chapter4,theauthorsdescribedtheeffectofseleniumonsoilsandplantsanditsmanagement.It summarizesthecyclingofseleniuminplantstosoilandsoiltoplantsanditseffectsduringitscycling.Seleniumis inadequateforfulfillinganimalandhumanrequirementsinalotofgeographicareas.Inthischapter,theauthorssummarizedthevariouseffectsofSeonplantsandsoilsandhowitseffectcanbemanagedbybiofortificationandphytoremediationprocess(Wallaceetal.,2009).Thebasisofagricultureissoilandsourceofhumanfoodandanimalfeed. Butthewasteproducts,sludge,wastetreatmentplantsarepollutingwaterandsoil.Inordertopreservethesoilquality, fertilityandproductivity,controlmeasuresareneededtobetakeninaherculeanmanner. Chapters5,6,and7 bySoni andPareek,Vermaetal.,andYounis,respectivelyarealsoelaborateonthesoilcontaminationwithheavymetals,associatedrisk,andthestrategiesfortheirmanagementandremediation.
Chapter8 byLajayeretal.isfocusingonsomeemergingpollutantsinthesoilenvironmentsuchaspharmaceuticals andpersonalcareproducts(PPCPs).Withtheincreaseinpopulationandhealthawareness,theproductionand
consumptionofPPCPsisincreasingdaybydayandarenewlyintroducedpollutantsintheenvironment(Belhajetal., 2015).Adiversegroupofdrugsusedinveterinarymedicine,agriculturepractices,cosmetics,andhumanhealth,such asanalgesics,antibiotics,hormones,etc.isconsideredastheemergingpollutants.Theyareregularlydischargedinto rivers,lakes,groundwater,andevendrinkingwaterresources(He,Wang,Ye,Zhang,&Yu,2014).Theutilizationof microorganisms’potential(algae,fungi,andbacteria)tobiodegradethesepollutantsisoneofthemostcost-effective technologies.Variousconventionalandunconventionalmethodssuchasactivatedsludge(Buttiglieri&Knepper, 2008),membranebioreactors,aerobic,anaerobic,microalgaeandfungalbioreactors(Ahmadetal.,2017),tricklingfilters(Lin,Yu,&Lateef,2009),nitrification,anddenitrification(Phanetal.,2014;Silvaetal.,2013),biosorption (Banihashemi&Droste,2014)andconstructedwetlands(AsgariLajayer,Najafi,Moghiseh,Mosaferi,&Hadian,2018, 2019)aresomeofthecommonpractices.
Chapter9 byBası´licoetal.isbasedonareportonsedimentpollutioninaquaticenvironmentsofthemetropolitan regionofBuenosAires(MRBA),Argentina.Sedimentpollutionisaveryfrequentsituationinaquaticenvironmentsin urban-industrialareasaroundtheworld.Inthisstudytheauthorshavehighlightedtheseveralinvestigationscarriedout onthepollutionofsedimentsintheMRBAinthelastdecades,revealingthatthecontaminationwasassociatedwith thedischargeofliquideffluentsandurbanrunoff(Kumaretal.,2017).ThebasinsofLuja ´ n,Reconquista,andMatanzaRiachuelorivers,thelargestintheMRBA,showedanotabledeteriorationofsediment.Basedontheobservations, somealternativemeasuresareproposedforthemanagementandremediationofcontaminatedsediments(Bası´lico, 2021).
Environmentcontaminationisaglobalissue.Variouspollutantsgeneratedfromindustriesandanthropogenic sourcesarecycledthroughtheenvironment,soil,waterplants,andanimalthroughthefoodchain,eventuallyharming humans(Shtangeeva,Laiho,Kahelin,&Gobran,2004).Anincreaseinminingactivitiesisoneofthemajorcauses (Xiao,2017).Heavymetalpollutionhasraisedthealarmhasbeenconsideredaseverehealthissue,increasingconcentrationsinsoils,plants,animals,andwaterbodiesallovertheworld.Toxicmetalsnamelyzinc,lead,aluminum,cadmium,nickel,manganese,arsenic,andironarethemajorhazardouselementsinwater,soil,andfood,alteringthe biologicalsystems,growth,andfunctions(Cho-Ruk,Kurukote,Supprung,&Vetayasuporn,2006).
Chapter10 bySinghetal.,discussedthesources,effects,andmanagementofthehazardouselementsinplants. Chapter11 byNedjimifocusesontheimportanceofhalophytes(Amaranthaceae)inbioaccumulationandtranslocation ofsometraceelementsintheenvironment.Traceelementsimportantfortheplantgrowthanddevelopment,participatinginvariousmetabolicandbiochemicalactivitiesoftheplants.Butincreaseintheirconcentrationresultsincellular damage,reactiveoxygenspecies(ROS)generation,anddisturbanceofvariousmetabolicprocesses(Kabata-Pendias, 2011;Nedjimi,2021).Halophytesareawell-knownspeciesfortheirpotentialtoadapttothesalinesoilenvironment. Theygrowandreproducecomfortablyinthesalinesoilswhichisunfavorabletovariousotherspecies(Nedjimi& Daoud,2009;Wu,Liu,Zhao,&Yu,2012).Thischapterprovidesupdatedinformationontheabilityofsomeendemic halophyticspeciesof Suaedamollis and Traganumnudatum touptaketraceelementsfromsalinesoilsandtranslocate themtotheiraerialparts.Thereviewhighlightsthattheseplantscanalsobeusedaspotentialfodderplantswithoutany animalhealthrisk.
Chapter12 byParwezetal.,elaboratesthesignificanceofmedicinalleguminouscropsfortheirpotentialtoaccumulateandtoleratethehigherconcentrationsofheavymetalsintheirbodytissues.Withtheadvancements,modernization, industrialization,andurbanization,heavymetalpollutioninwatersandsoilshasconsiderablyincreasedaffectingcrop yieldandproduction.VariousheavymetalsnamelyZn,Ni,Cu,Cr,etc.areessentialforplantmetabolicpathwaysat lowconcentrationsbuttoxicathigherconcentrations.However,heavymetalssuchasMercury(Hg),Lead(Pb), Arsenic(As)andCadmium(Cd)arenonessentialandtoxicevenatverylowconcentrations(Asati,Pichhode,&Nikhil, 2016).FamilyFabaceaeorLegumenacaeisoneofthelargestfamilieswith700generaand20,000species,widely beingusedasfood,fodder,andmedicine.88%oflegumesformasymbioticassociationwithnitrogen-fixing Rhizobium/Bradyrhozobiun innodulesimpartingtheirinherentabilitytogrowinnitrogendeficitsoilsandmakingthem idealcropsforsoilreclamationwhilemanylegumesproducephytochemicalsofpharmaceuticalimportanceconferring onthemmedicinalproperties(Ivanova&Tsyganov,2017).Thischapterdealswiththeheavymetal-initiatedplant responsesuponkeymetabolicprocessessuchasseedgermination,plantgrowth,photosynthesis,mineralnutrition,biologicalnitrogenfixation,andsecondarymetaboliteproductioninmedicinallyimportantlegumes(Naikooetal.,2019). Additionally,themolecularbasisofheavymetalresponseandtheirvarioustoxicityalleviationmethodshavealsobeen discussed.
Sincetheplantscannotmove(exceptsomefree-floatingaquaticplants),theyarereadilyexposedtotheheavy metals(HMs)inthesoilwhichaffectsthegrowthandproductivityoftheplants.HMscausemanymorphological,biochemical,physiological,andmoleculardisturbancesinplants,theproductionofROSisoneofthemthathindervarious
biochemicalprocessesessentialforplantgrowth(Kabata-Pendias,2011;Nedjimi,2021).Reducedbiomass,photosyntheticpigments,photosyntheticefficiency,wateruseefficiency,mineralnutritionimbalances,chromosomalaberrations, inhibitionofcelldivisions,chlorosis,andnecrosisaresomeoftheresponseswhenplantsareexposedtotoxiclevelsof HMs.SomeoftheplantsarehyperaccumulatorsofHMsandutilizedinphytoremediationofHMsespeciallythePb, Hg,Cd,Chromium(Cr),As,Copper(Cu),Nickel(Ni),Zinc(Zn)AndIron(Fe)(Silva,Fernandes,Junior,Santos,& Lobato,2018).
Chapter13 byKauretal.summarizesthebiochemicalresponsesofplantstothesoilcontaminatedwithheavy metals.Arsenicentersthefoodchainthroughtheplantrootsandistransportedtovariouspartsthroughthevascular system.Atthecellularlevelarsenicimpartstoxicitybyaffectingthemetabolismandredoxbalance.Plantgrowthand yieldareaffectedbyvariousphysiologicalprocesses(Chauhan,Ranjan,&Purohit,2009).Mitigationsstrategiesfor arsenicneedtobedeveloped.Someofthesemicrobiologicalprocessescouldbeutilizedforthebioremediationand bioaccumulationofarsenicfromthesoilenvironment(Brar,Verma,&Surampalli,2006). Chapter14 byYadavand Chauhansummarizesstudiesonarsenicspeciationanddistribution,arsenictoxicityinplants,microbialarsenicresistancemechanisms,andtheiremploymentforarsenicremediation.
Teaplants(Camelliasinensis)havethepotentialtogrowwellandcantoleratetoxicityinsoilscontaminatedwith higherconcentrationsofAluminum(Al).Alpromotesteaplantgrowth,butathigherconcentrations,itinducestoxicity. AltolerancebyteaplantscanbeutilizedtofacilitatetheremovalofAlthroughtheabsorptionbyrootsofplantsand accumulationofsameintheirbodytissues(Sun,Zhang,&Liu,2020).In Chapter15 ofRayetal.,theauthorsenvisagedprovidingadetailedaccountofAlphytotoxicity,tolerancemechanism,andwaystomitigateAltoxicityintea plants.
Chapter16 byJahanetal.isfocusingontheroleofphytohormonesinmitigatingtheharmfulimpactsofhazardous andtracematerialsonagriculturalcrops.Metal-inducedoxidativestressresultinROSsynthesiswhichhampersthe metabolismbytheinterferenceoffreeradicals.Nutrientuptake,hormonehomeostasis,andwaterbalancearealsocollapsedduringmetal-inducedstress(Charkiewicz&Backstrand,2020).ThereisawiderangeofresearchreportssuggestingthattheplanthormonessuchasAuxin,cytokinins,gibberellins,salicylicacid,andjasmonicacidapplication caneffectivelyenduretheplantduringthemetal-mediatedstress(Nguyen,Sesin,Kisiala,&Emery,2021).
CdisaubiquitouslyavailabletoxicheavymetalintheEarth’scrustanddoesnothaveanybeneficialroleinthe plantsystem.Anthropogenicactivitiessuchasmining,industrialdisposalarethemajorsourcesofCdpollutioninsoil (Nawabetal.,2016).Thepresent Chapter17 byDattaandRoychoudhuryfocusesonvarioussourcesofCdcontamination,themechanismofCduptake,anditstoxiceffectsintheplantandsoilenvironment.Someoftheapplicationsof biochar,upregulationof phytochelatinsynthase genesanddevelopmentoftransgenics,useoforganicmanures,and maintenanceofhumictofulvicacidratiohavebeendiscussedandrecommendedforremediationofCdfromthecontaminatedsoils(Sohailetal.,2019).
Chapter18 byMajeedetal.,givesanoutlineofthesignificanceofPGPRasoneofthesustainablemethodsinthe bioremediationofcontaminatedagriculturalsoils.ThePGPRhasshownseveralcharacteristicsofimprovingthesoil quality,minimizingsoildegradation,amelioratingthetoxiceffectofpollutants,andenhancingplants’growth.Some PGPRarethepromisingagentsofbioremediationandtheirutilizationasa“greenerapproach”towardscontaminated soilreclamation(Prakash,2021).Bacterialpolyaminesareusedforvariousfunctionssuchas“embryogeniccompetence,ripeningoffruits,formationofbiofilm,differentiationofxylemcellsandprogrammeddeathofcells,etc.”and playedaroletocombatstresspresentintheenvironment(Silveiraetal.,2013).Therearedifferentresearchesonthe useofbacterialpolyaminessuchasregulatingbiologicalfunctionsliketheproliferationofcells,activitiesofdifferent enzymesmodulate,stabilizethemembranesandbalancebetweencationandanion(Groppa&Benavides,2008). Chapter19 bySiddiqaandFaisalisfocusingonthesignificanceofbacterialpolyamines(putrescine,spermidine,and spermine)asakeymediatortocombatstresstoleranceinplants.
Inthis Chapter20 byVermaetal.,theauthoremphasizedtheplantsandmicrobes-assistedremediationstrategiesto neutralizecadmiumtoxicityinthesoilcontaminatedwithCdwhichiswellknownheavymetalthataffectstheplants andanimal’shealth.Cdinplantmetabolismandseedgermination(deSouzaGuilherme,deOliveira,&daSilva, 2015).Moreover,theapplicationoftheplantgrowthregulators,mineralnutrients,organicmanure,compost,andbiocharcouldaddtotheremediationofCd-contaminatedsites(Kalai,Bouthour,Manai,BettaiebBenKaab,&Gouia, 2016). Chapter21 byGeramietal.,presentstheeffectofsymbiosiswitharbuscularmycorrhizalfungionthegreen treatmentofPTEscontaminatedsoils.ThechapterprovidesinformationontheabilityofmycorrhizalfungiinplantprotectionagainstthePTEstoxicitytovariousfactorssuchasplantspecies,type,andraceofmycorrhizalfungi,typeand concentrationofPTEs,plantgrowthconditions,soilproperties,age,andphysiologicalstatusoftheplantsdependingon itsrootsystem(Malekzadeh,Aliasgharzad,Majidi,Abdolalizadeh,&Aghebati-Maleki,2016).
