HandbookofNanomaterialsfor WastewaterTreatment
FundamentalsandScaleupIssues
Editedby
BharatBhanvase
ShirishSonawane
VijayPawade
AniruddhaPandit
Elsevier
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SECTIONI:Introductiontonanomaterialsforwastewatertreatment: Fundamentals
Chapter1:Introductiontonanomaterialsforwastewatertreatment........................3
BhaskarBethi,ShirishH.Sonawane,BharatA.Bhanvase,andJaykumarB.Bhasarkar
1.1Introduction............................................................................................................3
1.1.1Catalystfororganiccomponentdegradation:Nanocatalyst.............................4
1.1.2Photocatalyticeffectduetonanoscale:Bandgap.............................................4
1.1.3Disinfectionusingnanomaterials......................................................................5
1.1.4Nanomaterialsforsensing.................................................................................6
1.2Nanomaterialsasadsorbentsforwastewatertreatment........................................6
1.2.1Carbonnanotubes(CNTs).................................................................................6
1.2.2Graphenenanomaterials....................................................................................7
1.2.3Metalandmetaloxides.....................................................................................8
1.2.4Magneticnanoparticles......................................................................................9
1.3Metaloxidenanoparticlesasphotocatalyst..........................................................9
1.4Nanocompositesforwastewatertreatment.........................................................11
1.4.1Bionanocomposites..........................................................................................11
1.4.2Nanocompositesbasedoninorganicsupport..................................................12
1.4.3Nanocompositehydrogels...............................................................................14
1.5Membrane-basedtechnology...............................................................................15
1.5.1Nanocompositemembranes.............................................................................17
1.6Challengesandfuturedirection..........................................................................19 References...................................................................................................................20
Chapter2:Low-dimensionalnanomaterials:Syntheses,physicochemical properties,andtheirroleinwastewatertreatment..............................................27
DraganaJ.Jovanovic
2.1Introduction..........................................................................................................27
2.2Classificationofnanomaterials...........................................................................28
2.2.1Semiconductingnanomaterials........................................................................28
2.2.2Metaloxidenanomaterials..............................................................................30
2.2.3Carbon-basednanomaterials............................................................................31
2.3Synthesisoflow-dimensionalnanomaterials......................................................32
2.3.1Synthesisof0Dnanomaterials(II–VIandIII–Vquantumdots)...................33
2.3.2Synthesisof1Dand2Dnanomaterials...........................................................37
2.3.3Synthesisofcarbon-basednanomaterials.......................................................39
2.3.4StructureandmorphologyofII–VIandIII–Vsemiconductor nanomaterials...................................................................................................40
2.4Physicochemicalproperties.................................................................................42
2.4.1Opticalpropertiesof0DofII–VIandIII–Vnanomaterials..........................42
2.4.2Opticalpropertiesof1Dand2Dnanomaterials.............................................46
2.5Low-dimensionalnanomaterialsinwastewatertreatment.................................48
2.6Conclusion...........................................................................................................49
TariqAziz,ShabnamAzad,SidharthP.Nair,JitendraSinghVerma, AshishP.Unnarkat,SharadwataPan,andAshutoshNamdeo
3.1Introduction..........................................................................................................59
3.2Synthesisofnanoparticles,chemicalsinvolvedandtheirpotentialsafety concern.................................................................................................................63
3.2.1Synthesisofzincoxidenanoparticles.............................................................63
3.2.2Synthesisofsilvernanoparticles.....................................................................65
3.2.3Carbonnanotubesynthesis..............................................................................66
3.2.4Ironoxidenanoparticlesynthesis....................................................................68
3.2.5SynthesisofTiO2 nanoparticles......................................................................68
3.2.6Othermaterialsandmetaloxides....................................................................68
3.3Potentialsafetyconcernsofnanomaterialstofloraandfauna..........................72
3.3.1Zincoxide(ZnO)nanoparticles......................................................................72
3.3.2Silvernanoparticles.........................................................................................73
3.3.3Carbonnanotubesandcarbon-basednanomaterials/nanoparticles................74
3.3.4Ironoxideandmagneticnanoparticles...........................................................74
3.3.5Titaniumdioxide(TiO2)nanoparticles...........................................................75
3.4Conclusion...........................................................................................................76
References...................................................................................................................76
Chapter4:Advancedtechnologiesforwastewatertreatment:Newtrends..............85
JyotiKatiyar,SwapnilBargole,SujaGeorge,RohidasBhoi,andVirendraKumarSaharan
4.1Introduction..........................................................................................................85
4.2Advancedoxidationprocesses............................................................................87
4.2.1Hydrodynamiccavitation................................................................................87
4.2.2Sonolysis/acousticcavitation...........................................................................88
4.2.3Photocatalysis..................................................................................................93
4.2.4Fentonprocess.................................................................................................99
4.3HybridAOP’sinvolvingnanocatalyst..............................................................101
4.3.1HeterogeneousFentonprocess......................................................................103
4.3.2Heterogeneousphoto-Fentonprocess...........................................................104
4.3.3Sonophotocatalyticprocess..........................................................................111
4.3.4Sono-Fentonprocess......................................................................................116
4.3.5Sono-photo-Fentonprocess...........................................................................119
4.3.6Photocatalyticoxidationwithhydrodynamiccavitation..............................123
4.4Conclusions........................................................................................................123
SECTIONII:Photocatalyticnanocompositematerials:Preparation andapplications
Chapter5:Introduction,basicprinciples,mechanism,andchallenges ofphotocatalysis............................................................................................137 PrasadMandade
5.1Introduction........................................................................................................137
5.2Basicprinciplesandmechanismofphotocatalysis..........................................138
5.3Sourceofwaterpollution,watertreatmentmethods,androleof nanomaterialsinwastewatertreatment.............................................................141
5.3.1Sourcesofwaterpollution............................................................................141
5.3.2Watertreatmentmethods..............................................................................142
5.3.3Roleofnanomaterialsinwatertreatmentbyphotocatalysis.......................142
5.4Overviewonphotocatalyticmaterialsandfactorsaffecting photocatalysis.....................................................................................................144
5.4.1Photocatalyticmaterials.................................................................................144
5.4.2Factoraffectingphotocatalysis......................................................................145
5.5Challengesofphotocatalysisinwastewatertreatment.....................................147
5.6Summary............................................................................................................150
Chapter6:Doped-TiO2 anddoped-mixedmetaloxide-basednanocomposite forphotocatalysis...........................................................................................155
AkashP.Bhat,AnandaJ.Jadhav,ChandrakantR.Holkar,andDipakV.Pinjari
6.1Introduction........................................................................................................156
6.2MechanismofTiO2 photocatalysis...................................................................157
6.2.1Generationofchargecarrierspeciesandtheirrecombination.....................157
6.2.2AdsorptionofchemicalstoTiO2 followedbytheirredoxpathways..........159
6.2.3Radicalattackonorganics............................................................................161
6.3PhotoactivityofTiO2 polymorphs....................................................................162
6.4AdvancementsinTiO2 photocatalysisforadvancedoxidation technology..........................................................................................................162
6.4.1SurfacemodificationsofTiO2 ......................................................................162
6.4.2Photocatalystmodificationanddoping.........................................................165
6.4.3Photocatalyticmembranes.............................................................................166
6.4.4Applicationofmembranes............................................................................167
6.5Photochemicalreactors......................................................................................168
6.5.1Immersionwell..............................................................................................170
6.5.2Thinfilm........................................................................................................170
6.5.3Annular..........................................................................................................171
6.5.4Multilamp.......................................................................................................171
6.6Combination/couplingwithother(hybrid)treatmenttechnologies.................171
6.7ChallengesandissuesforTiO2 photo-catalysisforwatertreatment...............172
6.8Conclusionandfutureprospectus.....................................................................174
References.................................................................................................................175
Chapter7:Newgraphene-basednanocompositeforphotocatalysis......................181 GunvantH.Sonawane,PrakashK.Labhane,andShirishH.Sonawane
7.1Introduction........................................................................................................181
7.2Grapheneanditsderivatives.............................................................................182
7.2.1Propertiesofgrapheneanditsderivatives....................................................182
7.2.2Preparationmethodsofgrapheneanditsderivatives...................................182
7.3Grapheneanditsderivative-basedphotocatalyst..............................................184
7.3.1Synthesisofgrapheneanditsderivativesbasedbinarynanocomposites....184
7.3.2Synthesisofgrapheneanditsderivative-basedternarynanocomposites....186
7.4Characterizationofgrapheneanditsderivatives..............................................188
7.5Photocatalyticapplications................................................................................190
7.5.1Photocatalyticstudyofgrapheneanditsderivatives-basedbinary nanocomposites..............................................................................................192
7.5.2Photocatalyticstudyofgrapheneanditsderivatives-basedternary nanocomposites..............................................................................................193
7.6Mechanismofphotocatalyticdegradation........................................................194
7.7Conclusionandfutureprospects.......................................................................197 References.................................................................................................................200
Chapter8:Luminescencenanomaterialsforphotocatalysis.................................209 AmolNande,AshishTiwari,SwatiRaut,RenuNayar,andS.J.Dhoble
8.1Introduction—Basicprincipalofphosphorforphotocatalysis.........................209
8.2Mechanismandchallengesofluminescencematerialsinphotocatalysis........211
8.3Rare-earth-dopedinorganicphosphormaterialsforphotocatalysis.................213
8.3.1Downconversionphosphors...........................................................................213
8.3.2Upconversionphosphors...............................................................................216
8.3.3Long-lastingphosphors.................................................................................219
8.4Nanophosphorforphotocatalysis......................................................................221
8.4.1Oxide-basednanophosphors..........................................................................222
8.4.2Sulfide-basedphosphors................................................................................225
8.4.3Plasmonic-metalnanoparticles......................................................................226
8.5Synthesisofnanophosphors..............................................................................227
8.5.1Solid-satereactionmethods...........................................................................227
8.5.2Combustionmethod.......................................................................................230
8.5.3Hydrothermalmethod....................................................................................230
8.5.4Sol-gelmethod...............................................................................................230
8.5.5Co-precipitationmethod................................................................................231
8.5.6Ballmillingmethod.......................................................................................231
8.6Applicationofphotocatalysisinwaterpurification.........................................231
8.7Conclusionandfutureperspectivesofluminescencephosphor-based photocatalyst......................................................................................................233
8.8Challengesandissues........................................................................................233
Chapter9:Magneticnanomaterials-basedphotocatalystforwastewater treatment......................................................................................................241
PrachiUpadhyay,VijayanandS.Moholkar,andSankarChakma
9.1Introduction........................................................................................................241
9.2Sourceofwaterpollutionandtypeofpollutants.............................................242
9.2.1Agriculturalwaste..........................................................................................243
9.2.2Pharmaceuticalwaste....................................................................................244
9.2.3Industrialwaste..............................................................................................244
9.2.4Plasticwaste..................................................................................................245
9.3Typesofwatertreatmenttechniques................................................................246
9.3.1Primarytreatment..........................................................................................246
9.3.2Secondarytreatment......................................................................................248
9.3.3Tertiarytreatmenttechniques........................................................................249
9.4Casestudyofwastewatertreatmentusingmagneticnanoparticles.................261
9.4.1Magneticnanoparticlesasadsorbents...........................................................261
9.4.2Photocatalysisdecontaminationofwaterusingmagneticnanoparticles.....263
9.5Limitationsofmagneticnanomaterials.............................................................267
9.6Futureprospectsandoverview..........................................................................267
Chapter10:Nanomaterialsforwatersplittingandhydrogengeneration..............277
SagarD.BalgudeandSatishP.Mardikar
10.1Introduction......................................................................................................277
10.2Developingphotocatalystsforwatersplitting—Mechanisticaspects............280
10.3Nanomaterialsforwatersplitting....................................................................280
10.3.1Metaloxidesforwatersplitting................................................................282
10.3.2Metalsulfidesforwatersplitting..............................................................291
10.3.3Metalorganicframeworksforwatersplitting..........................................293
10.3.4Carbon-basednanomaterialsforwatersplitting.......................................295
10.4Sn3O4-ZnOnanoflowersforhydrogengenerationundervisible light—Casestudy............................................................................................296
10.4.1Preparation,characterization,andphotoactivityofSn3O4-ZnO nanoflowers................................................................................................297
10.4.2Resultsanddiscussion...............................................................................298
10.5Conclusions......................................................................................................302 References.................................................................................................................303
Chapter11:Nanomaterialsfortreatmentofairpollutants.................................313
NikhilD.Bhavsar,DivyaP.Barai,BharatA.Bhanvase,andShirishH.Sonawane
11.1Introduction......................................................................................................313
11.2Roleofnanotechnologyinvariouspollutiontreatmentmethods..................314
11.3Airpollutants...................................................................................................315
11.4Nanotechnologyinthetreatmentofairpollution..........................................315
11.4.1Treatmentmethods....................................................................................315
11.4.2Treatmentofairpollutants........................................................................318 11.5Pilot-scalestudies............................................................................................331
SECTIONIII:Adsorbentnanomaterials:Preparationandapplications
Chapter12:Nanomaterialsforadsorptionofpollutantsandheavymetals: Introduction,mechanism,andchallenges...........................................................343
ShaileshA.Ghodke,UtkarshMaheshwari,SureshGupta,ShirishH.Sonawane, andBharatA.Bhanvase
12.1Introduction......................................................................................................343
Chapter13:Newgraphenenanocomposites-basedadsorbents.............................367 MarziehBadiei,NilofarAsim,MasitaMohammad,MohammadAlghoul, NurulAsmaSamsudin,M.Akhtaruzzaman,NowshadAmin,andKamaruzzamanSopian
13.1Introduction......................................................................................................367
13.2Graphene..........................................................................................................368
13.3Grapheneoxide................................................................................................371
13.4Reducedgrapheneoxide.................................................................................373
13.5Functionalization.............................................................................................374
13.5.1Covalentinteraction...................................................................................375
13.5.2Noncovalentinteraction.............................................................................376
13.6Kineticofadsorption.......................................................................................377
13.7Graphene-basedinorganicnanocomposites....................................................378
13.7.1Metalandmetal-oxidesgraphene-basednanocomposites........................378
13.7.2Magneticgraphene-basednanocomposites...............................................382
13.8Graphene-basedorganicnanocomposites.......................................................389
13.8.1Graphene-basedorganicpolymernanocomposites...................................389
13.8.2Graphene-basednanocompositeswithmultidentateorganic chelatingligandsandcomplexionagents.................................................395
13.9Challengesandfutureprospective..................................................................397
14.1Introduction......................................................................................................417 14.2Thenatureofthezeolite.................................................................................419
14.2.1Compositionandstructure.........................................................................419
14.2.2Characterizationofzeolites.......................................................................422
14.3Sorptionofmetalcationsonzeolitesandionexchange................................425
14.3.1Possiblesorptionandion-exchangemechanisms.....................................425
14.3.2Factorsaffectingthesorptionprocess.......................................................431
14.3.3Principlesofionexchangeonzeolites......................................................432
14.3.4Organiccationsorptiononzeolites...........................................................433
14.4Essentialcharacteristicsofzeolitesandmodificationprocesses....................434
14.4.1Physicochemicalpropertiesofzeolites.....................................................434
14.4.2Proceduresforthemodificationofzeolites..............................................436
14.5Applicationofzeolitesinwatertreatment......................................................448
14.5.1Removalofmetalionsfromdifferentwastewaters..................................448
14.5.2Removaloftheammoniumionfromwater.............................................448
14.5.3Removalofradioactiveelementsfromwastewaterfromnuclear powerplants...............................................................................................450
14.6Regulationofwaterhardness..........................................................................451
14.7Zeoliteregeneration.........................................................................................454
14.8Discussion........................................................................................................457
14.8.1Sorptionofmetalcationsonnaturalandsyntheticzeolites.....................457
14.8.2Sorptionofmetalcationsonnaturalandmodifiedzeolites.....................463
14.8.3Sorptionofammoniumandotherionsonnaturalandmodified zeolites.......................................................................................................466 14.9Conclusionsandfutureperspectives...............................................................468
Chapter15:Metal-organicframeworknanocomposite-based
SachinR.ShirsathandBharatA.Bhanvase
15.1Introduction......................................................................................................483
15.6.1Applicationofnanocomposite-basedMOFsinadsorption......................489
15.6.2Applicationsofnanocomposite-basedMOFsinindustry........................505
15.7ChallengesforMOFs......................................................................................505
15.7.1ChallengesandissuesforMOFasadsorbentfortreatment
Chapter16:Advancednanocompositeionexchangematerialsforwater
ManishkumarD.Yadav
16.1Introduction......................................................................................................513
16.3.1Background................................................................................................515
16.4.1Fouriertransforminfraredspectroscopy...................................................520
16.4.2X-raydiffraction........................................................................................521
16.4.3Thermogravimetricanalysis......................................................................522
16.4.4Scanningelectronmicroscope...................................................................522
16.5ApplicationofnanocompositeIEXmaterialsforwater
16.6Scale-upconundrum........................................................................................530 16.7Conclusions......................................................................................................530
SECTIONIV:Nanomaterialsformembranesynthesis:Preparationand
Chapter17:Nanomaterialsformembranesynthesis:Introduction,mechanism, andchallengesforwastewatertreatment..........................................................537
ShriramSonawane,ParagThakur,ShirishH.Sonawane,andBharatA.Bhanvase
17.1Introduction......................................................................................................538
17.2Conventionalmembranes................................................................................538
17.2.1Ceramicmembranes..................................................................................539
17.2.2Polymericmembranes...............................................................................539
17.3Nanomaterial-basedmembranes.....................................................................540
17.3.1Inorganicnanoparticle-basedmembranes.................................................540
17.3.2Nanofiber-basedmembranes.....................................................................541
17.3.3Carbon-basedmembranes..........................................................................541
17.4Nanomaterial-basedmembranesynthesistechniques.....................................541
17.4.1Phaseinversionmethod.............................................................................542
17.4.2Interfacialpolymerization(IP)..................................................................543
17.4.3Layer-by-layer(LBL)assembly................................................................545 17.4.4Stretchingandsintering.............................................................................545
17.4.5Tracketchingandelectrospinning............................................................545
17.4.6Three-dimensionalprinting(3Dprinting).................................................546
17.5Challengesforwastewatertreatment..............................................................546
17.5.1Antifoulingchallenges...............................................................................546
17.5.2Antibacterialchallenges............................................................................546
Chapter18:Carbon-basednanocompositemembranesforwater purification....................................................................................................555
SwapnilL.Sonawane,PrakashK.Labhane,andGunvantH.Sonawane 18.1Introductiontonanomaterials..........................................................................555
18.2Carbon-basednanocompositematerials(CNCMs) (polymer/hybrid)..............................................................................................557
18.3Developmentandsynthesisofcarbon-basednanocompositematerial..........558
18.3.1Solutionmixing.........................................................................................558
18.3.2Chemicalvapordeposition........................................................................559
18.3.3Insitucolloidalprecipitation....................................................................560
18.3.4Polymergrafting........................................................................................560
18.3.5Insitupolymerization................................................................................561
18.3.6Phaseinversion..........................................................................................562
18.3.7Spray-assistedlayer-by-layer....................................................................563
18.4Fabricationstechniquesandtypesofcarbon-basednanocomposite membrane.........................................................................................................563
18.4.1Carbonnanotube(CNT)membranes........................................................564
18.4.2CNT-polymercomposite(CNTmixed-matrixmembranes)....................564
18.5Applicationsofcarbon-basednanocompositemembraneforwater purification.......................................................................................................565
18.5.1Removaloforganic/inorganicpollutants..................................................565
18.6Conclusion.......................................................................................................569 References.................................................................................................................570
Chapter19:Nanocompositemembranesforheavymetalremoval........................575
SaurabhP.Tembhare,DivyaP.Barai,BharatA.Bhanvase,andM.Y.Salunkhe
19.1Introduction....................................................................................................575
19.2Needofheavymetalsremoval......................................................................577
19.3Roleofnanomaterialsinwastewatertreatment............................................578
19.4Roleofnanomaterialsinnanocompositemembranes..................................579
19.5Nanomaterialsusedforheavymetalsremoval.............................................583
19.6Synthesisofnanocompositemembranes......................................................585
19.6.1Phaseinversionmethod...........................................................................586
19.7.2Cadmium..................................................................................................589
20.3.1Hydrophilicandamphiphilicpolymer(HP)-incorporatedin
20.3.2Inorganicnanomaterials(iNPs)-incorporatedinmixed-matrix membrane...................................................................................................631
20.3.3Metal-organicframeworks-incorporatedmixed-matrixmembrane..........632
20.3.4Carbonnanomaterials(CNs)-incorporatedinmixed-matrix membrane...................................................................................................632
20.4Thin-filmnanocompositemembrane..............................................................640
20.4.1Inorganicnanomaterials(iNPs)-incorporatedthin-filmcomposite membrane...................................................................................................641
20.4.2Bioinspiredmaterials-incorporatedthinfilmcompositemembrane........642
20.4.3Metal-organicframeworks-incorporatedthin-filmcomposite membrane...................................................................................................643
20.4.4Carbonnanomaterials-incorporatedthin-filmcompositemembrane.......644
20.4.5Thin-filmnanocompositemembranewithnanoparticlesinsubstrate......647
20.4.6Chlorinestabilityofpolyamidethin-filmnanocompositemembrane.....648
20.5Surface-locatednanoparticlemembranes........................................................649
20.5.1Nanoporousgraphenesheets.....................................................................650
20.5.2Grapheneoxidesurface-locatedmembrane..............................................650
20.5.3Inorganicnanomaterials(iNPs)surface-locatedmembranes...................652
20.5.4Metal-organicframeworks/covalentorganicframeworks surface-locatedmembrane.........................................................................653
21.1Introduction......................................................................................................673
21.2Typesofmembranes.......................................................................................675
21.2.1Isotropic(symmetric)membranes.............................................................676
21.2.2Asymmetric(anisotropic)membranes......................................................676
21.3Membranematerials........................................................................................677
21.4Designandfabricationofresponsivemembrane............................................678
21.4.1Preparationandprocessingofresponsivematerials.................................678
21.4.2Functionalizationbyincubationinliquid.................................................679
21.4.3Functionalizationbyincorporationofresponsivegroupsinbase membrane...................................................................................................679
21.4.4Functionalizationbysurfacemodification................................................681
21.5Classificationofstimulationapproachandapplication inwatertreatment............................................................................................683
21.5.1Thermoresponsivemembrane....................................................................684
21.5.2pH/chemical-responsivemembranes.........................................................685
21.5.3Ionicstrength/electrolyte/saltresponsiveness...........................................688
21.5.4Electroresponsivemembranes...................................................................689
21.5.5Magnetoresponsivemembranes................................................................691
21.5.6Photoresponsivemembranes.....................................................................692
21.6Characteristicsofstimuli-responsivemembrane............................................692
21.6.1Flexibility...................................................................................................692
21.6.2Surfacemodification..................................................................................693
21.7Industrialapplications......................................................................................693
21.8Conclusion.......................................................................................................694
Chapter22:Nanomaterial-basedphotocatalyticmembranefororganic pollutantsremoval.........................................................................................699
GauriA.KallawarandBharatA.Bhanvase
22.1Introduction......................................................................................................699
22.2Photocatalyticmembranematerials................................................................700
22.2.1Hybridphotocatalyticmembrane..............................................................701
22.2.2Porousphotocatalyticmembranes.............................................................702
22.2.3Polymer-basedphotocatalyticmembrane.................................................702
22.2.4Graphene-basedphotocatalyticmembrane...............................................703
22.2.5Graphiticcarbonnitride-basedphotocatalyticmembrane........................704
22.2.6CNT-basedphotocatalyticmembrane.......................................................705
22.3Photocatalyticmembranefabrication..............................................................706
22.3.1Sol-geldip-coating....................................................................................706
22.3.5Phaseinversionmethod.............................................................................710
22.3.6Immersionmethod.....................................................................................711
22.3.7Spinning/electrospinningmethod..............................................................712
22.3.8Solventcastingmethod.............................................................................714
22.4Applicationsofphotocatalyticmembraneforremovaloforganic pollutant...........................................................................................................715
22.5Typesofphotocatalyticmembranereactorsandtheirconfigurations...........717
22.6Treatmentoforganicpollutantsbyphotocatalyticmembrane.......................722
22.7Challengesofphotocatalyticmembrane-basedprocesses..............................725
22.8Scale-upofphotocatalyticmembrane-basedprocesses..................................726
22.9Conclusionsandfutureperspectives...............................................................727 References.................................................................................................................729
23.1Introduction....................................................................................................741
23.2Physicalmethodsofwastewaterremediation...............................................743 23.2.1Screens.....................................................................................................744
23.2.2Gritchambers..........................................................................................745
23.2.3Aeration...................................................................................................745
23.2.4Sedimentation(clarification)...................................................................746
23.2.5Filtration...................................................................................................746
23.2.6Distillation...............................................................................................747
23.3Physicochemicalwatertreatmentprocesses.................................................749
23.3.1Precipitationandcoagulation..................................................................749
23.3.2Adsorption................................................................................................750
23.4Chemicalremediation....................................................................................751
23.4.1Chemicaldisinfection..............................................................................751
23.4.2Neutralization...........................................................................................752
23.4.3Ionexchange............................................................................................753
23.5Biologicalremediation/treatment..................................................................753
23.5.1Suspendedgrowthprocess......................................................................754
23.5.2Attachedgrowth(biofilm)processes......................................................756
23.5.3Combinedprocesses................................................................................757
23.6Advanced/novelwaterremediationprocesses..............................................757
23.6.1Membranetechnology.............................................................................758
23.6.2Electrodialysis..........................................................................................762
23.6.3Electrocoagulation...................................................................................762
23.7Advancedoxidationprocesses......................................................................762
23.7.1ChemicalAOPs.......................................................................................763
23.7.2Photochemicaladvancedoxidationprocesses........................................764
23.7.3Sonochemicaladvancedoxidationprocesses.........................................767
23.7.4Electrochemicaladvancedoxidationprocesses......................................768
23.8Nanomaterialforwastewaterremediation....................................................769
23.8.1Biogenicmetalnanoparticles..................................................................769 23.9Pathforward...................................................................................................770
AnanyaDeyandParagR.Gogate
24.1Introduction......................................................................................................779
24.2Typesofnanocompositesandtheirsynthesis.................................................780
24.3Advancedoxidationprocessesforwastewatertreatment...............................780
24.4Governingmechanismofphotocatalysis........................................................781
24.5Differentnanocompositesusedasphotocatalystsforwastewater treatment..........................................................................................................782
24.5.1Metal-dopednanocomposites....................................................................783
24.5.2Nonmetal-dopednanocomposites..............................................................783
24.5.3Binarymetaloxides...................................................................................785
24.5.4Metalsulfides............................................................................................785
24.5.5Polymer-basednanocomposites................................................................787
24.5.6Graphene-basednanocomposites..............................................................787
24.5.7Clay-basednanocomposites......................................................................789
24.6Factorsaffectingthewastewatertreatmentusingphotocatalysis..................789
24.6.1Synthesisofphotocatalysts.......................................................................789
24.6.2Catalystloading.........................................................................................790
24.6.3pHofthesolution......................................................................................793
24.6.4Characteristicsofthenanocompositephotocatalysts...............................794
24.6.5Reactiontemperature.................................................................................795
24.6.6Concentrationofpollutants.......................................................................795
24.6.7Effectoftypeoflightandintensity..........................................................797
24.6.8Irradiationtime..........................................................................................798
24.7Recenttrendsintypesofphotocatalyticreactors...........................................798
24.7.1Photocatalyticmembranereactors............................................................798
24.7.2Microreactorsandmicrofluidicreactors...................................................802
24.7.3Hybridphotoreactors.................................................................................803 24.8Challenges........................................................................................................804
fordegradationofwastepollutants..................................................................811 JaykumarB.BhasarkarandDharmendraKumarBal
25.1Introduction......................................................................................................811
25.2Advancedoxidationprocesses........................................................................812
25.2.1Supercriticalwateroxidation....................................................................813
25.2.2Photocatalysis............................................................................................814
25.2.3Metaloxide-containingnanoparticles.......................................................816
25.2.4Carbon-basednanoparticles.......................................................................817
25.2.5Ceramics-basednanoparticles...................................................................818
25.2.6Polymernanoparticles...............................................................................818
25.3IndividualAOPsinvolvingnanomaterials......................................................819
25.3.1Degradationoforganicpollutantsusingdifferentnanomaterials asphotocatalysts........................................................................................819
25.4HybridAOPs...................................................................................................821
25.4.1Ultrasound-assistedphotocatalyticdegradationoforganic pollutants....................................................................................................821
25.5NonphotochemicalAOPs................................................................................824
25.5.1Sonolysis....................................................................................................824
25.5.2Ozonation...................................................................................................824
25.5.3Fentonprocess...........................................................................................825
25.5.4Persulfateoxidationprocess......................................................................825
25.6FactorsaffectingonAOPperformance..........................................................826
25.7Conclusions,challenges,andfuturedirections...............................................828 References.................................................................................................................829
Chapter26:Electro-photocatalyticdegradationprocessesfordye/colored wastewatertreatment....................................................................................833
SiddharthD.Parashar,AnjaliA.Meshram,andSharadM.Sontakke
26.1Introduction......................................................................................................833
26.2Mechanismsofelectro-photocatalysis............................................................835
26.3Experimentalassemblyinelectro-photocatalysis...........................................836
26.4Effectofreactionconditions...........................................................................840
26.4.1Effectofappliedcellvoltage....................................................................841
26.4.2Effectofphotoanodicmaterials................................................................842
26.4.3Effectofphotonsourceandlightintensity...............................................842
26.5Scopeforfuturework......................................................................................844 References.................................................................................................................844
Chapter27:Fentonwithzero-valentironnanoparticles(nZVI)processes: Roleofnanomaterials.....................................................................................847
PrashantL.Suryawanshi,PrachiUpadhyay,BhaskarBethi,VijayanandS.Moholkar, andSankarChakma
27.1Introduction......................................................................................................847
27.2Synthesismethodsforzero-valentironnanoparticles....................................850
27.2.1SynthesisofnZVIusingchemicalmethods.............................................850
27.2.2SonochemicalsynthesisofnZVI..............................................................851
27.2.3BiologicalsynthesisofnZVI....................................................................852
27.3InfluencesofprocessparametersonsynthesisofnZVI.................................854
27.3.1EffectofinitialFe3+ concentrationfortheZVIparticlesize..................854
27.3.2EffectofchemicalreducingagentontheZVIparticlesize....................855
27.3.3EffectofstabilizerconcentrationontheZVIparticlesize......................856
27.3.4EffectoftemperatureforcontrollingtheparticlesizeofnZVI...............857
27.3.5InfluenceofreactionpHonformationofnZVIandparticlesize...........857
27.4ReactionmechanismandcatalyticactivityofnZVIfortreatmentof wastewater.......................................................................................................858
27.5CatalyticactivityofnZVIforwastewatertreatment......................................861
27.6Futureperspectiveandnewdirections............................................................862 References.................................................................................................................862
Chapter28:Nanocompositeadsorbent-basedwastewatertreatmentprocesses: Specialemphasisonsurface-engineeredironoxidenanohybrids............................867
SatishP.Mardikar,V.R.Doss,P.D.Jolhe,R.W.Gaikwad,andS.S.Barkade
28.1Introduction......................................................................................................867
28.2Differentstrategiesforsynthesisofironoxidehybridadsorbents................868
28.3Surface-engineeredmagneticnanohybrids.....................................................870
28.3.1Ironoxidefunctionalgroupsforheavymetalremoval............................870
28.3.2Iron-bimetaloxideNPsforheavymetalremoval....................................872
28.3.3Ironoxide-metaloxidenanoparticlesforheavy metalremoval............................................................................................877
28.3.4Ironoxide-polymerforheavymetalremoval...........................................879
28.3.5Ironoxide-carbonnanotubesforheavymetalremoval............................882
28.3.6Ironoxide-grapheneforheavymetalremoval.........................................882
28.3.7Ironoxide-biomaterial-basednanoparticlesforheavy metalremoval............................................................................................884
28.4Currenttrendsandscale-upchallenges...........................................................889
28.5Conclusions......................................................................................................890 References.................................................................................................................890
Chapter29:Preparationofnoveladsorbent(marblehydroxyapatite)from wastemarbleslurryforgroundwatertreatmenttoremovefluoride.....................899 SujaGeorge,DhirajMehta,andVirendraKumarSaharan
29.1Introduction......................................................................................................899
29.2Materialsandmethods.....................................................................................901
29.2.1Materials....................................................................................................901
29.2.2PreparationofcalciumnitrateusingMWP..............................................902
29.2.3SynthesisofMA-Hap................................................................................902
29.2.4Reactionscheme........................................................................................904
29.2.5CharacterizationofMA-Hap.....................................................................904
29.2.6Adsorptionexperiments.............................................................................905
29.3Resultsanddiscussion.....................................................................................906
29.3.1Synthesisreactionandyield......................................................................906
29.3.2CharacterizationofMA-Hap.....................................................................906
29.3.3Batchdefluoridationstudies......................................................................916
29.3.4Adsorptionequilibriumisotherms.............................................................919
29.3.5Kineticsofadsorption...............................................................................919
29.3.6Waterqualityparametersandregeneration..............................................920
29.3.7EnergyefficacyoftheMA-Hapsynthesismethods.................................922
29.3.8ColumnstudiesusingMA-Happellets.....................................................923
29.4Conclusions......................................................................................................924 Appendix...................................................................................................................925 References.................................................................................................................926
Chapter30:Nanocomposite/nanoparticleinmembrane-basedseparation forwaterremediation:Casestudy...................................................................929 FatemehBagri,SedighehBazgir,andYagoubMansourpanah
30.1Introduction......................................................................................................929
30.2Nanostructures.................................................................................................930
30.2.1Carbonnanomaterials................................................................................930
30.2.2Metalorganicframeworks.........................................................................938
30.2.3Zeolites.......................................................................................................944
30.2.4Metaloxidesnanoparticles........................................................................946
30.3Challengesandfutureprospects......................................................................948
References.................................................................................................................949
Chapter31:Theprocessfortheremovalofmicropollutantsusing nanomaterials................................................................................................957
M.V.BagalandS.Raut-Jadhav
31.1Introduction......................................................................................................957
31.2TypesofMPs...................................................................................................959
31.3VariousmethodsappliedforthetreatmentofMPs........................................960
31.3.1Conventionalmethods...............................................................................960
31.3.2Advancedmethodsusingnanomaterials...................................................961
31.4Photocatalyticprocessusingnanomaterials....................................................962
31.4.1Nanomaterialsappliedasaphotocatalyst.................................................962
31.4.2Factorsinfluencingthephotocatalysisprocess.........................................968
31.5Adsorptionprocessusingnanomaterials.........................................................972
31.5.1Nanomaterialsappliedasanadsorbent.....................................................972
31.5.2Factorsaffectingonadsorption.................................................................975
31.5.3Adsorptionkinetics....................................................................................978
31.5.4Adsorptionisothermoradsorptionequilibrium........................................979
31.6Membraneseparationprocessusingnanomaterials........................................981
31.6.1Nanofibrousmembranes............................................................................981
31.6.2Nanocompositemembranes.......................................................................983
31.7ReactorsappliedforthetreatmentofMPusingnanomaterials.....................988
31.7.1Theannularreactor....................................................................................988
31.7.2Spinningdiscreactor.................................................................................988
31.7.3Opticalfiberphotoreactor........................................................................989
31.7.4Ultravioletlightemittingdiode–basedreactor.........................................990
31.7.5Membranephotoreactor/photocatalyticmembranereactors.....................990
31.7.6Microreactors.............................................................................................992
31.8Nanomaterialsappliedatlarge-scaleoperationandassociated challenges.........................................................................................................993
31.9Conclusionandawayforward........................................................................995 References.................................................................................................................996
Chapter32:Antimicrobialactivitiesofnanomaterialsinwastewatertreatment: Acasestudyofgraphene-basednanomaterials................................................1009 SvetlanaJovanovic
32.1Thestructureandpropertiesofgraphene-basednanomaterials...................1009
32.2Mechanismsofantibacterialactionofgraphenenanomaterials..................1012
32.2.1Physical/mechanicaldestruction.............................................................1014
32.2.2Oxidativestress........................................................................................1016
32.2.3Photothermaleffect..................................................................................1018
32.2.4Otherantibacterialeffects.......................................................................1018
32.3Watertreatmentwithgraphene-basednanomaterials...................................1020
32.3.1Filtration...................................................................................................1021
32.3.2Adsorption................................................................................................1022
32.3.3Photocatalysisandelectrodedeposition/degradation.............................1022
32.4Antimicrobialactionofgraphene-basednanomaterialsinwastewater treatment,synthesis,efficiency,andperspectiveinanindustrial application......................................................................................................1024
32.4.1Costanalysis............................................................................................1027
32.5Conclusions....................................................................................................1028 Acknowledgment....................................................................................................1029 Dedication...............................................................................................................1029 References...............................................................................................................1029
Chapter33:Potentialofnanobiosurfactantsasanecofriendlygreen technologyforbioremediation........................................................................1039 MousumiDebnath,NehaChauhan,PriyankaSharma,andInduTomar
33.1Introduction....................................................................................................1039
33.2Useofbiosurfactantsaspotentialbioremediators........................................1040
33.2.1Biosurfactantsasthemoleculeforpresentandfutureapplications.......1040
33.2.2Microorganismsproducingbiosurfactants..............................................1040
33.2.3Diversehabitatsofbiosurfactants...........................................................1042
33.2.4Mechanismofactionofthebiosurfactant..............................................1043
33.3Recenttrendsforusingnanoscalematerialasagentsforbioremediation...1046
33.4Nanobiosurfactantsassourceofbioremediation.........................................1048
33.5Conclusionsandfutureperspective..............................................................1050 References...............................................................................................................1051
Chapter34:Potentialriskandsafetyconcernsofindustrialnanomaterials inenvironmentalmanagement.......................................................................1057 SaurabhJoglekarandRenukaGajaralwar
34.3.1Chemicalcomposition.............................................................................1061
34.3.2Particlesize..............................................................................................1062
34.3.3Surfaceareaandreactivity......................................................................1062
34.3.4Surfacetreatmentsonparticles,particularlyforengineered nanoparticulates.......................................................................................1063
34.3.5Degreeofagglomeration.........................................................................1063
34.3.6Particleshapeand/orelectrostaticattractionpotential...........................1063
34.4Environmentalimpact...................................................................................1064
34.4.1Releaseduringmanufacturing.................................................................1064
34.4.2Releaseinuse..........................................................................................1065
34.4.3Releaseindisposal..................................................................................1065
34.5RiskandsafetyassociatedforusingINMs..................................................1066
34.5.1Associatedrisks.......................................................................................1067
34.5.2Foodindustry...........................................................................................1070
34.5.3Agri-foodindustry...................................................................................1071
34.5.4Automobileindustry................................................................................1071
34.5.5Aerospaceindustry..................................................................................1071
34.6Designofanidealnanomaterial...................................................................1072
34.7Conclusion.....................................................................................................1073
References...............................................................................................................1073
Chapter35:AnovelSnO2/polypyrrole/SnO2 nanocompositemodifiedanode withimprovedperformanceinbenthicmicrobialfuelcell...................................1081
MohammadImran,AlkaMungray,SureshKumarKailasa,andArvindKumarMungray
35.1Introduction....................................................................................................1081
35.2Experimentalwork........................................................................................1083
35.2.1Acid-treatmentoftheelectrodesurface..................................................1083
35.2.2SnO2 nanoparticlessynthesis..................................................................1083
35.2.3PreparationofnanocompositesofSnO2/PPy..........................................1084
35.2.4Preparationofmodifiedanodes..............................................................1084
35.2.5ConstructionofBMFCreactors..............................................................1085
35.2.6Physicalandelectrochemicalcharacterization.......................................1085
35.3Resultsanddiscussion...................................................................................1086
35.3.1Surfacecharacterizationofmodifiedanode...........................................1086
35.3.2Electrochemicalanalysesofthecompositeanode.................................1089
35.3.3Workingofreactorscontainingdifferentanodes...................................1092
35.4Conclusion.....................................................................................................1096
Chapter36:Visiblelightphotocatalysis:Casestudy(process)..........................1101
SandeepKumarLakheraandBernaurdshawNeppolian
36.1Introduction....................................................................................................1101
36.2Visiblelightphotocatalyticprocessesforwastewatertreatment.................1102
36.2.1Heterogeneousphotocatalysis.................................................................1103
36.2.2Homogenousphotocatalysis....................................................................1106
36.2.3Hybridprocesses......................................................................................1107
36.3Currenttrendsandscale-upchallenges.........................................................1114
36.4Conclusions....................................................................................................1119 Acknowledgments..................................................................................................1120 References...............................................................................................................1120
Chapter37:Nanomaterialsforwastewatertreatment:Concludingremarks.......1125 BharatA.Bhanvase,V.B.Pawade,ShirishH.Sonawane,andA.B.Pandit
37.1Introduction....................................................................................................1125
37.2Nanomaterialsandtheirpropertiesforwastewatertreatment......................1127
37.2.1Zero-valentnanomaterials.......................................................................1127
37.2.2Metaloxidenanomaterials......................................................................1128
37.2.3LuminescentandLn3+-dopedoxidenanomaterials................................1129
37.2.4Nanozeolites.............................................................................................1130
37.2.5Carbon/graphene-supportednanocomposites..........................................1131
37.2.6Metalorganicframeworksnanocomposites............................................1132
37.2.7Nanocompositemembranes/nanocompositephotocatalytic membranes...............................................................................................1133
37.3Currentstatusandchallengesofuseofnanomaterial-basedprocesses.......1134
37.3.1Photocatalyticnanomaterials-basedprocesses........................................1134
37.3.2Adsorbentnanomaterials-basedprocesses..............................................1136
37.3.3Nanocompositemembranes-basedprocesses..........................................1138
37.3.4Nanomaterial-basedphotocatalyticmembrane-basedprocesses............1140
37.3.5Nanomaterials-basedadvancedoxidationprocesses..............................1140
37.3.6Nanomaterial-basedelectro-oxidationprocesses....................................1143
37.3.7Nanomaterials-basedprocessesforremovalformicropollutants...........1144
37.4Challengesfornanomaterial-basedprocesses,potentialrisk,and safetyconcerns..............................................................................................1146
37.5Concludingremarks.......................................................................................1146 References...............................................................................................................1147
Contributors
M.Akhtaruzzaman SolarEnergyResearchInstitute,UniversitiKebangsaanMalaysia,Bangi, Selangor,Malaysia
MohammadAlghoul CenterofResearchExcellencesinRenewableEnergyResearchInstitute, KingFahdUniversityofPetroleum&Minerals,Dhahran,SaudiArabia
NowshadAmin InstitutesofSustainableEnergy,UniversitiTenagaNasional(@TheNationalEnergy University),Kajang,Selangor,Malaysia
NilofarAsim SolarEnergyResearchInstitute,UniversitiKebangsaanMalaysia,Bangi,Selangor, Malaysia
ShabnamAzad ChemicalEngineering,EngineeringSciencesandTechnologyDivision, CSIR-NEIST,Jorhat,Assam,India
TariqAziz ChemicalEngineering,EngineeringSciencesandTechnologyDivision,CSIR-NEIST, Jorhat,Assam,India
MarziehBadiei IndependentResearcher,Mashhad,Iran
M.V.Bagal DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,BharatiVidyapeethCollegeofEngineering, NaviMumbai,India
FatemehBagri MembraneResearchLaboratory,LorestanUniversity,Khorramabad,Iran
DharmendraKumarBal SchoolofChemicalEngineering,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore, India
SagarD.Balgude DepartmentofEngineeringScience,D.Y.PatilCollegeofEngineering,Savitribai PhulePuneUniversity,Pune,India
DivyaP.Barai ChemicalEngineeringDepartment,LaxminarayanInstituteofTechnology, RashtrasantTukadojiMaharajNagpurUniversity,Nagpur,Maharashtra,India
SwapnilBargole DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,MalaviyaNationalInstituteofTechnology, Jaipur,India
S.S.Barkade DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,SinhgadCollegeofEngineering,Pune,India
SedighehBazgir MembraneResearchLaboratory,LorestanUniversity,Khorramabad,Iran
BhaskarBethi DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,B.V.RajuInstituteofTechnology,Narsapur, Medak,Telangana,India
BharatA.Bhanvase ChemicalEngineeringDepartment,LaxminarayanInstituteofTechnology, RashtrasantTukadojiMaharajNagpurUniversity,Nagpur,Maharashtra,India
JaykumarB.Bhasarkar DepartmentofPulpandPaperTechnology,LaxminarayanInstitute ofTechnology,R.T.M.NagpurUniversity,Nagpur,Maharashtra,India
AkashP.Bhat DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering,UniversityofIllinois atUrbana-Champaign,Urbana,IL,UnitedStates
