Strategies and models for teachers :teaching content and thinking skills/Paul D.Eggen, Donald P.Kauchak.—6th ed. p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13:978-0-13-217933-1 (alk.paper)
ISBN-10:0-13-217933-4 (alk.paper)
1.Teaching.2.Education—Experimental methods.3.Thought and thinking—Study and teaching.4.Learning,Psychology of.I.Kauchak,Donald P.,1946–II.Title.
LB1027.3.E44 2012 371.102—dc22
1098765432 1—EB—1514131211
2010038991
ISBN-10:013217933-4
ISBN-13:978103217933-1
About the Authors
PAULEGGEN
Paul has worked in higher education for thirty-eight years.He is a consultant forpublic schools and colleges in his university service area and has provided support to teachers in twelve different states.Paul has also worked with teachers in international schools in twenty-three countries,including Africa,South Asia, the Middle East,Central America,South America,and Europe.He has published several articles in national journals,is the co-author or co-editor ofsix other books,and presents regularly at national and international conferences.
Paul is strongly committed to public education.His wife is a middle school teacher in a public school,and his two children are graduates ofpublic schools and state universities.
DONKAUCHAK
Don has taught and worked in schools and in higher education in nine different states for thirty-five years.He has published in a number ofscholarly journals, including the Journal ofEducational Research,Journal ofTeacher Education, Teaching and Teacher Education,Phi Delta Kappan, and Educational Leadership. In addition to this text,he has co-authored or co-edited six other books on education. He has also been a principal investigator on federal and state grants examining teacher development and evaluation practices,and he presents regularly at theAmerican Educational Research Association.He currently volunteer-tutors first-,second-,and third-graders in a local elementary school.
Don strongly believes in the contribution that public schools make to our democracy, and his two children benefited greatly from their experiences in state-supported K–12 schools and public institutions ofhigher education.
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Prefacexi
Chapter 1 Models of Teaching and Developing as a Teacher1
Teachers make a difference4
The need for instructional alternatives5
Strategies and models for teachers5
Cognitive learning goals7
Learning and teaching in today’s world9
Standards and the need for instructional alternatives10
Professional organizations’ standards: Teacher knowledge and teacher abilities13
The Common Core State Standards Initiative16
Exploring diversity: Learner diversity in today’s schools17
Technology and teaching: The influence of technology on teaching and learning20
Decision making and reflective practice23
Reflective practice and models of teaching24
Chapter 2
Learning, Motivation, and Models of Teaching28
The importance of classroom climate31
Creating a positive classroom climate32
Exploring diversity: Learner diversity and classroom climate37
Cognitive learning theory38
Principles of cognitive learning theory39
Attention and perception43
Student memory and classroom learning45
Developmentally appropriate practice: Developmental differences in cognitive learning 47
Learner motivation48
Motivation and learning48
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation48
Motivation to learn49
Promoting motivation to learn in your classroom50
Technology and teaching: Using technology to increase learner motivation55
Chapter 3
Essential Teaching Strategies and the Teaching of Thinking61
Planning for instruction: An essential teaching strategy63
What is important for my students to learn?63
What do I want my students to know or be able to do?64
How will I help my students reach my learning objectives?65
How will I know if my students have reached my learning objectives?65
Are my learning activity and my assessments logically connected to my objectives?65
Student–Student Interaction Strategies: Groupwork, Cooperative Learning and Discussions91
Features of effective groupwork and cooperative learning93
Benefits of Student–student interaction 94
Groupwork strategies94
Planning and implementing effective groupwork95
Types of groupwork97
Cooperative learning strategies98
Jigsaw99
Student teams achievement divisions (STAD)104
Assessing learning when using groupwork and cooperative learning110
Exploring diversity: Promoting interpersonal relationships with groupwork and cooperative learning110
Critiquing groupwork and cooperative learning112
Discussion strategies112
Planning for discussions114
Implementing discussions116
Assessing learning when using discussion strategies118
Cooperative learning and discussions in different learning environments120
Technology and teaching: Developing social skills in technology-mediated communication120
Developmentally appropriate practice: Cooperative learning and discussions with students of different ages122
Increasing motivation with cooperative learning and discussions123
Chapter 5
The Guided Discovery Model126
Content taught with the Guided Discovery Model128
Concepts: Categories with common characteristics129
Generalizations: Relationships among concepts130
Planning lessons with the Guided Discovery Model131
Identify topics131
Specifying learning objectives132
Prepare examples and nonexamples132
Technology and teaching: Using technology to create high-quality examples136
Implementing lessons using the Guided Discovery Model137
Phase 1: Introduction137
Phase 2: The open-ended phase138
Phase 3: The convergent phase140
Phase 4: Closure and application143
Implementing lessons with the Guided Discover Model: Emphasis on thinking and understanding145
Implementing lessons with the Guided Discovery Model: Increasing student motivation146
Adapting the Guided Discovery Model in different learning environments146
Developmentally appropriate practice: The Guided Discovery Model with different-aged learners147
Exploring diversity: Using the Guided Discovery Model with members of cultural minorities148
Creativity in teaching149
Spontaneous Guided Discovery lessons149
Length of lessons151
Assessing student learning151
Aligning assessments and objectives151
Using assessment to increase learning152
Critiquing the Guided Discovery Model153
Chapter 6
The Concept Attainment Model157
Learning objectives for the Concept Attainment Model159
Developing and elaborating concepts159
Developing critical thinking abilities160
Planning lessons with the Concept Attainment Model160
Identify topics160
Specify learning objectives160
Select examples and nonexamples161
Sequence examples and nonexamples162
Implementing lessons using the Concept Attainment Model164
Phase 1: Introduction164
Phase 2: Examples and hypothesizing165
Phase 3: The analysis cycle166
Phase 4: Closure and application170
Concept Attainment lessons: Critical thinking and the scientific method171
Increasing learner motivation with Concept Attainment lessons172
Developing self-regulation with Concept Attainment lessons173
Adapting the Concept Attainment Model in different learning environments173
Developmentally appropriate practice: Concept Attainment lessons with young children174
Exploring diversity: Concept Attainment activities with members of cultural minorities175
Concept Attainment II175
Concept Attainment III177
Technology and teaching: Using computer programs to conduct Concept Attainment lessons178
Assessing student learning in Concept Attainment activities179
Assessing understanding of concepts179
Assessing critical thinking abilities180
Chapter 7
The Integrative Model185
Learning goals for the Integrative Model188
Organized bodies of knowledge: Relationships among facts, concepts, and generalizations188
Developing critical thinking189
Planning lessons with the Integrative Model189
Identify topics189
Specify learning goals190
Prepare data representations190
Technology and teaching: Utilizing databases with the Integrative Model195
Specify questions195
Scope of lessons198
Implementing lessons using the Integrative Model198
Phase 1: The open-ended phase198
Phase 2: The causal phase201
Phase 3: The hypothetical phase202
Phase 4: Closure and application203
Sequencing the phases203
Using the Integrative Model to increase student motivation204
Critiquing Judy’s lesson204
Adapting the Integrative Model in different learning environments206
Exploring diversity: Using the Integrative Model with students having diverse backgrounds206
Using existing materials to increase efficiency209
Developing matrices during class discussions214
Assessing student learning when the Integrative Model is used216
Assessing content outcomes216
Assessing critical thinking217
Using assessment to increase learning219
Critiquing the Integrative Model220
Chapter 8
Problem-Based Learning223
Planning Problem-Based Learning lessons226
Identify topic226
Specify learning objectives227
Identify problems227
Access materials228
Implementing Problem-Based Learning lessons228
Phase 1: Review and present problem229
Phase 2: Devise a strategy230
Phase 3: Implement the strategy231
Phase 4: Discuss and evaluate results233
Technology and teaching: Using technology to support Problem-Based Learning236
Inquiry237
Planning inquiry lessons239
Implementing inquiry lessons240
Using the Inquiry Model in different content areas247
Spontaneous inquiry250
Inquiry and Concept Attainment252
Adapting problem-based instruction in different learning environments252
Developmentally appropriate practice: Using Problem-Based Learning with different-aged students252
Exploring diversity: Using Problem-Based Learning with students having diverse backgrounds253
Increasing motivation with Problem-Based Learning254
Assessing learning in problem-based activities255
Alternative assessment and Problem-Based Learning255
Chapter 9
The Direct Instruction Model264
Planning lessons with the Direct Instruction Model267
Identify topics267
Specify learning objectives268
Prepare examples and problems268
Implementing lessons using the Direct Instruction Model269
Phase 1: Introduction and review270
Phase 2: Presentation274
Phase 3: Guided practice277
Phase 4: Independent practice279
Implementing lessons with the Direct Instruction Model: Emphasis on thinking and understanding280
Implementing lessons with the Direct Instruction Model: Increasing student motivation280
Adapting the Direct Instruction Model in different learning environments281
Developmentally appropriate practice: Using the Direct Instruction Model with different-aged learners281
Exploring diversity: Using direct Instruction with learners who are culturally and linguistically diverse286
Technology and teaching: Capitalizing on technology with direct instruction286
Assessing student understanding when using the Direct Instruction Model288
Chapter 10
The Lecture-Discussion Model292
Lectures and lecture-discussions294
Planning lessons using the Lecture-Discussion Model295
Identify topics295
Specify learning objectives296
Structure content297
Prepare lesson introductions298
Implementing Lecture-Discussion Model301
Phase 1: Review and introduction301
Phase 2: Presentation302
Phase 3: Comprehension monitoring303
Exploring diversity: Comprehension monitoring with students who are culturally and linguistically diverse304
Phase 4: Integration304
Phase 5: Closure306
Adapting the Lecture-Discussion Model in different learning contexts307
Using the Lecture-Discussion Model to teach concepts and generalizations307
Developmentally appropriate practice: Using lecture discussions with different-aged learners310
Promoting students’ motivation when using the Lecture-Discussion Model311
Technology and teaching: Capitalizing on technology with lecture discussions312
Assessing learning when using the Lecture-Discussion Model312
Exercise Feedback318
Glossary332
References335
Index343
Preface
Next to the family,the most powerful influence on students’learning and development is you—their teacher! A growing body ofresearch suggests that teachers are more important than the curriculum,technology,classroom organization,peers,financing,school and class size,or school principals.In fact,the need for good teaching is so compelling that in its March 7,2010,issue the New York Times Magazine included a lengthy article titled “Building a Better Teacher,”and Newsweek made the need for good teachers the feature article in its March 15 issue.We also know that teachers who possess a variety ofstrategies are more effective than those who always teach the same way.That’s the primary reason we have written this book.
Most ofyou studying this text are already good teachers,but,just as the best golfers and tennis players work to improve their games,the best teachers in our classrooms are always looking for ways to become even better.We hope this book contributes to that growth.
This is a book about teaching strategy,using a “models approach”to instruction.When using a models approach,teachers carefully examine their learning goals and then select the model that will be most effective for helping students reach the goals.The model is implemented in a series ofsequential steps or phases,and the implementation is complete when the goals are met.We discuss the models in detail and illustrate the application of each with authentic case studies taken from actual classroom practice.
To make these models more meaningful,we have added several new features to this edition.They are outlined here:
New to This Edition:
■ Many ofthe case studies that introduce each chapter now exist in both written and video form.This allows you to both read about the lesson in the text and also see the same lesson on video in an authentic classroom setting.No other textbook presents case studies in both written and video form.
■ All case studies in this edition are integrated throughout each chapter,to provide you with specific,concrete examples ofplanning and implementing the models in your classroom.No other textbook integrates case studies with content in this way.
■ All the chapters in the text have been substantially revised to make the presentation ofthe content more readable and straightforward.
■ A new feature titled “Technology and Teaching”describes how to integrate technology with the strategies and models.This feature is designed to help you make your use ofthe models more effective and efficient by capitalizing on technology.
■ A new feature in each chapter called “Exploring Diversity”describes strategies for adapting models for the diversity you encounter in your classrooms.
■ “Developmentally Appropriate Practice,”another new feature in each chapter,offers suggestions for adapting the models for use with students ofdifferent ages and developmental levels.
■ Objectives and lesson plans for the models are linked to state standards,illustrating how teachers can plan for student learning in this era ofaccountability.
■ Each chapter is organized so that that learning objectives for the chapter are linked inone-to-one correspondence with the primary headings ofthe chapter.Your understanding ofthe content is then assessed at the end ofeach chapter,and a summary is also linked to the chapter’s primary headings.
Each ofthese new features is designed to make this edition the most usable and practical one that we’ve ever prepared.We hope that after you’ve finished your formal study ofthis book, you will continue to use it as a resource as you continue in your quest for professional growth.
As with previous editions,we continue to use cognitive learning and motivation theory, research on classroom instruction,and our own work in classrooms as the frameworks for our writing.Working with teachers and students in classrooms continues to provide us with some ofour most rewarding professional experiences,and we hope these experiences are reflected in the practicality ofthe book.We realize that,although an understanding of theory and research is essential for expert instruction,teaching situations differ,and teachers continually make an enormous number ofdecisions to adapt to different learning contexts. Though guided by the structure ofa model,teachers make myriad decisions about the best course ofaction in a particular situation.This is what makes teaching simultaneously rewarding and challenging.
The book exists in two main parts.Chapters 1,2,and 3provide a foundation by outlining advances in our understanding oflearning and motivation,as well as essential teaching strategies that support all instruction.Chapters 4through 10describe individual models,including suggestions for adapting each model to the different teaching contexts that you experience in your classroom.Our goal is to contribute to your professional growth by expanding your repertoire ofapproaches to instruction.
MyEducationLab
The power ofclassroom practice.
“Teacher educators who are developing pedagogies for the analysis ofteaching and learning contend that analyzing teaching artifacts has three advantages:it enables new teachers time for reflection while still using the real materials ofpractice;it provides new teachers with experience thinking about and approaching the complexity ofthe classroom;and in some cases,it can help new teachers and teacher educators develop a shared understanding and common language about teaching.”1
As Linda Darling-Hammond and her colleagues point out,grounding teacher education in real classrooms—among real teachers and students and among actual
1Darling-Hammond,l.,& Bransford,J.,Eds.(2005). Preparing Teachers for a Changing World. San Francisco:John Wiley & Sons.
examples ofstudents’and teachers’work—is an important,and perhaps even an essential, part oftraining teachers for the complexities ofteaching in today’s classrooms.For this reason,we have created a valuable,time-saving website—MyEducationLab—that provides you with the context ofreal classrooms and artifacts that research on teacher education tells us is so important.The authentic in-class video footage,interactive skill-building exercises,and other resources available on MyEducationLab offer you a uniquely valuable teacher education tool.
MyEducationLab is easy to use and integrate into both your assignments and your courses.Wherever you see the MyEducationLab logo in the margins or elsewhere in the text,follow the simple instructions to access the videos,strategies,cases,and artifacts associated with these assignments,activities,and learning units on MyEducationLab. MyEducationLab is organized topically to enhance the coverage ofthe core concepts discussed in the chapters ofyour book.For each topic on the course you will find most or all ofthe following resources:
Connection to National Standards
Now it is easier than ever to see how your coursework is connected to national standards.In each topic ofMyEducationLab you will find intended learning outcomes connected to the INTASC standards.All ofthe Assignments and Activities and all ofthe Building Teaching Skills and Dispositions in MyEducationLab are mapped to the appropriate national standards and learning outcomes,as well.
Assignments and Activities
Designed to save instructors preparation time,these assignable exercises show concepts in action (through video,cases,or student and teacher artifacts) and then offer thoughtprovoking questions that probe your understanding oftheses concepts or strategies. (Feedback for these assignments is available to the instructor.)
Building Teaching Skills and Dispositions
These learning units help you practice and strengthen skills that are essential to quality teaching.First you are presented with the core skill or concept,and next you are given an opportunity to practice your understanding ofthis concept multiple times by watching video footage (or interacting with other media) and then critically analyzing the strategy or skill presented.
Video Examples
Intended to enhance coverage in your book with visual examples ofreal educators and students,these video clips (a number ofwhich are referenced explicitly in this text) include segments from classroom lessons,as well as interviews with teachers,administrators, students,and parents.
General Resources on Your MyEducationLab Course
The Resources section ofyour MyEducationLab course is designed to help you pass your licensure exam,put together an effective portfolio and lesson plan,prepare for and navigate
the first year ofyour teaching career,and understand key educational standards,policies, and laws.This section includes:
■ Licensure Exams: Access guidelines for passing the Praxis exam.The Practice Test Exam includes practice questions, Case Histories, and Video Case Studies.
■ Portfolio Builder and Lesson Plan Builder: Create,update,and share portfolios and lesson plans.
■ Preparing a Portfolio: Access guidelines for creating a high-quality teaching portfolio that will allow you to practice effective lesson planning.
■ Licensure and Standards: Link to state licensure standards and national standards.
■ Beginning Your Career: Educate yourself—access tips,advice,and valuable information on:
■ Resume Writing and Interviewing:Expert advice on how to write impressive resumes and prepare for job interviews.
■ Your First Year ofTeaching:Practical tips to set up your classroom,manage student behavior,and learn to more easily organize for instruction and assessment.
■ Law and Public Policies:Specific directives and requirements you need to understand under the No Child Left Behind Act and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of2004.
Visit www.myeducationlab.com for a demonstration ofthis exciting new online teaching resource and to download a MyEdLab guide correlating MEL course assets to this text. The best ofluck in your teaching.You are doing the most important work in the world.
Acknowledgments
In preparing this edition of Strategies and Models for Teachers, we want to sincerely thank the people who have supported its development.We want to particularly thank our editor, Kelly Villella Canton,for her guidance,support,and cooperation as we attempted to implement a number ofnew ideas for this edition.She epitomizes what authors look for in an editor.We also we want to thank Annalea Manalili and Paula Carroll for their help in bringing the project to fruition,as well as our reviewers:Stacy Begin,National University; Kelly V.Cochrum,Alvernia College;Clare Lowell,Marymount Manhattan College;and David H.Vawter,Winthrop University.
Finally,we again want to thank the many teachers in whose classrooms we’ve worked and visited,and on whose instruction the case studies in the book are based.Without this experience,it would have been impossible for us to develop the reality and authenticity that we hope is apparent in our writing.
P.E.
D.K
Models of Teaching and Developing as a Teacher
CHAPTER 1
R
Rating scale,256–257
Reddy,R.,44
Reflective practice decision making,23–24 definition,24 teaching model,24–25
Resnick,L.,40
Review,77–78,103–104
Reys,B.,63
Rhodes,J.,44
Roberts,S.,18
Roblyer,M.,136,287
Roehler,L.,274
Roehrig,A.D.,70
Roman,M.,253
Ronning,R.R.,13,69,297,304
Rosenshine,B.,73,266,294
Rosenthal,R.,35
Roseth,C.J.,112
Ross,J.D.,23
Roth,W.,41
Rowe,M.,77,184
Rubric,256
Ryan,R.,31,49,52,75,85,123,140,146,178
S Saleh,M.,95,112
Sawyer,R.K.,13
Scaffolding,231
Scardamalia,M.,64
Schmitt,V.,255
Schraw,G.J.,13,49,54,69
Schunk,D.H.,7,48,54,72,98,123,146, 204,254
Schwartz,D.,235
Schwartz,H.,130
Scientific method,171–172,171f,238
Self-directed learning,227,255
Self-efficacy,36
Self-fulfilling prophecy,35
Self-regulation,173
Serafino,K.,225
Shaywitz,B.A.,19
Shaywitz,S.E.,19
Shen,E.,112
Shermer,M.,80
Short,D.,18
Shuell,T.,71–72,76
Sinatra,G.M.,81
Sireci,S.,65
Sivin-Kachala,J.,55
Skiba,R.J.,37
Skinner,D.,81
Slavin,R.,93,96,101,104–106,109,111
Social development,119–120
Song,J.,4
Southerland,S.A.,81
Spratley,A.,16
Standards,10–13 professional organizations,13–17
Stanovich,K.E.,80
Staples,M.,71
Steca,P.,36
Steele,M.,74–75
Stevens,R.,266
Stiggins,R.,109,151–152,255–256
Stipek,D.,33–35,45,48–49,73,173
Stoddard,E.R.,74
Stoltzfus,J.,48
Strategies,defined,5 essential teaching,63
Student–Student interaction strategy. See Cooperative learning;Groupwork learning model
Student Teams Achievement Divisions (STAD). See also Cooperative learning instruction,107 overview,104 recognizing achievement,108 team awards,109 team scoring,108–109 team study,108 transition to teams,107 using improvement points in grading,109
Su,A.Y-L.,112,157
Surdin,A.,121
Sweeny,J.A.,47
Systematic observation,119,256
TTask specialization,99
Teacher development. SeeSpecific Teaching models
Teacher expectations,34–35 Teaching models,1–25,28–56. See also Motivation; Specific learning characteristics,5,6f Teaching standards,10 Teaching strategies,61–86. See also Learning activities;Planning definition,5 teacher behaviors and beliefs,78
Teaching ofthinking. See Teaching strategies Teammates consult,98
Technology,286–288 concept attainment model,178 in direct instruction model,286–288 electronic communication,guidelines, 121–122 guided discovery model,136–137,136f in increasing learner motivation,55–56 in integrative model,195 in lecture–discussion model,312 in problem-based learning,236–237 social skills development,communication, 120–121 in teaching and learning model,20–23
Today’s Schools international comparison,10 standards in different schools, 11–13 standards movement,10–13 teaching and learning in,9
Tomic,W.,36
Transfer,context,268
Transition signals,71
Triona,L.,237
Tschannen-Moran,M.,36
Turner,J.C.,32
Turner,J.E.,112 Tutorials,287
U Urban,T.A.,47
V Van Gelder,T.,80 Vaughn,S.,111–112
Variable,239 Vedantam,S.,110,120–121
Vignettes,135
W Wait time,77 Way,N.,44 Wayne,S.,316 Wearing,H.,47
Webcam,23
Weinstein,R.S.,31,34–35,48 Weismer,S.E.,47
Weiss,I.,70,74
Well-defined problem,230 Wigfield,A.,49
Williams,J.M.,81
Willingham,D.T.,80–81,189
Wilson,B.L.,34
Wingert,P.,4
Wittrock,M.C.,153,230
Working memory,45
Y
Yeo,L.S.,45
Young children concept attainment model,174–175 cooperative learning,122 guided discovery model,147–48 problem based learning,252–253 Yuan,R.,112
Z
Zahorik,J.,54
Zehr,M.A.,209 Zhou,Q.,43
Exploring the Variety of Random Documents with Different Content
active list of the army, having been brought by M. Cavaignac before a Court-martial sitting with closed doors his offence not disclosed, but conceived to be his anti-patriotic correspondence with a Mme. de Boulancy. A like fate has befallen Colonel Du Paty de Clam from a similar Court-martial instituted by M. Cavaignac's successor, his offence likewise not disclosed, but presumed to be improper communication of official secrets to Commandant Esterhazy. …
"However, notwithstanding the confession of Colonel Henry, M. Cavaignac insisted that Captain Dreyfus was guilty, and refused consent to revision. The Cabinet not acceding to this view, M. Cavaignac resigns the Ministry of War, and is succeeded by General Zurlinden, then military Governor of Paris. General Zurlinden asks first to be allowed time to study the dossier, and after a week's study and communication with the War Office staff he also declares his opposition to revision, retires from the Ministry of War, and resumes his post of Governor of Paris. With him also retires one other member of the Cabinet. Then the Minister of Justice takes the first formal step in referring the matter to a legal Commission, the technical question at issue appearing to be whether the confession by Colonel Henry a witness in the case of a forgery committed by him subsequently to the conviction with a view to its confirmation might be considered either as a new fact in the case or as equivalent to a conviction for forgery, so as to justify an application to the Cour de Cassation for revision. The Commission were divided in opinion, and the matter would have fallen to the ground if the Cabinet had not decided to take the matter into their own hands and apply to the Court direct. This has now been done; the Court is making preliminary inquiries, and will then decide whether revision in some form may be allowed or a new trial ordered.
"With regard to Colonel Picquart, his public challenge of the documents put forward in the speech of the Minister of War was
followed three days afterwards by an order of the Cabinet directing the Minister of War to set the Minister of Justice in motion with a view that he should be criminally prosecuted in a non-military Court for communication of secret documents the same offence as that for which he had been punished by the Court-martial early in the year by removal from the active list of the army and M. Leblois was to be prosecuted with him as an accomplice. On the 13th of July Colonel Picquart is put into prison to await his trial, M. Leblois being left at large. The prison was a civil prison, where he was allowed to communicate with his legal advisor.
… On September 21 Colonel Picquart is taken from his prison to the Court for his trial. The Government Prosecutor rises and asks for an indefinite postponement on the ground that the military authorities are about to bring him before a military Court for forgery. … The military prosecution for forgery was ordered, and on the strength of it the Correctional Court acceded to the application for indefinite postponement of the other case of which it was seised; the military authorities claimed to take the prisoner out of the hands of the Civil authorities, and the Correctional Court acquiesced. Then it was that Colonel Picquart broke out 'This, perhaps, is the last time my voice will be heard in public. It will be easy for me to justify myself as to the petit-bleu. I shall perhaps spend to-night in the Cherche-Midi (military) Prison, but I am anxious to say if I find in my cell the noose of Lemercier-Picard, or the razor of Henry, it will be an assassination. I have no intention of committing suicide.' The same or the next day Colonel Picquart was removed to the Cherche-Midi Prison, there to await his Court-martial, which is not expected yet for some weeks. He is not permitted to communicate with his legal advisor or anyone else."
G. Lushington, The Dreyfus Case (London Times, October 13, 1898).
Late in October (1898) the Court of Cassation decided that it found ground for proceeding to a supplementary investigation in the case of Captain Dreyfus, but not for the suspension meantime of the punishment be was undergoing. On the 15th of November it decided that the prisoner should be informed by telegraph of the pending revision proceedings, in order that he might prepare his defense. The Court was now endeavoring to secure possession of the secret documents (known as the "Dreyfus dossier") on which the conviction of the accused was said to have been really founded. For some time the war office seemed determined to withhold them; but at length, late in December, the dossier was turned over, under pledges of strict secrecy as to the documents contained. Showing still further a disposition to check the doings of the military authorities, the Court of Cassation, in December, ordered a suspension of proceedings in the military court against Colonel Picquart, and demanded all documents in his case for examination by itself.
Attacks were now made on the Court which had thus ventured to interfere with the secret doings of the army chiefs. Suddenly, on the 8th of January (1899), the president of the civil section of the Court, M. Quesnay de Beaurepaire, resigned his office and denounced his recent colleagues as being in a conspiracy to acquit Dreyfus and dishonor the army. This, of course, was calculated to stimulate anti-Dreyfus excitement and furnish ground for challenging the final decision of the Court, if it should be favorable to a new trial for the imprisoned Captain. It also delayed proceedings in the case, leading to the enactment of a law requiring all cases of revision to be tried by the united sections of the Court of Cassation. This act took the Dreyfus case from the 16 judges of the criminal section and committed it to the whole 48 judges of the Court.
Major Esterhazy had taken refuge in England. On the 2d of June he went to the office of the London "Chronicle" and made the following confession for publication: "The chiefs of the army have disgracefully abandoned me. My cup is full, and I shall speak out. Yes, it was I who wrote the bordereau. I wrote it upon orders received from Sandherr. They (the chiefs of the general staff) will lie, as they know how to lie; but I have them fast. I have proofs that they knew the whole thing and share the responsibility with me, and I will produce the proofs." Immediately it was said that he had been bribed by the friends of Dreyfus to take the crime upon himself.
On the day following this confession, the decision of the Court of Cassation was announced. Meantime, the newspaper "Figaro" had, by some means, been able to obtain and publish the testimony which the Court had taken with closed doors, and had thus revealed the flimsiness and the contradictoriness of the grounds on which the officers of the Army Staff based their strenuous assertions that they had positive knowledge of the guilt of Dreyfus. This had great influence in preparing the public mind for the decision of the Court when announced. On grounds relating to the bordereau, to the document which contained the expression "ce canaille de D.," and to the alleged confession of Dreyfus, leaving aside all other questions of evidence, the judgment as delivered declared that "the court quashes and annuls the judgment of condemnation pronounced on December 22, 1894, against Alfred Dreyfus by the first court-martial of the Military Government of Paris, and remits the accused to the court-martial of Rennes, named by special deliberation in council chamber, to be tried on the following question: Is Dreyfus guilty of having in 1894 instigated machinations or held dealings with a foreign power or one of its agents in order to incite it to commit hostilities or undertake war against France by furnishing it with the notes and documents enumerated in the bordereau? and orders the prescribed judgment to be printed and transcribed on the registers of the first court-martial of the Military
Government of Paris in the margin of the decision annulled."
Captain Dreyfus was taken immediately from his prison on Devil's Island and brought by a French cruiser to France, landing at Quiberon on the 1st of July and being taken to Rennes, where arrangements for the new military trial were being made.
The new court-martial trial began at Rennes on the 7th of August. When it had proceeded for a week, and had reached what appeared to be a critical point the opening of a cross-examination of General Mercier by the counsel for Dreyfus M. Labori, the leading counsel for the defense, was shot as he walked the street, by a would-be assassin who escaped. Fortunately, the wound he received only disabled him for some days, and deprived the accused of his presence and his powerful service in the court at a highly important time. The trial, which lasted beyond a month, was a keen disappointment in every respect. It probed none of the sinister secrets that are surely hidden somewhere in the black depths of the extraordinary case. In the judgment of all unimpassioned watchers of its proceeding, it disclosed no proof of guilt in Dreyfus. On the other hand, it gave no opportunity for his innocence to be distinctly shown. Apparently, there was no way in which the negative of his non-guiltiness could be proved except by testimony from the foreign agents with whom he was accused of having treasonable dealings: but that testimony was barred out by the court, though the German and Italian governments gave permission to the counsel for Dreyfus to have it taken by commission.
Outside of France, at least, the public verdict may be said to have been unanimous, that the whole case against Captain Dreyfus, as set forth by the heads of the French army, in plain combination against him, was foul with forgeries, lies, contradictions and puerilities, and that nothing to justify his condemnation had been shown. But the military court, on the 9th of September, by a vote of five judges against two, brought in a verdict of Guilty, with "extenuating
circumstances" (as though any circumstances could extenuate the guilt of an actual crime like that of which Dreyfus was accused), and sentenced him to imprisonment in a fortress for ten years, from which term the years of his past imprisonment would be taken out.
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Mr. G. W. Steevens, the English newspaper correspondent, who attended the trial and has written the best account of it, makes the following comment on the verdict, which sums up all that needs to be said: "In a way, the most remarkable feature about the verdict of Rennes was the proportion of the votes. When it had been over a few hours, and numb brains had relaxed to thought again, it struck somebody that on the very first day the very first motion had been carried by five to two. The next and next and all of them had been carried by five to two. Now Dreyfus was condemned by five to two. The idea the staggering idea dropped like a stone into the mind, and spread in widening circles till it filled it with conviction. Everyone of the judges had made up his mind before a single word of evidence had been heard. The twenty-seven days, the hundred-and-something witnesses, the baskets of documents, the seas of sweat and tears they were all utterly wasted. … The verdict was, naturally, received with a howl of indignation, and to endeavour to extenuate the stupid prejudice that at least, if not cowardly dishonesty of the five who voted against the evidence is not likely to be popular with civilized readers. Yet it may be said of them in extenuation if it is any extenuation that they only did as almost any other five Frenchmen would have done in their place. Frenchmen are hypnotized by the case of Dreyfus, as some people are hypnotized by religion; in its presence they lose all mental power and moral sense." The army chiefs had had their way; the stain of their condemnation had been kept upon Dreyfus; but the government of France was magnanimous enough to punish him no more. His sentence was remitted by the President, and he was set free, a broken man.
FRANCE: A. D. 1898.
State of the French Protectorate of Tunis.
See (in this volume)
TUNIS: A. D. 1881-1898.
FRANCE: A. D. 1898 (April).
Lease of Kwangchow Wan from China. Railway and other concessions exacted.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-AUGUST).
FRANCE: A. D. 1898 (April-December). In the Chinese "Battle of Concessions."
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY-DECEMBER).
FRANCE: A. D. 1898 (May).
Demands on China consequent on the murder of a missionary.
See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1898 (MAY).
FRANCE: A. D. 1898 (May-November).
General Elections.
Fall of the Ministry of M. Meline.
Brief Ministry of M. Brisson, struggling with the Dreyfus question.
Coalition Cabinet of M. Dupuy.
General elections for a new Chamber of Deputies were held throughout France on Sunday, May 8, with a second balloting on Sunday, May 22, in constituencies where the first had resulted in no choice. Of the 584 seats to be filled, the Progressive Republicans secured only 225, so that the Ministry of M.
Méline could count with no certainty on the support of a majority in the Chamber. It was brought to a downfall in the following month by a motion made by M. Bourgeois, in the following words: "The Chamber determines to support only a Ministry relying exclusively on a Republican majority." This was carried by a majority of about fifty votes, and on the next day the Ministry resigned. It was succeeded by a Radical cabinet, under M. Henri Brisson, after several unsuccessful attempts to form a Conservative government. By announcing that it would not attempt to carry out a Radical programme in some important particulars, the Brisson Ministry secured enough support to maintain its ground for a time; but there were fatal differences in its ranks on the burning Dreyfus question, as well as on other points. M. Cavaignac, Minister of War, was bitterly opposed to a revision of the Dreyfus ease, which the Premier and M. Bourgeois (now Minister of Public Instruction) were understood to favor. M. Cavaignac soon placed himself in an extremely embarrassing position by reading to the Chamber certain documents which he put forward as absolute proofs of the guilt of Dreyfus, but of which one was shown presently to have been forged, while another had no relation to the case. He accordingly resigned (September 4), and General Zurlinden took his place. But Zurlinden, too, resigned a few days later, when a determination to revise the trial of Dreyfus was reached. The government was then exposed to a new outburst of fury in the anti-Dreyfus factions, and all the enemies of the Republic became active in new intrigues. The Orleanists bestirred themselves with fresh hopes, and the old Boulangist conspirators revived their so-called Patriotic League, with M. Déroulède at its head. At the same time dangerous labor disturbances occurred in Paris, threatening a complete paralysis of railway communications as well as of the industries of the capital. The Ministry faced its many difficulties with much resolution; but it failed of support in the Chamber, when that body met in October, and it resigned. A coalition cabinet was then formed, with M. Charles Dupuy in the presidency of the council, and M. de Freycinet as
