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FundamentalsofThermaland NuclearPowerGeneration JSMESeriesinThermalandNuclearPower Generation
FundamentalsofThermal andNuclearPower Generation Editedby YasuoKoizumi
GraduateSchoolofInformation andEngineering,TheUniversityof Electro-Communications,Chofu,Tokyo,Japan
TomioOkawa
TheUniversityofElectro-Communications, Chofu,Tokyo,Japan
ShojiMori
KyushuUniversity,Fukuoka,Fukuoka,Japan
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Listofcontributorsvii
Abouttheauthorsix
PrefaceofJSMESeriesinThermalandNuclearPowerGenerationxiii PrefacetoVolume1:FundamentalsofThermalandNuclear PowerGenerationxvii
1Dawnofpowerforhumanbeings/powerfromsteam1 YasuoKoizumi
1.1Civilizationprogressandenergy1
1.2Historicalsignificanceofgettingforcefromfireforhumanbeings2
1.3Power3
1.4Historyofgettingpower4
1.5Fullmaturityofmoderncivilization10
1.6Ruleforpowergenerationsystems11
1.7Futureprospectofpower11 References14
2Developmentinpowertechnology15 MamoruOzawaandYasushiSaito
2.1Developmentofthermalpowergeneration15
2.2Developmentofnuclearpowergeneration38 References74
3Fundamentalsforpowerengineering77
TomioOkawa,HitoshiAsano,KeiIto,ShojiMori,HisashiUmekawa, RyosukeMatsumoto,CheolHoPyeonandDaisukeIto
3.1Fundamentalsofthermodynamics77
3.2Fundamentalsoffluiddynamicsofsingle-phaseflow119
3.3Fundamentalsofheattransfer165
3.4Fundamentalsofcombustion186
3.5Fundamentalsofnuclearphysics210 References224 Furtherreading226
4Powergenerationandsociety227
MotonariHaraguchi,HiroshiMiyanoandTakaoNakamura
4.1Thermalpowergeneration227
4.2SafetyassurancesystemofnuclearpowerplantsinJapan255 References274
5Issuesinpowergenerationandfutureprospects275
TakaoNakagaki
5.1Globalefforttowardcommonissues275
5.2Domesticpolicystatementsandmegatrendsofenergysystem275
5.3Domesticenergysystemoutlook277
5.4Technicaloptionsforhighvariablerenewableenergypenetration andtheircomplemental,cooperative,orcompetitiverelationships280
5.5Futureperspectivesandrisks286 References288 Index289
Listofcontributors HitoshiAsano KobeUniversity,Kobe,Hyogo,Japan
MotonariHaraguchi MitsubishiPower,Ltd.,Yokohama,Japan
DaisukeIto KyotoUniversity,Kumatori,Osaka,Japan
KeiIto KyotoUniversity,Kumatori,Osaka,Japan
YasuoKoizumi GraduateSchoolofInformationandEngineering,TheUniversity ofElectro-Communications,Chofu,Tokyo,Japan
RyosukeMatsumoto KansaiUniversity,Suita,Osaka,Japan
HiroshiMiyano HoseiUniversity,Chiyoda,Tokyo,Japan
ShojiMori KyushuUniversity,Fukuoka,Fukuoka,Japan
TakaoNakagaki WasedaUniversity,Shinjuku,Tokyo,Japan
TakaoNakamura OsakaUniversity,Suita,Osaka,Japan
TomioOkawa TheUniversityofElectro-Communications,Chofu,Tokyo,Japan
MamoruOzawa KansaiUniversity,Takatsuki,Osaka,Japan
CheolHoPyeon KyotoUniversity,Kumatori,Osaka,Japan
YasushiSaito KyotoUniversity,Kumatori,Osaka,Japan
HisashiUmekawa KansaiUniversity,Suita,Osaka,Japan
Abouttheauthors HitoshiAsano isaprofessorofDepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,Kobe University,Japan.HegraduatedfromKobeUniversityin1990.Hestartedresearch ontwo-phaseflowdynamicsasaresearchassociateofKobeUniversityafter3.5 yearsworkingforDaikinIndustries,Ltd.Hereceivedhisdoctoraldegreefrom KobeUniversityin2000,andwaspromotedtoassociateprofessorin2001.From 2001to2002hevisitedStuttgartUniversity,Germany,asaresearchfellowofthe AlexandervonHumboldtfoundation.Hisinterestsisfocusedonthermofluid dynamicsincompactheatexchangersforHVACsystems,boilingheattransfer enhancement,gas-liquidtwo-phaseflowsinpowersystems,especiallytheeffectof surfacetensionandgravityongas-liquidtwo-phaseflowsinsmalldiametertubes orundermicrogravity.
MotonariHaraguchi earnedabachelor’sdegreeinmechanicalengineeringfrom UniversityofTokyoandstartedhiscareerinHitachiLtd.in1976andwastransferredtoMitsubishiHitachiPowerSystems(MHPS)in2014.Altogether,hehas beenengagedinsteamturbinedesignworkforabout45yearswithvariousfields suchasturbinestagethermodynamicdesign,bladedesign,andnewtechnology development.AndheearnedaMasterofScienceinmechanicalengineeringfrom UniversityofCaliforniaBerkeleyin1984.Heisthecowriterof SteamTurbine in Japaneseand AdvancesinSteamTurbinesforModernPowerPlants.
DaisukeIto receivedaBE(2005)degreeinmechanicalengineeringandME (2006)andDE(2009)degreesinnuclearengineeringfromTokyoInstituteof Technology.HejoinedNuclearEnergyLaboratoryatETHZurichasapostdoctoral researcherin2010andresearchednuclearthermalhydraulicsandadvancedtwophaseflowmeasurementtechnique.HemovedtoInstituteforIntegratedRadiation andNuclearScience,KyotoUniversityasanAssistantProfessorin2012.Hiscurrentinterestsincludemultiphaseflowdynamics,flowmeasurementinstrumentations,andneutrontransmissionimaging.
KeiIto isanassociateprofessorofInstituteforIntegratedRadiationandNuclear Science,KyotoUniversity.HereceivedBE(1999)andME(2001)degreesin mechanicalengineeringfromWasedaUniversity,andDE(2009)degreeinnuclear engineeringfromKyotoUniversity.HebelongedJapanAtomicEnergyAgency from2001to2015asaresearchengineerforthestudyonvariousmultiphaseflows inasodium-cooledfastreactor.Hiscurrentresearchinterestsalsoincludethe
numericalsimulationsofvariousmultiphaseflows,especiallyhigh-precisionsimulationsofgas-liquidtwo-phaseflowswithaninterface-trackingmodel.
YasuoKoizumi isaresearchpromotorattheUniversityofElectroCommunications.HehadbeenaninvitedresearcheroftheJapanAtomicEnergy Agencyfor5yearsbeforenow.HereceivedhisPhDdegreefromtheUniversityof Tokyoin1977.HestartedhisresearchcareerattheJapanAtomicEnergyResearch Institutein1977asaresearchengineerfornuclearreactorsafety.Hestayedatthe IdahoNationalEngineeringLaboratoryfrom1981through1983.Hemovedto theDepartmentofMechanicalEngineeringofKogakuinUniversityin1989.Then, hemovedtotheDepartmentofFunctionalMachineryandMechanicsofShinshu Universityin2008.Heretiredasprofessorin2014andhehadbeenintheJapan AtomicEnergyAgencysincethen.Hisresearchisfocusedintheareasofpooland flowboiling,criticalheatflux,condensationheattransfer,andtwo-phaseflow.He isalsointerestedinheattransferandfluidflowonthemicroscale.Sincehis researchfieldiscloselyrelatedtoenergysystems,hehasgreatinterestinthermal andnuclearpowerstationsandenergysupplyinsociety.
RyosukeMatsumoto hasbeenaprofessoratKansaiUniversitysince2016.He receivedBE(1994)andME(1994)degreesandhisdoctoraldegreefromDoshisha Universityin2001.HewasaresearchfellowoftheAlexandervonHumboldt Foundationin2002.Hisresearchinterestsincludeheatandmasstransferina microscale,combustionsystem,andfrostformationinrefrigeratingandheatpump systems.HereceivedtheHartnett-IrvineAwardfromtheInternationalCenterfor HeatandMassTransfer(ICHMT)in2016.
HiroshiMiyano startedhiscareerinToshibain1971.HewasengagedinR&Dof BWRsystemsinthelaboratory,andsubsequentlyinprimarysystemdesignand maintenanceworkasaleaderofthesystemdesigndepartment,afterwhichhewas appointedasChiefNuclearEngineerofToshiba.Afterthat,hebecameadirector ofagroupcompany.ThroughouthiscareeratToshiba,hehascontributedtothe societyofscientistsandengineers.AttheJapanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers (JSME)andtheJapanAtomicEnergySociety(AESJ),hewasthememberofcommitteeonthedevelopmentofcodesandstandards,andattheJapanAtomicEnergy Society,hewaschairmanofthestandardscommittee.Currently,heischairmanof theFukushimaDecommissioningCommittee.Meanwhile,hewasawardedthe “Fellow”titlebyJSMEandAESJ.In2000hejoinedtheHarvardBusinessSchool, AdvancedManagementProgramAMP-159,andcompletedhiscareer.Whileworking,hegraduatedfromthedoctoralprogramatHokkaidoUniversityandreceived hisdoctoratein2012.HetaughtatHoseiUniversityandretiredin2019.
ShojiMori isaProfessorofMechanicalEngineeringatKyushuUniversity,Japan. HereceivedhisPhDdegreeinEngineeringfromKyushuUniversityin2003.He joinedtheDepartmentofChemicalEngineeringatYokohamaNationalUniversity asanassistantprofessorin2004,andhebecameanassociateprofessorin2007.
HehasbeenafacultymemberatKyushuUniversitysince2019.From2009to 2011,heworkedoncryopreservationandthermaltherapiesatBioheatandMass TransferLaboratory,DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,Universityof Minnesota,Minneapolis,asavisitingprofessor.Hisresearchinterestsarecurrently focusingontheenhancementofboilingcriticalheatfluxandquenchingusing porousmaterialsandtwo-phaseannularflow.
TakaoNakagaki isaprofessorofDepartmentofModernMechanicalEngineering inWasedaUniversity.HejoinedToshibaCorporationin1992andworkedfor developingadvancedpowergenerationsystemssuchasMoltenCarbonateFuel CellandChemicallyRecuperatedGasTurbinefor15years.HereceivedhisdoctoraldegreefromWasedaUniversityin2004.HehasbeeninvolvedinmanyCO2 capture,utilization,andstorage(CCUS)R&Dprogramsfor20years.HeisamemberoftechnicaladvisorycommitteeofTomakomaiCCSprojectoperatedbyJapan CCSCo.,Ltd.,andadvisorycommitteeonscienceandtechnologyofResearch InstituteofInnovativeTechnologyfortheEarth(RITE).
TakaoNakamura joinedtheKansaiElectricPowercompanyin1972andtransferredtotheDepartmentofSustainableEnergyandEnvironmentatOsaka Universityin2010afteroverthirtyyears’jobexperienceofconstructionandmanagementworkofPWR-typenuclearpowerplantinJapan.Healsojoinedthecode committeeofAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineersascommitteemember since1997to2010.HereceivedhisPhDdegreefromtheUniversityofTokyoin 2008.HeretiredOsakaUniversityin2015andjoinedtheCenterforOpen InnovationonResearchandEducationatOsakaUniversityandworksasresearch professor.HehasalsoworkedasTechnicalAdvisoratJapanNuclearSafety Institutesince2015.
TomioOkawa startedhisresearchcareerattheCentralResearchInstituteofthe ElectricPowerIndustryin1990andearnedadoctorofengineeringdegreefromthe TokyoInstituteofTechnologyin1995afterreceivingbachelor’sandmaster’s degreesfromTokyoInstituteofTechnology.Then,hemovedtotheDepartmentof MechanicalEngineeringatOsakaUniversityin1999,andtohispresentposition (TheUniversityofElectro-Communications,Tokyo,Japan)in2011.Hismain researchareasaregas-liquidtwo-phaseflowandheattransferwithphasechange. Atpresent,heisdoingresearchonsubcooledflowboiling,departurefromnucleate boiling,boilingheattransferofnanofluid,applicationofnanoparticlelayertocoolingofelectronicdevices,splashingduringdropandliquidjetimpingementsona liquidfilm,andthermalhydraulicsencounteredinfreezeplugusedinmoltensalt reactors.
MamoruOzawa isaprofessoremeritusandaseniorresearcherofResearchCenter forSocietalSafetySciences,KansaiUniversity.Hereceivedhisdoctoraldegree fromOsakaUniversityin1977.Hisresearchinterestsincludeboilingheattransfer, two-phaseflowdynamics,combustionsystem,boiler,andsafetyinindustrial
systems.Hehasauthoredandcoauthoredmorethan150refereedjournals,more than150conferencepapers,andseveralhandbooksandmanybooksrelatedtothermalhydraulicsinsteampower.Hiseditedbook, ScienceofSocietalSafety,has beendownloadedmorethan50,000times.HeservedBoardofDirectorsand PresidentofHeatTransferSocietyofJapanandChairmanofPowerandEnergy SystemDivisionofJapanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers(JSME).Hewas awardedseveraltimesfromVisualizationSocietyofJapan,HeatTransferSociety ofJapan,andJSME.
CheolHoPyeon receivedaBE(1995)andME(1997)inNuclearEngineering, NagoyaUniversity,andaPhD(2000)degreeinEnergyScience,KyotoUniversity. HejoinedDivisionofNeutronStandardatNationalInstituteofAdvancedIndustry ofScienceandTechnologyinJapanasapostdoctoralresearcher,focusingonneutronstandardcalibrationofneutrondetectorsandpulsed-neutrongenerators.He movedtoInstituteforIntegratedRadiationandNuclearScience,KyotoUniversity asAssistantProfessorin2002,andAssociateProfessornow.Hiscurrentinterests includeexperimentalanalysesofstaticsandkineticsparametersinreactorphysics, andnuclearexperimenteducationforyounggeneration,withtheuseofexperimentalfacility,suchasKyotoUniversityCriticalAssembly.
YasushiSaito hasbeenaprofessorofInstituteforIntegratedRadiationand NuclearScience,KyotoUniversitysince2012.Hereceivedhisdoctoraldegree fromtheDepartmentofChemicalEngineeringatKyotoUniversityin1998.Then hejoinedpresentinstitute,wherehehasbeenstudyingmainlymultiphaseflowsin relationtonuclearthermalhydraulics,includingsevereaccident,andalsodevelopmentofmeasurementtechniqueformultiphaseflowresearch.Hestayedat UniversitaetKarlsruhe(TH)asaresearchfellowoftheAlexandervonHumboldt Foundationfrom2006to2008.Hismainresearchinterestsarenuclearthermal hydraulics,refrigerationsystem,andneutronimagingbyusingresearchreactors andaccelerator-basedneutronsources.
HisashiUmekawa hasbeenaprofessorofKansaiUniversitysince2009.He receivedhisPhDdegreefromKansaiUniversityin1998,andalsoreceivedamaster’sdegreefromKansaiUniversityin1988.HestartedhiscareeratDaikinindustries,Ltd.in1988,andthenmovedtotheDepartmentofMechanicalEngineering ofKansaiUniversityin1991.HestayedattheInstituteforNuclearandEnergy Technologies(IKET)inResearchCenterofKarlsruhe(FZK)from1999through 2000,supportedbytheAlexandervonHumboldtResearchFellowship.Hisresearch isfocusedintheareasofflowboiling,criticalheatflux,andtwo-phaseflow.Since hisresearchfieldiscloselyrelatedtoenergysystems,hehasgreatinterestinthermalandnuclearpowerstationsandenergysupplyinsociety.HeservedChairman ofPowerandEnergySystemDivisionofJapanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers (JSME).
PrefaceofJSMESeriesinThermal andNuclearPowerGeneration Electricpowersupplyisafundamentalandprincipalinfrastructureformodernsociety.Modernsocietyusespowergenerationthroughheat.Thisseriesofbooksconsists ofeightvolumesdescribingthermalandnuclearpowergeneration,takingJapanas theexample,andreferringtheothercountries.TheVolume1discusseshowpower supplyisattainedhistorically,focusingonthethermalandthenuclearpowergenerationalongwithminimum-requiredscientificandtechnologicalfundamentalsto understandthisseriesofbooks.Then,thepresentstatusofthethermalandthe nuclearpowergenerationtechniqueisdisplayedindetailinVolumes2through8.
TherehabilitationandreconstructionofJapanafterWorldWarIIwasinitiated throughtheutilizationofalargeamountofcoalforboilersofthethermalpower plants.Meanwhile,environmentalpollutioncausedbycoalcombustionbecame serious,andthenoilwasintroducedtotheboilers.Duetotwoworldwideoilcrises andbecauseofcarbondioxideissues,naturalgashasalsobeguntobeusedforboilers.CurrentthermalpowergenerationinJapanisbasedoncoalandgasutilization. Asaresultofenoughpowersupply,Japanhasbecomeoneoftheleadingcountries economicallyandtechnologicallyintheworld.Thethermalpowertechnologythat startedfromintroducingtechnologyfromabroadhasbeentransfiguredJapaninto oneofthemostadvancedintheworldthroughtheresearchanddevelopmentof Japaneseindustry,government,andacademiaduringthisprocess.
Globalwarmingrelatedtoexcesscarbondioxideemissionshasbecomea worldwideissueinrecentyears.Reducingcarbondioxideemissioninthermal powergenerationisimportanttohelpcopewiththisissue.Onedirectionisto changethefuelofaboilerfromcoaltogasthatexhaustslesscarbondioxide. Anotherimportantdirectionistoendeavortoenhancethethermalefficiencyof coalthermalpowerplantsaswellasoilandgas.Manydevelopingcountriesin theworldneedmorethermalpowerplants infuture.Althoughoiland/orgasthermalpowerplantsmaybeintroducedintothesecountries,itissupposedthatcoal thermalpowerplantswillstillbeusedd uetoeconomicalreasons.Considering thesesituations,thepublicationofthisser iesofbooksthatdisplaysandexplains thedevelopinghistoryandthepresentstatusofthemostadvancedthermalpower plantsinJapanandotheradvancedcountriesisatimelyplanningforengineers andresearchersintheadvancedcountriestopursuethefurtheradvancementand
forengineersandresearchersindevelopingcountriestolearnandacquirethis knowledge.
NuclearpowergenerationtechnologyinJapanstartedafterbeingintroduced fromabroadapproximately60yearsago.Then,itreachedthematurednuclear powertechnologythroughuntiringendeavorsforresearchanddevelopment. However,nuclearpowerplantsattheFukushimaDaiichinuclearpowerstation wereheavilydamagedbyhugetsunamiscausedbytheGreatEastJapan Earthquakein2011toresultincontaminationinthelargeareaaroundthepower station.Takingmeasurestoimprovenuclearpowerreactorstobemorerobustlyis currentlyunderwaybyanalyzingthefactorsthatcausedthisserioussituation. Technicalvulnerabilitycanbesolvedbytechnology.Nuclear powergeneration technologyisoneofthedefinitepromisingtechnologiesthatshouldbeusedinthe future.Thenuclearpowergenerationisstillexpectedasoneofthemainwaysto supplyelectricityintheframeworkofthebasicenergyplanofJapanaswellas thermalpowergeneration.Itimpliesthattheconstructionofnewpowerreactors willberequiredtoreplacethenuclearreactorsthatwillreachtheirusefullifetime. Lookingoverseas,manydevelopingcountriesareintroducingnuclearpowergenerationtechnologyasasafeandeconomicallyexcellentwaytoobtainelectricity. Transferofthenuclearpowergenerationtechnologydevelopedandmaturedin JapantothosecountriesisnaturallytheobligationofJapan.Inthesesituations, thenecessityofhumanresourcedevelopmentinthefieldofnuclearpowergenerationtechnologyinthedevelopingcountries,aswellasinJapan,isbeyonddispute. Thus,itisanurgenttasktosummarizethenuclearpowergenerationtechnology acquiredbyJapantoprovideit.
ThePowerandEnergySystemsDivision(PESD)oftheJapanSocietyof MechanicalEngineersiscelebratingits30thanniversaryfromestablishmentin 1990.Thisdepartmentisentrustedwithhandlingpowersupplytechnologyin mechanicalengineering.Respondingtotheearlier-mentionedistrulyrequested. ThistaskcannotbedonebyothersbutthePESDthatiscomposedofleadingengineersandresearchersinthisfieldinJapan.Inviewofthesecircumstances,summarizingJapan’sandothercountries’powergenerationtechnologyanddisseminating itnotonlyinJapanbutalsooverseasseemssignificantlyimportant.So,ithasbeen decidedtoexecutethisbookseries,publishingasoneofthe30thanniversaryevents ofthePESD.
Authorsofthisbookseriesarethosewhohaveengagedinthemostadvanced researchanddevelopmentforthethermalpowerandnuclearpowergenerationin JapanandCanada.Theirexperienceandknowledgeisreflectedintheirwriting. Itisnotanintroductionofwhatothersdid,butlivingknowledgebasedontheir ownexperiencesandthoughtsaredescribed.Wehopethatthisseriesofbooks becomeslearningmaterialthatisnotyetinexistenceinthisfield.Wehopethat readersacquireawayofthinkingaswellaswholeanddetailedknowledgebyhavingthisbookseriesinhand.
Thisseriesisthejointeffortofmanyindividuals,generouslysharingandwriting fromtheirexpertise.Theireffortsaredeeplyappreciated.Weareverythankfulfor theunbiasedandheartfulcommentsgivenfrommanyreviewerstomakethisseries superb.SpecialthanksshouldbegiventoMariaConveyandSaraValentinoofthe editorialstaffatElsevier.
EditorsinChief
YasuoKoizumi
GraduateSchoolofInformationandEngineering, TheUniversityofElectro-Communications,Chofu,Tokyo,Japan
MamoruOzawa KansaiUniversity,Takatsuki,Osaka,Japan March16,2020
PrefacetoVolume1: FundamentalsofThermaland NuclearPowerGeneration Theimportanceofsupplyingpowertosocietyandmaintaininghumancivilization isfirstdescribed.Then,thehistoryofwhenhumanbeingsacquiredpowerthatoriginatesfromheatisdescribed.Next,anoutlineofthemodernthermalandnuclear powergenerationaredescribed,focusingonelectricpowergeneration.Following it,thescientific-technologicalfundamentalsrequiredtoatleastunderstandwhat willbepresentedinVolumes2through8,whichprovidedetailsofthosepower generationtechnologies;thefundamentalsofthermodynamics,hydrodynamics, thermalengineering,combustionengineering,andnuclearphysics.Finally,the presentsituationofpowersupplyandcurrentissues,suchascarbondioxideemissionsthatcauseglobalwarming,variousaccidentrisks,andothers,arediscussed.
Thetargetsofthisvolumearepostgraduatecoursestudents,researchers,and engineersinthefieldofmechanicalengineering,nuclearengineering,andchemical engineering.TheareasarenotonlyinJapanbutalsotheUnitedStates,Canada, China,andothercountries.
Wewishthatreadersacquireawayofthinkingaswellaswholeanddetailed knowledgeinthisvolume.Itisourgreatpleasureifreadersenhancetheirtalent andexpandtheirknowledge.
Editors
YasuoKoizumi1,TomioOkawa1 andShojiMori2
1GraduateSchoolofInformationandEngineering,TheUniversityof Electro-Communications,Chofu,Tokyo,Japan, 2KyushuUniversity,Fukuoka,Fukuoka,Japan March16,2020
Dawnofpowerforhuman beings/powerfromsteam YasuoKoizumi GraduateSchoolofInformationandEngineering,TheUniversityof Electro-Communications,Chofu,Tokyo,Japan
1.1Civilizationprogressandenergy Noonecanargueagainstthefactthatenergyisessentialforhumanbeings.However, itisnotnoticedindailylifesincetheenergyiseasilyacquired.Evenso,weareforced toonedaynoticetheimportanceofenergy.Waterservicestops;anairconditioner doesnotwork;oracandleisneededforlightatnightifelectricityservicestops becauseofsomeaccidentatanelectricpowerstation.Electricityisoneformofenergy. Iftheoilthatproducestheenergytomakeacarworkislost,thecardoesnotwork andweareforcedtowalk.Energysupplytothesocietyisfundamentalinourlife.
Itiswritteninthe EpicofGilgamesh thatabigforestexistedinthe Mesopotamianinancienttimes.Theforesttherehasdisappeared.Thischangemight becausedbyhumanactivity.ItispointedoutthatasimilarthinghappenedinJapan [1].ThefollowingiswhatiswritteninReference [1].Althoughitisoneviewofhistory,itisconvincinginconsideringtheroleofenergyforahumanbeing.
ItiswidelyunderstoodthatancientJapanesecivilizationbeganintheNaraBasin aroundthe3rdcenturyalthoughtherearevariousopinions.Theancientcivilized Japanesenationwasfounded there,andthecapitalofthenationwasbuilt.Theareawas surroundedbymountainsthatservedasdefensebarriersfortheattackofinvaders.The landwasblessedwithcleanwaterandflatfieldsandsurroundedbywoodedforestsin themountains.Thewoodfromtheforestwasutilizedasbuildingmaterialsofhouses andfirewoodforheating,cooking,andlighting.Treeswerecutdowncontinuouslyfora longtime,andthenthewoodedforesthaddisappeared.Theactivityresultedinthe extinctionoftheforest.Peopletherelosttheenergysourceofwoodfromtheforests. Theextinctionalsoledtorepeatthenatural disasterssuchasfloodandthespreadofplague.Finally,peopleatthattimedecidedtoleavetheNaraBasinandrelocatetheircapitaltoKyotoattheendofthe8thcentury.Kyotowassurroundedbymountainsandalso bythewoodedforestssuchastheformerNaraBasin.Consideringthishistoricalevent fromthestandpointofanengineer,thecapitalrelocationhasonesidethatitwasmotivatedbysearchingforwoodedforests—enoughwoodsasasourceofenergy.Itimplies thatthecapitalrelocationwascausedbytheforestenergycollapse.Theforestenergy collapseseemssimilartowhathappenedinancientMesopotamia.
ThehistoryofthecapitalrelocationinJapanwasrepeatedagain.Treesaround KyotoandthennearKyotowerecutdownforconstructionandforfirewoodtoget energy.DeepforestsdisappearedintheKyotoarea,whichresultedintheforest
2FundamentalsofThermalandNuclearPowerGeneration
Figure1.1 TimberShippingTransitionfromTenryuriverregioninJapan.
Source:ReproducedfromK.Takemura,Japanesecultureandenergy,J.Jpn.Soc.Energy Resour.40(3)(2019)221 224 [1].
energycollapseagain.Then,thecapitalofJapanwasrelocatedtoanewfrontier, Edo,whichisnowTokyo,atthebeginningofthe17thcentury.
Edobecameabigcityhavingabout1.5millionresidents.EnoughwoodforconstructionandenergywereprovidedfromsurroundingareatoEdo.Theconstructionofthe capitalEdobeganaroundtheearly17thcentury.AttheearlystageoftheEdoconstruction,thewoodwassuppliedfromaneararea,andthenshiftedslowlytofartherarea withdeforestation. Fig.1.1 expressesthetimbershipping amountvariationintheTenryu riverregionatabout250kmeastfromEdo.AfterawhilefromtheEdoconstruction beginningearlyinthebeginningofthe17thcentury,thetimberloggingthereincreased drastically;however,itbegantodecrease.Itsuggeststhatthedeforestationexpanded fromtheareanearEdotoafartherarea.Edoalmostfacedtheforestenergycollapse again.Fortunatelyenough,Japansucceeded intherenovationofthegovernmentsystem viathecivilwarin1867.ThenewJapanese governmentpositivelyintroducedmodern technologysuchasenergyproductionusingsteam.ItwasablessingofGodthatplenty ofcoalwasavailableinJapan.Theenergysourcewaschangedfromwoodtocoal, whichresultedinbreakingawayfromwoodenergy.ThischangeledtoJapan’sdrastic growth.Thisstoryistheproofoftheimportanceoftheenergyforcivilization.
1.2Historicalsignificanceofgettingforcefromfirefor humanbeings
Manymomentsand/oreventsinhistoryhaveledtothefoundationofmoderncivilization.Ifitisaskedtosaywhatarethemostimportantamongthem,oneansweris thathumankind
1. cametowalkbipedally, 2. cametousefire, 3. acquiredthetechnologytocreateandusegreatforce,and 4. hadtechnologytogetforcefromfireinhand.
Handswerereleasedfromwalkingtobeusedforhandlingutensils.Aheadwas raisedtoleadtotheevolutionofbrains.Thoseworkedtogether,andmanyuseful techniquesforlifehadbeendeveloped.Fireprotectedhumankindfromanimalattack andrelievedfromcold.Itwasusedforcooking,whichledtoimprovethecircumstancesoffoodandhealth.Firegreatlycontributedtoimprovingthefoundationof life,however,itwasonlylimitedinthose.Humanbeingsacquiredevolvedintelligence,andenhancedhealthandlifesupportcametoformsocialgroupsandgettechnicalskilltomoveheavythingssuchashugelogsandrocks.Stouthouseswerebuilt usingtheheavylogsandrocks.Hugetombsandsanctuariesmadeofhugerocks wereconstructedusingthetechnology.Itistheproofthatmanyancientcivilizations suchasancientEgyptian,Mesopotamian,andMexicancivilizationshadleftarcheologicalmegalithicmonumentsincommon.Theskilltomoveheavythingsandintelligenceaccumulationcametodeveloplargemachinessuchassailingships,spinning machines,andsoon.However,thesourcetoworkthemachineswaslimitedto humankinditself,domesticanimals,andevenwindandwaterflow.Quitesuddenly, humankindnoticedinthe18thcenturythatfirecreatesgreatforceandsucceededin gettingforcefromfire.Theforceoriginatedfromthefireopenedthedoortothe modernindustrialcivilization.Humankindhadcometogethugeforceeasilyandto operatelargemachines.Forexample,peopledonotneedtowalkbecauseacarconveysthem;theydonotneedtowashmanuallyusingonlytheirhands;andtheycan traveltothemoonbyusingnewlydevelopedmachines.Thissuggeststhatgettingthe skilltogetforcefromfireisquitesignificantinhistory.
1.3Power Whatispower?Asimpleanswertothequestionisthatpoweristhesourcethat makesamachineoratoolthatprovidesasubstituteforhumanhardlabor.Ifpower isnotprovidedforanelectricwashingmachine,itisonlyabox.Ifpowerisprovidedtothewashingmachine,itrelievespeoplefromhardmanualwashing.Inthis case,poweristheelectricmotor.Ifahorseisconnectedtoawagon,peopleare relivedfromcarryingheavythingsontheirbags.Inthiscase,thepoweristhe horse.Thepowersourceisactivatedbytheenergysuchaselectricitytothemotor andfoodforthehorse,respectively.Thus,thepowerhasthesourceinenergy.
Letusconsiderthesituationasshownin Fig.1.2.Someloadisontheground. Thegravityforceisactingontheload.Thebodydoesnotmove,thusnoworkis donephysically.Iftheloadisconnectedtoahorsewitharopeandthehorsepulls theropeasshownin Fig.1.3,theloadiscarriedbythehorse.Sharingforcecomes outbetweenthebottomoftheloadandtheground.Thehorsepullstheloadagainst thesharinghorsewithpullingforcethatisequaltothesharingforce.Thehorseis doingworkphysicallyasaresultofthepullingforceandmoving.Thehardwork ofahumantopulltheloadonthegroundissubstitutedbytheworkofthehorse thatthehorsepullsthebodyandcarriestheload.Thus,thepowerisclosetothe workinthephysicalmeaning.Theworkinthewashingmachineisthatthemotor rotatesandstirswaterinthewashingmachine.
4FundamentalsofThermalandNuclearPowerGeneration
Justforceacting.
Figure1.3 Forceresultinginwork.
Timethattheworkisperformedforisimportant.Howlongthemotorstirswater inthewashingmachineorhowlongittakestomovetheloadbythehorseare importantintheaforementionedexamplesandhavephysicalmeaning.Itmakes sensetoseehowefficientlytheworkisdone.Iftheworkisefficient,theforceis usedefficiently.Itmaybeexpressedbyaworkrate.Iftheworkrateishigh,the forceisusedefficiently.Thisisthedefinitionofthepowerinthephysicalmeaning. Iftheheavyitemiscarriedefficiently,thepowerishigh.Thus,thepowerisequal totheworkrateandtheunitofthepowerisNm/s 5 J/s;W.Thepowerthata humanbeingisenjoyinginthepresentcivilizationisgeneratedfromheatenergy originallyandusedinotherformssuchasstirringwaterinthewashingmachine, runningtrains,andsoon.Thepowergenerationsystemsoriginatedfromheatare thesubjectsofthisbookseries.
1.4Historyofgettingpower Civilizationhasbeenseekingforpowersincehumankindwantedease.Poweristhe baseforprovidingtheease. Fig.1.4 illustratesthehistoryofenergyusageby humankind.Inthefigure,theenergyconsumptionofoilequivalentsperdayinthe worldandtheenergyconsumptionbyapersonareincluded.
Aperson’senergywasjustfortheirownactivitiessuchaswalking,running,andso onintheolddaysmillionsofyearsago.Theenergygeneratedfromfood.Then, humankindstartedtousefireforheatingandcookinghundredsofthousandsofyears agoandtheenergyusageforthosewasaddedtothefoodenergy.
Figure1.2
Figure1.4 HistoryofPowerProductionbyMankind.
Source:ReproducedfromJapanAtomicEnergyRelationOrganization,1-1-1Relationof humanbeingandenergy. , https://www.ene100.jp/zumen/1-1-1 . ,2017 [2].
Astimeproceeded,agriculturebeganaroundthe10thcenturyBCE.Mankind cultivateditselfintheearlydays,andthenstartedtousedomesticanimalsforfarmingtoavoidhardworkandtoincreaseproductivityaround5000yearsago.The energyfromdomesticanimalswasaddedtohumanenergyusage.Theenergyusage bymankindincreasedgraduallyastimewenton.Ancientsocietiesandcivilizations suchasMesopotamianandEgyptiancivilizationscameoutinthosedays.
Then,humanslearnedtocatchenergyfromnaturalwindandwaterflowascivilizationprogressed,andhaddevelopedmechanicaldevicesandequipmentssuchas sailingships,windmills,waterwheels,andsoon.Thedailylifeofhumansbecame furtherconvenientandeasybyusingthoseforces.Largesailingshipscarriedlarge cargoesbetweenAsiaandEuropeandwaterwheelswereusedtooperatespinning machinesinthe18thcentury.Thenaturalenergyusagewasaddedtotheenergy usageofhumans.Firewoodandevencoalwereusedforheatingandcooking.The energyusedbyhumansfurtherincreasedgradually,however,theincreasingwas stillslow.
Theincreasingrateofhumanenergyusagechangedapparentlyanddrastically around1800.Whathappenedinthosedays?Peoplesuddenlynoticedthatfire createsforceandthatforceproducesenergy.Then,humansacquiredwaystoturn energyintopower.
Discovery Fire, Fuelwood,Coal Oil, of fire domestic windmill, gas animal water wheel,nuclear horse & cowrenewable
Let’sconsiderthesituationshownin Fig.1.5.Steamproducedbyburningfirewood orcoalisfilledinacansuchasA.Then,waterisinjectedinthecanasB,resultingin steamcondensation.Thepressure Pi inthecanbecomesconsiderablylowerthanthe atmosphericpressure Pa asshowninC.Thus,forceresultingfromthepressuredifferencebetween Pa and Pi actsonthesurfaceofthecanandthecanmaybecrushedin somecase.Now,supposethatthisseriesofsteamcondensationinacontainerisperformedinacylinder-pistonsystemasin D.Whenthesteaminthecylinderiscondensedandthepressureinthecylinderbecomes Pi,thepistonispushedwiththeforce.
Figure1.5 Poweringfromsteamcondensation.(A)Steaminacontainer(B)Waterinjection (C)Steamcondensation(D)Steamcondensationincylinder-pistonsystem. 6FundamentalsofThermalandNuclearPowerGeneration
F 5 Pa Pi ðÞ 3 A
Then,thepistonmovesbydistance S.Theforce F onthepistonandthemovement S resultsinwork
inthephysicalmeaning.Iftheworkistaken outandturnedintoanotherformsuchas pullingtheropethatisconnectedtoaheavy item,themovementofthepistonserves tocarrytheheavyitem:work.Ifthisworkischangedtoaworkrate,thatishowefficientlytheworkisperformed,itisthedefinitionofthepowerinthephysicalmeaning.
Newcomencondensedsteaminthecylinderwiththepistonasshownin Fig.1.5D anddevelopedasteamenginethatprovidespowerin1712.Inthosedays, coalwasusedtogetheat.Coallieddeepunderground.Itwasnecessarytoefficientlypumpwellwaterouttoacoalminingsite.Tobringcoalupfromthedeep undergroundtothegroundwasalsohardwork.Thisworkwasdonebyahuman andahorseinthosedays.Thedevelopedsteamenginebegantobeusedforpumpingoutwaterfromthecoalmine.Aslongascoalburningwascontinuedtoproduce steam,andthewatersupplywasalsocontinuedtothesteamboilerandtothecylindertocondensethesteamperiodically,thesteamenginekeptoncarryingoutthe workofpumpingoutwaterwithoutabreak.Theworkcorrespondedtotheworkof severalhorses.Asaresult,coalwasefficientlyminedupandthecoalwasfurther usedforgettingmorecoal.Originatingfromit,thepowerusedbymankindhas increasedsharplysincethelate18thcentury.
Itwassaidin Section1.2 thatahumanbeingneverusedfiretogetpowerbefore the18thcentury.However,thereisonerecordleftbyHeroninAlexandriaaround 150BCEassketchedin Fig.1.6[3].Hegeneratedsteambyheatingwaterusing fire.Thesteamwasblownoutfromnozzlesthatwereattachedtoaspheretangentially,andthenthesphererotated.Itwasreallytheboilerandreactionturbine systemitself.However,thereisnorecordofhowthesystemwasused.Sincethen untilthe18thcentury,ahumanbeingneverusedfiretogetpowerinreality althoughseveralideashadbeenproposed.
InancientGreekera,thefourfundamentalelementswerefire,air,water,and soil.Thefirewasoneoftheelements.Thisunderstandingcontinueduntilthe18th century.Thefirehadnotbeenrelatedtoenergy.Theword“energy”wasfirstused byYoungin1807.Jouleshowedthatheatisoneformoftheenergyin1843ofthe midoftheindustrialrevolution.Thatwasfarafteracquiringthesteamenginethat wasthewaytogetpowerfromfire.
TheNewcomensteamenginewasremarkablyimprovedbyWatt.Heintroducedan externalcondenserinsteadofcondensingsteaminthepiston-cylinderin1776.Itcontributedtoimprovethermalefficiencyremarkably;orthatislessuseofcoalandmorepower getting.
Hetriedtoshowthathissteamenginewasefficientandexcellent.Inhisdays, waterwaspumpedupfromacoalminebyusingahorse.Thehorsewasconnected toanedgeofa12ft.longarm.Anotheredgeofthearmwasfixedattherotating axisthatwaslinkedtoapumpatacoalmine.Wattletthehorsewalkaroundthe axisandmeasuredtheforcethatthehorsepulledthearmwithasshownin Fig.1.7
L 5 F 3 S
Figure1.7 Definitionofunitofpower.
Figure1.6 Heronsteamturbine [3]
Hefoundthattheforcemeasuredbythespringweighingwas175lbf andthe horserotated2.5timesperminute.Thus,thehorsedidthework L of
Herealizedthatthehorsedidtheworkbytheworkrateof550ftlbf/s.He decidedthatthehorsepoweris550ftlbf/s.Thisworkratebecamehorsepower.This unitwasquiteusefulforhimtoshowthatthesteamenginedevelopedbyhimcould dohowmanyhorses.Theunitwasquiteusefulandvaluablefornotonlyhis machinebutalsoothermachinestoexpresshowthemachinewasefficientand large.Thehorsepowerunitof550ftlbf/sbecameusedwidelyingeneral.
ThehorsepowerunitwasintheEnglishft-lbf unitsystem.Itwasnotconvenient forpeopleinotherunitsystems.Anewhorsepowerunitwasdevelopedatthe beginningofthe20thcentury.Thenewhorsepowerwas75kgfm/sinthemetric unitsystem.Thevalueitselfisphysicallyveryclosetothevalueof550ftlbf/sin theEnglishft-lbf unitsystem.TheformerandthelatterareusuallyexpressedasPS andHP,respectively.
Boththehorsepowersof550ftlbf/sand75kgfm/sareinthegravitationalunit system.Theforceinthatsystemdependsongravity.Sincegravityvariesplaceby placeontheearth;theunitthatincludesthegravityisnotuniversalandconvenient. Thus,theabsoluteunitsystemisusedwidelynowadaysfortheworkrate;the power.ThepowerisexpressedasJ/s 5 Wintheabsoluteunitsystem.Thus,the horsepowerPSof75kgfm/sisequalto0.735kW.
Here,itshouldberememberedthatpowerisproducedfromfirenowadays.The thermalenergyofthefireisexpressedusingtheunitofJintheabsoluteunitsystem.Thethermalenergyandtheworkarethesameinthefirstlawofthermodynamics.Thus,theworkrateisalsoexpressedusingtheunitofJ.WorkrateisJ/s. Thisworkrate;thepower,isexpressedasW.TheunitcamefromWattinhonorof themodernsteamenginefounderandthedefinerofthehorsepower.
Then,steamenginesbecamewidelyusedincoalmines.Steamenginesinthose dayswerereciprocatingengines.Thus,itwashardtoapplythosetomachinesthat requiredrotatingmotionsuchasspinningmachines.Thespinningindustrywasone oftheleadingindustriesatthattime.Watttriedtodevelopmanyrotatingsteam engines;however,finallyheintroducedacrank-connectingroddevicetohisreciprocatingenginesin1794toturnthereciprocatingmotionofthesteamenginetothe rotatingmotion.Ittriggedthewidelyspreading-outofthesteamenginesoriginated fromWatttomanyindustryfieldsasageneralsteamengine.
Replacinghydro,wind,andhorsepowerforspinningmachines,millingmachines, andsoonwithsteampowerwasinitiated.Steampoweroriginatedfromfire;coalburningwasusedeasily,efficiently,andgreatly,whichledtotheexplosivedevelopmentof
machinecivilization:theindustrialrevolutionfromthe18thcenturytothe19thcentury. Sincethen,theenergyconsumptionofahumanbeinghasbeguntoincreaseandisstill increasingnowadaysasshownin Fig.1.4.Ahumanbeingkeepsseekingforease,comfort,andconvenience.
1.5Fullmaturityofmoderncivilization Gettingpowerfromthermalenergystartedfromusingcoalasaheatsource.As timeproceeded,oilandthengashavebeennaturallyalsousedastheheatsource sincethoseareeasytoconveyandhandle,andalsohavehighercalorificvalues thancoal.Itmademankindpossibletogetthehighergrowingrateofusingpower inthe20thcenturyasshownin Fig.1.4.Civilizationhasgreatlyimprovedthefood situation,themedicalcircumstances,andthelivingenvironmentofhumankind.It hasledtotheincreaseinpopulationintheworld.Italsohasgivenanimpetusto thepowerconsumptionincrease.
Electricitythatisonekindofenergyhasalsobeenusedformanyusages;light, electricdevicessuchasaradiooratelevision,generatingheat,motorsproducing power,andsoon.Theelectricityisveryuseful,cleanenvironmentally,easytohandle,easytotransmit,andsoon.Theelectricitywasinitiallyproducedbyusing hydroenergy.Soon,theelectricityhasbeenproducedfromthethermalenergyofa steamengine.Itstartedcommerciallyin1882atthe120kWPearlStreetPower PlantintheUnitedStates,andalsoin1887at50kWKayabachoPowerPlantin Japan.
Thethermalelectricpowergenerationturnedfromthesteamenginesystemto theboiler-turbinesystemintheendofthe19thcentury.Electricityhasbeenefficientlyandgreatlygeneratedfromthermalenergybytheboiler-turbinesystem.The greatincreaseinpowerusagebymankindinthe20thcenturyhasbeenpromoted bytheelectricalpowergenerationgrowth.
Becquereldiscoveredradiationin1896.Radiationhasledtoanothersource ofpower:nuclearpower.Einsteinpointedoutthatmass M andenergy E arethesame thingandhavedifferentformsandthattherelationisexpressedusinglightspeed c as
Whenatomicnucleusfissionoccurs,asmallamountofmassturnstohuge energyfollowing Eq.(1.5), andtheenergyisreleased.Thisisnuclearenergy. When1kgU235 iscollapsed,thereleasedenergyisequivalenttotheheatofcombustionofcoalof3000ton.Fermisucceededincollapsingthenucleusinachain reactionwayin1942.Itwasquitenaturaltousenuclearenergyasaheatsourcefor powergeneration.Ifthenucleusfissionchainreactioncouldbeoccurredsteadily, continuously,andsafelyundercontrolledconditions,humansacquiredanewway tocreateheatforpowergeneration.EBR-1ofanexperimentalfastbreederreactor inIdahointheUnitedStatessucceededintheelectricgenerationfromheatofthe nuclearfissionin1951.Four200WelectricbulbswerelightedonDecember20th. 10FundamentalsofThermalandNuclearPowerGeneration
E 5 Mc2
(1.5)
Nuclearenergywasnaturallyintroducedintocommercialelectricpowergeneration:thenuclearpowergeneration.Thecommercialnuclearpowergenerationwas startedin1954attheObninskNuclearPowerPlantofthe5000kWchannel-type boilingwaterreactorinRussia.Soonafter,thepressurizedwaterreactor(PWR)at the100,000kWShippingPortNuclearPowerPlantwasinitiatedin1957inthe UnitedStates,andthentheboilingwaterreactor(BWR)atthe210,000kW DresdenNuclearPowerPlantin1960intheUnitedStates.InJapan,thecommercialgas-cooledreactorpowergenerationstartedatthe12,500kWTokaiNuclear PowerPlantin1966,theBWRpowergenerationstartedatthe320,000kW TsurugaNuclearPowerPlant,andthePWRpowergenerationstartedatthe 340,000kWMihamaNuclearPowerPlantin1970.
Itisinterestingtonotethatthermodynamicsthathasbeenusedtoexplainphenomenainathermal-energysystemandtodevelopthethermal-energytechnology ofthepresentdaywasevolvedfollowingtheevolutionofthethermal-energysystem.Thatdiscussionisoutsidethescopeofthisbook.
1.6Ruleforpowergenerationsystems Itisnecessaryforcurrentcivilizationtosupplypowermassively,steadily,economically,andsafely.Toachieveit,humankindhasdevelopedsophisticatedintelligent operatingsystem,rules,codes,standards,andlawslearningfrommanylessons experienced.Oneexampleisthepressureofsteamenginesandboilers.Itisobvious instinctivelyandtheoreticallyfromthermodynamicsthatelevatingworkingpressure enhancestheefficiencyofthesteampowergenerationsystems.However,itcaused theruptureofpressurevesselsinthesystems,whichresultedinmanyinjuriesand deathsinthe19thcentury.Learningfromthoseexperiences,sophisticatedand highlyadvancedrulesandstandardsfordesigningthemhavebeenelaboratedinthe 20thcentury.Sincethesteampowergenerationplantsarebigandcostly,theeffect ofthoseconstructiononsocietyisquitelarge.Thus,itisimportanttoassesshow andwhatareinfluencedinadvanceandtopreparethewaytoavoidnegativethings. Theseareessentialtokeepcivilizedmankinddailylifecomfortable.Theseare brieflytreatedinthisvolume.
1.7Futureprospectofpower Humanshavethetechnologytogetpowereasilyandgreatlyfromheat.Thedaily lifeofthehumankindhasbeengreatlyimprovedandbecomescultural.Humansare alsoreachingintocosmicspacebyusingpower.Humansenjoyadevelopedcivilizationbyusingpowerfromheat.Lookingintothefuture,itishardtosaythata currentstatewillcontinueasitis.Severalproblemshavebeenalreadypointedout. Amongthem,bigissuesareexhaustionofenergyresources,environmentalproblems,andsecurity.Thesewillbebrieflydiscussedlaterinthisbook.
1.7.1Energyresourceexhaustion Themainsourcesofpowerthathumankindisleaningonarecoal,oil,gas,anduranium.Thesearenaturalresourcesthathadbeenstoredintheearthforaquitelong timebeforehumanbeingsappearedontheearth.Regardlessofwhethertheyare moreorless,theexistingamountofthemisnaturallylimited.Itisamatterofcourse thatkeepingontakingthemoutfromtheearth,thosewillbeexhaustedinthefuture.
Fig.1.8 showsprospectsforthefuture.Beforehumansdiscoveredwaystoget powerfromthethermalenergythatcamefromnaturalresources,theywalkedby themselvesandusedhorsesandnaturalenergysuchaswindorhydroenergyatthe most.Aftergettingpowereasilyandsufficientlybyusingnaturalresources,humankindhasbeenreleasedfromself-walkingtouseacarandevenreachedouterspace. Ifhumanslosenaturalresourcesforgettingpower,theymaybeforcedtowalkby themselvesagaininthefuture.
Onepossiblewaytoavoidthissituationistogetthetechnologyofafastbreeder reactorasareality.Inthatreactor,thefueloftheuraniumisturnedintomorefuel oftheplutoniumthantheuseduranium,andtheproducedplutoniumisusedinthe reactor.Humanswillfindwaystogetenoughpowertoenjoycivilizationforquite alongtime;severalhundredsofyears,asshownin Fig.1.9
Anotherpossibilitytoavoidnaturalresourceexhaustionistousesolarenergy. Theearthisgettinglargeamountsofenergyfromthesunandreleasingitbackinto outerspace.Theamountofenergythattheearthisgettingisseveraltensofthousandsoftimesmorethanwhathumansareusingonearth.Energythatcomesfrom thesuncanbeusedinmanyformssuchasasolarbatteryandsolarpowergeneration,althoughwindandhydropoweralsohaveoriginsfromthesun.
1.7.2Environmentalproblems Asalreadymentioned,theearthisgettinghugeamountsofenergyof 1.8 3 1014 kWfromthesun.Humansaredissipating1.6 3 1010 kWontheearth. Figure1.8 Dangerouspossibilityoffuturemankindsituation.
