Preface
Iremember it well: When I took my first “tests and measurements” course in graduate school at Michigan State University, I was fairly apprehensive—what would this class have to do with teaching and learning? Would I be using complex mathematics and learning about the technical aspects of “standardized” testing that really had little to do with what I wanted to do day in and day out in the classroom? Well, the course met some of my negative expectations! It was interesting, but not as helpful as I hoped when applied to teaching. I have written this book to address this shortcoming, to be directly relevant to instruction so that student learning and motivation are enhanced.
The premise of this book is that classroom assessment has a direct and powerful impact on student learning and motivation. It is through everyday interactions with students, as well as quizzes, unit tests, papers, and assignments, that teachers communicate what is important in learning, the standards that indicate proficiency and more advanced levels of understanding and skills, and communicate with students about what they understand and what needs further learning. While much recent emphasis has been placed on large-scale accountability testing, classroom assessments, from what I have seen in schools, show what is really being learned, as well as what influence teachers have had on student achievement and motivation. Classroom assessment is the most direct, specific, and helpful indicator of what students know, the depth of their understanding, and the nature of their interpersonal and intrapersonal dispositions.
Over the past two decades the field of classroom assessment has changed considerably. There is much more emphasis on how student assessment is an integral part of ambitious teaching that effects student learning and motivation, not just something that is done after instruction to measure
what students have learned. Importantly, sociocognitive and sociocultural theories of learning and motivation are emphasized as foundational for assessment, with clear implications for practice. Much attention is focused on formative assessment—what is also called assessment for learning. Standards-based instruction and assessment is present at every level of education and nearly every subject. State accountability tests reinforce the emphasis on assessing students’ levels of proficiency, which will have direct implications for what you do for your classroom assessments. There is now a much-needed emphasis on equity and cultural relevance in the classroom that needs to be reflected in assessment and grading. Technology is ubiquitous, operationalized in online assessments and grading systems. These four influences—assessment as part of instruction to improve student learning and motivation based on contemporary research, standards-based education, equity and cultural relevance, and technology, form the foundation for this book. All are essential factors in understanding how classroom assessments need to be designed and implemented to improve targeted student outcomes.
This book, then, is designed to provide prospective and practicing teachers with:
• a concise, nontechnical, and engaging presentation of assessment principles that clearly and specifically relate to student learning and motivation;
• current research and new directions in the classroom assessment field; and
• practical and realistic examples, suggestions, and case studies.
The approach I have taken to meet these goals is to build assessment into the instructional process, focusing on assessment concepts and principles that are essential for effective teacher
decision making, and integrating principles of learning and motivation. The emphasis throughout is on helping teachers to understand the importance of establishing credible performance standards (learning targets), communicating these standards to students, and providing feedback to students on their progress. There is much less emphasis on technical measurement concepts that teachers rarely find useful, though there is extensive discussion of aspects of assessment that result in high quality and credibility, such as accuracy, fairness/equity, matching assessment to clearly and publicly stated standards, positive consequences, and practicality.
With minor exceptions, the basic organization of the text is unchanged from the seventh edition. Chapters 1 through 3 present the fundamental principles of assessment and instruction, with an emphasis on the importance of the teacher’s professional judgment and decision making, as well as student perspectives, as integral to making useful and credible assessments that enhance learning and motivation. Chapters 4 and 5 cover formative assessment, but here I’ve made a significant change. Chapter 4 is retitled informal/embedded formative assessment, the type that occurs “on the fly” during instruction, and Chapter 5 formal formative assessment, such as chapter or unit tests. Both Chapters 6 and 7 focus on summative assessment—Chapter 6 for summative assessments like tests and quizzes that occur weekly or monthly, and Chapter 7 for externally designed, large-scale tests tied to accountability. The next few chapters (8–11) are organized by type of assessment, beginning with selected-response item formats. Each of these chapters shows how to assess different types of learning targets.
Chapter 12 presents what is now termed interpersonal and intrapersonal disposition assessments that are used to measure attitudes, values, interests, beliefs, self-efficacy, student self-reflection, and other dispositional traits, as well as many 21st-century skills. Chapter 13 reviews the assessment of students who have special needs and are included in the regular classroom. The heavily revised Chapter 14 presents culturally and linguistic responsive assessment practices that are
needed for our increasingly diverse student population. The final chapter examines grading and reporting the results, with a strong emphasis on standards-based grading.
New to This Edition
There have been significant additions and revisions throughout for the eighth edition:
• Perhaps most importantly, there is now an integration of equity and cultural relevance throughout the text, with examples and explanations of how culturally relevant assessment is essential for improving learning of all students.
• Over 50 new sources are cited; with a total of now more than 300 citations, to provide a comprehensive integration of contemporary research and theory with practice.
• Sociocognitive and sociocultural tenets of learning and motivation are incorporated throughout to situate classroom assessment to have a positive impact on students.
• All new Teacher Corner excerpts provide examples of how National Board Certified teachers practice assessment in their classrooms.
• Videos that feature K-12 classroom teachers and students are embedded in all chapters to illustrate key learning outcomes.
• Learning Objectives are now specified throughout each chapter and are aligned with new digital content that is available within the Pearson Learning Management System with including interactive self-check quizzes and application exercises.
• There is greater coverage of the role of technology in assessment, grading, and reporting of information. This includes coverage of computer-enhanced–type test items, eportfolios, digital badges, and electronic grading systems.
• The self-instructional review exercises that were included in Appendix C are now at the end of each chapter, with the answers in Appendix C.
• Revised case studies and reflection questions begin each chapter to engage readers in actual classroom assessment scenarios (with answers at the end of the chapter).
• Revised cognitive maps provide readers with a graphic advance organizer.
• New author reflections are included that provide my personal insights and suggestions.
Several instructional aids are included to facilitate understanding and application of the content. These include boldface key terms; chapter summaries to review essential content; comprehensive interactive Self-Check Quizzes and Application Exercises keyed to major learning objectives to provide opportunities for practice and application (see the following section for more on this); self-instructional review exercises and applied action exercises at the end of each chapter; extensive use of examples, diagrams, charts, and tables; complete example of a student IEP, and a glossary of key terms.
New to This Edition by Chapter
The following summarizes major changes and revisions to individual chapters.
Chapter 1: The Role of Assessment in Teaching and Learning
• New section on equity to significant factors influencing classroom assessment.
• New section on ambitious teaching to emphasize the integration of strong instruction with assessment.
• New section on assessment literacy; less reliance on standards of assessment and more emphasis on the situated, contextualized nature of classroom assessment.
• Enhanced integration of sociocultural theories and the importance of cultural relevance.
Chapter 2: Standards and Cognitive Learning Targets
• Clarification of types of cognitive learning targets into three categories: (1) knowledge
and simple understanding; (2) deep understanding; and (3) reasoning, with new descriptions and examples.
• New section on the use of Student Learning Objectives.
• New section on Webb’s Depth of Knowledge (DNK) framework, with descriptions and examples of the four DNK levels.
Chapter 3: High-Quality Classroom Assessment
• Revision of the fairness principle to fairness/ equity to emphasize cultural relevance.
• Greater emphasis on the functional aspects of validity for classroom assessment (use and consequences), including the addition of trustworthiness as a way to characterize the quality of CA in terms of impacts on students.
• New section on managing classroom assessment.
Chapter 4 : Informal/Embedded Formative Assessment (new title)
• Use of informal/formal description to more clearly differentiate types of formative assessment.
• Greater emphasis on equitable formative assessment practices.
• New information about using digital platforms.
• Major revision of the feedback section to emphasize self-regulation/self-direction and the nature of feedback that is most effective.
Chapter 5: Formal Formative Assessment (new title)
• Replaced “summative-based” with “formal.”
• New emphasis on cultural relevance of homework, preassessments, and seatwork assignments to ensure students can meaningfully relate to the exercises.
• New emphasis on use of digital tools for formative assessment, including online polling, virtual quizzing, social media, and memes.
• Revision of feedback section to be tailored to formal formative assessment, including equity concerns.
• Updated section on learning progressions, with new examples.
Chapter 6 : Planning and Implementing Summative Classroom Assessments (new title)
• Substantively revised case study to open the chapter.
• Greater emphasis on the use of digital tools for summative assessment.
• Greater emphasis on the importance of sampling error.
Chapter 7: Using Large-Scale Standards-Based, Growth, and Other Standardized Tests (new title)
• New section on the interpretation and use of growth assessments.
• Additional emphasis on cultural bias and standardized testing issues for culturally diverse students.
• Revised test-taking skills needed for students for digital testing.
Chapter 8: Selected-Response Assessment: Multiple-Choice, Binary-Choice, Matching, and Interpretive Items (new title)
• Expanded coverage on use of selectedresponse items to measure reasoning skills.
• Greater emphasis on technology-enhanced items, including drag-and-drop, use of drawing tools, and use of dropdown menus.
• Greater emphasis on culturally relevant selected-response assessments, with a new section on avoiding cultural irrelevance and bias.
Chapter 9: Constructed-Response Assessment: Completion, Short-Answer, and Essay Items
• New section on avoiding cultural irrelevance and bias, with an emphasis on the influence of culture and prior experiences.
• Clarified the difference between assessing knowledge/simple understanding from deep understanding/reasoning.
• New section on technology-enhanced scoring of constructed-response questions.
Chapter 10: Performance Assessment: Projects, Papers, and Presentations (new title)
• New examples of tasks and rubrics in several disciplines, including the visual arts.
• New table and narrative on culturally responsive performance assessments.
• New table and discussion to introduce types of performance assessment, including concise stand-alone, unit-based, and complex tasks.
Chapter 11: Portfolios: Paper and Digital
• Greater emphasis on eportfolios, including the use of voice-recording, blogs, and videos.
• New section on digital badges, including use of badges for intrapersonal dispositions such as civic awareness and personal responsibility.
Chapter 12: Assessing Social and Intrapersonal Dispositions and Skills (new title)
• Changed “noncognitive dispositions” to “social and intrapersonal dispositions.”
• New coverage of social-emotional traits, with strengthened ties to cultural relevance and achievement.
• Expanded coverage of intrapersonal dispositions & skills.
• New section on measuring student attitudes toward assessment.
• Greater emphasis on cultural factors in assessing social and intrapersonal dispositions.
Chapter 13: Assessment for Students with Disabilities and Exceptionalities (new title)
• Updating of descriptive terminology.
• Substantial revision of assessment and grading accommodations section.
• New section on universal design for learning as an approach to determining assessment accommodations.
Chapter 14 : Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Assessment (new title)
• Expanded section explaining that culturally responsive assessment is being proactive, not focusing on what to avoid doing.
• Reduced emphasis on enculturation with much more coverage of English Learners.
• New section on race/ethnicity to student characteristics influencing assessment.
• More on formative assessment, including four types of culturally responsive formative assessment.
Chapter 15: Grading and Reporting Student Performance
• Greater emphasis on learning management systems now commonplace as electronic grading programs.
• Greater emphasis on equitable grading and parent/guardian conferences, including consideration of cultural differences with respect to utilizing nonacademic factors.
• New section on grading as a means of providing feedback.
• Greater clarity in marking and grading individual assessments.
LMS-Compatible Assessment Bank
Learning Management System (LMS)-Compatible Assessment Bank, and Other Instructor Resources
With this new edition, all assessment types— quizzes, application exercises, and chapter tests—are included in LMS-compatible banks for the following learning management systems: Blackboard, Canvas, D2L, and Moodle. These packaged files allow maximum flexibility to instructors when it comes to importing, assigning, and grading. Assessment types include:
• Learning Objective Quizzes Each chapter learning objective is the focus of a Learning Objective Quiz that is available for instructors to assign through their Learning Management System. Learning objectives identify chapter content that is most important for learners and serve as the organizational framework
for each chapter. The higher order, multiple choice questions in each quiz will measure your understanding of chapter content, guide the expectations for your learning, and inform the accountability and the applications of your new knowledge. Each multiple choice question includes feedback for the correct answer and for each distractor to help guide students’ learning.
• Application Exercises Each chapter provides opportunities to apply what you have learned through Application Exercises. These exercises are usually short-answer format and can be based on written cases, scenarios modeled by pedagogical text features, or a strategy from the Compendium. A model response written by experts is provided to help guide learning.
Chapter Tests Suggested test items are provided for each chapter and include questions in multiple choice and short answer/essay formats.
Instructor’s Manual
The Instructor’s Manual is provided as a Word document and includes resources to assist professors in planning their course. These resources consist of chapter overviews, learning objectives, guidance for using available PowerPoint® slides to promote concept development, questions for discussion, supplemental teaching suggestions, and worksheets.
PowerPoint® Slides
PowerPoint® slides are provided for each chapter and highlight key concepts and summarize the content of the text to make it more meaningful for students. Often times, these slides also include questions and problems designed to stimulate discussion and to encourage students to elaborate and deepen their understanding of chapter topics.
Acknowledgments
Throughout the development and writing of this book I have been fortunate to have the support and assistance of classroom teachers who have provided quotations, practical examples, and suggestions. I am very grateful for their willingness to help, for their patience in working with me, and, most of all, for keeping me grounded in the realities of teaching. They include Andrea Johnson, Anthony Swann, John Arthur, Ashley Depugh, Greg Lyndaker, Tedra Hall, Avia Ennis, Shannon Wakefield, Brian Letourneau, Rachel Boyd, Jamie Mullenaux, Susan Pereira, Marie Wilcox, Carole Forkey, Beth Carter, Tami Slater, Arleen Reinhardt, Patricia Harris, Ann Marie Seely, Andrea Ferment, Terri Williams, Steve Myran, Suzanne Nash, Steve Eliasek, Daphne Patterson, Craig Nunemaker, Judy Bowman, Jeremy Lloyd, Marc Bacon, Mary Carlson, Michelle Barrow, Margie Tully, Rixey Wilcher, Judith Jindrich, Dan Geary, Joshua Cole, Christy Davis, Elizabeth O’Brien, Beth Harvey, Rita Truelove, Rita Driscoll, Dodie Whitt, Joe Solomon, Stephanie Stoebe, Elizabeth Shanahan, Dan Leija, and Leslie Gross.
I am deeply grateful for the essential contributions of Dr. Heather Bumgarner, who initially authored the introductory case studies, and Stephanie Moore for updating the case studies for this edition. In particular, they worked tirelessly to construct the introductory case studies as realistic examples of assessment situations facing teachers that reinforce major points in the relevant chapter. I know their inputs have helped to keep the book grounded in reality, better organized, and more accurate. Lauren Cabrera and Stephanie more did great work editing the selfinstructional quiz questions.
I would also like to express my appreciation to the following college and university professors who offered insightful and helpful comments and suggestions. For the first edition, thanks go to Cheri Magill, Virginia Commonwealth University; H. D. Hoover, University of Iowa;
Kathryn A. Alvestad, Calvert County Public Schools; John R. Bing, Salisbury State University; John Criswell, Edinboro University of Pennsylvania; George A. Johanson, Ohio University; Catherine McCartney, Bemidji State University; and Anthony Truog, University of Wisconsin, Whitewater; for the second edition, Lyle C. Jensen, Baldwin-Wallace College; Cathleen D. Rafferty, Indiana State University; Gerald Dillashaw, Elon College; Daniel L. Kain, North Arizona University; Charles Eiszler, Central Michigan University; and Betty Jo Simmons, Longwood College; for the third edition, Gyu-Pan Cho, University of Alabama; Saramma T. Mathew, Troy University; E. Michael Nussbaum, University of Nevada; and Kit Juniewicz, University of New England; for the fourth edition, Sally Blake, University of Texas at El Paso; Roberta Devlin-Scherer, Seton Hall University; Carla Michele Gismondi Haser, Marymount University; and Saramma T. Mathew, Troy University. For the fifth edition, thanks go to Rondall R. Brown, Eastern Oregon University; Carolyn Burns, Eastern Michigan University; Candyce Chrystal, Mount Marty College; Stephanie Kotch, University of Delaware; Alan L. Neville, Northern State University; and Tasha Almond Reiser, The University of South Dakota.
For the sixth edition, thanks go to Kristen Bjork, University of Nevada–Las Vegas; Patricia Lutz, Kutztown University; Linda Fortune-Creel, Troy University; and Alton Corley, Texas State University. For the seventh edition, appreciation is extended to Nelson J. Maylone, Eastern Michigan University; Shambra Mulder, Kentucky State University; Christopher Palmi, Lewis University; Amy Lynn Rose, University of North CarolinaGreensboro; and Bo Zhang, University of Wisconson Milwaukee.
I am very grateful for the encouragement and direction of my editor of previous editions, Kevin Davis, and for the current edition Senior Analyst Rebecca Fox-Gieg. Curtis Vickers has provided outstanding editing and suggestions on all draft chapter revisions. In addition, many thanks to others at Pearson, especially Content Analyst Bridget Daly, Content Manager Jenifer Niles, Digital Producers Joshi Shruti and Abinaya Rajendran, Product Manager Drew Bennet, and Katie Ostler of Ostler Editorial, Inc.
On a more personal note, I continue to be amazed at the support provided by my wife, Jan—for putting up with all that has been required to complete the book editions over the years.
AND PURPOSE OF ORAL QUESTIONING FOR INFORMAL/EMBEDDED FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 128 • CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE QUESTIONING FOR INFORMAL/ EMBEDDED FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Administering,
Assessments
Administering Summative Assessments
Using Summative Assessment Results 200 Summary 201 • Answer to Introductory Case Study 202 • Self-Instructional Review Exercises 202 • Applied Action Exercises 203
7 Using Large-Scale Standards-
6 Planning and Implementing
STANDARDS-BASED TESTS 208 • NATIONAL STANDARDS-BASED TESTS 210 • INTERIM ASSESSMENTS 210
NORM-REFERENCED ACHIEVEMENT TEST BATTERIES 216 • APTITUDE TESTS 217 • READINESS TESTS 217
STANDARD ERROR OF MEASUREMENT 220 • ALIGNMENT 221 • STANDARDS-BASED INTERPRETATIONS 221
Test Reports for Parents/Guardians
Skills and Strategies
Skills and Strategies
Introductory Case Study
233
Self-Instructional Review Exercises 234
Applied Action Exercises 235 • Additional Resources for Practice 235
8
9
ASSESSING
Study
11 Portfolios: Paper and Digital 333
Introductory Case Study
What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Portfolios? 337 ADVANTAGES 337 • DISADVANTAGES 338
Planning, Implementing, and Evaluating Portfolios 340
Determine Purpose 341 LEARNING TARGETS 341 • USES 341
Identify Physical and/or Digital Structure
Determine Nature of the Content 343
Determine Student Self-Reflective Guidelines and Scoring Criteria 344
Implementing Portfolio Assessment 345
REVIEW WITH STUDENTS 345 • SUPPLY PORTFOLIO CONTENT 345 • STRUCTURE
STUDENT SELF-REFLECTION 346 Evaluation and Feedback 350
CHECKLISTS OF CONTENTS 350 • PORTFOLIO STRUCTURE EVALUATION 350 • EVALUATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL ENTRIES 351 • EVALUATION OF ENTIRE CONTENTS 351 Student–Teacher Conferences
Summary 356 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 357 • Self-Instructional Review Exercises 358 • Applied Action Exercises 359 • Additional Resources for Practice 359 12
OBSERVATION
Student Self-Report Questionnaires and
13 Assessment for Students with Disabilities and Exceptionalities
Case Study
Are Social and Intrapersonal Dispositions and Skills Important?
Identifying Students for Special Education
Specific Accommodations 424
UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING (UDL) 425 • TEST DIRECTIONS, CONSTRUCTION, AND FORMAT 426
SHORT-ANSWER AND ESSAY ITEMS 427 • MULTIPLECHOICE ITEMS 428 • BINARY-CHOICE ITEMS 428 • COMPLETION ITEMS 429 • PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENTS 429 • PORTFOLIOS 430 • TEST
ADMINISTRATION 430 • TESTING SITE 430
Grading and Reporting 432
IEP GRADING 432 • SHARED GRADING 433 • CONTRACTING 433 • RUBRICS 433
Summary 435 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 436 • Self-Instructional Review
Exercises 437 • Applied Action Exercises 439 • Additional Resources for Practice 439
14 Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Assessment 440
Introductory Case Study 441 Why the Emphasis on Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Assessment? 443 Who Are “Culturally and Linguistically” Diverse Students? 444
Acculturation 445
ACCULTURATION STAGES 446 • ASSESSMENT OF ACCULTURATION 447
Assessing CLD Students 449
CLD Student Characteristics Influencing Assessment 449
LANGUAGE AND LITERACY SKILLS 449 • EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND 450 • SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 450 • RACE/ ETHNICITY 451 • CULTURAL FACTORS 451
Classroom Assessment Difficulties for CLD Students 452
DIFFICULTY COMPREHENDING TEST LANGUAGE 453 • DIFFICULTY EXPRESSING WHAT IS KNOWN 454 • LACK OF CONTENT AND CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE IN TEST ITEMS 454 • UNFAMILIARITY WITH TEST FORMATS 454 • EMOTIONAL STRESS 454
Bias and Sensitivity 454 Assessment and Grading Adjustments for Diverse Classrooms
Informal/Embedded Formative Assessment 457
LEARNING TARGETS AND CRITERIA 457 • OBSERVATIONS 457 • ASSESSING NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR AND VOCAL CUES 457 • INFORMAL ORAL QUESTIONING 458 • CODE-SWITCHING 458
STRUCTURED EXERCISES AND IN-CLASS ASSIGNMENTS 458 • PRETESTS 459 • HOMEWORK 459 • QUIZZES, UNIT TESTS, AND INTERIM ASSESSMENTS 459 • DIGITAL
Summary 465 • Introductory Case Study Answer 465
15 Grading and Reporting
WEIGHTED CATEGORIES VERSUS TOTAL POINTS METHODS 499 • USING JUDGMENT WHEN COMBINING GRADES 500 • CHEATING 501 • RECOGNIZING TEACHER FALLIBILITY 501
Reporting Student Progress to Parents/ Guardians 503
Parent/Guardian–Teacher Conferences
Student-Led Conferences 506
Summary 507 • Introductory Case Study
Answer 508 • Self-Instructional Review Exercises 509 • Applied Action Exercises 509 • Additional Resources for Practice 510
Appendix A Fundamental Descriptive Statistics and Scaled Scores 511
Appendix B Example of Student Individualized Education Program (IEP) 523
Appendix C Chapter Self-Instructional Review Exercise Answers
