FRUITCROPS DiagnosisandManagementofNutrient Constraints
EditedBy
A.K.SRIVASTAVA,Ph.D.
PrincipalScientist(SoilScience),ICAR-CentralCitrusResearchInstitute,Nagpur,India
CHENGXIAO HU,Ph.D.
Professor&PrincipalScientist(Citrusnutritionandfertilization),InstituteofCitrusScienceandCollegeofResources&Environment, HuazhongAgriculturalUniversity,Wuhan,China
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Contributors
Vojte ˇ chAdam DepartmentofChemistryandBiochemistry, FacultyofAgriSciences,MendelUniversityinBrno,Brno, CzechRepublic
RiazAhmad DepartmentofHorticulture,BahauddinZakariya University,Multan,Pakistan
SelenaAhmed TheFoodandHealthLab,Departmentof HealthandHumanDevelopment,MontanaStateUniversity, Bozeman,MT,UnitedStates
KashifAkram DepartmentofFoodSciences,CholistanUniversityofVeterinary&AnimalSciences,Bahawalpur, Pakistan
M.S.Alam HorticultureDivision,BangladeshInstituteof NuclearAgriculture,Mymensingh,Bangladesh
PaulaAlayo ´ nLuaces Fruticultura,FacultaddeCiencias Agrarias,UniversidadNacionaldelNordeste,Corrientes, Argentina
WasayfJ.Almalki DepartmentofChemicalandBiological Engineering,TheUniversityofSheffield,Sheffield,United Kingdom
MuhammadAkbarAnjum DepartmentofHorticulture, BahauddinZakariyaUniversity,Multan,Pakistan
ChrysovalantouAntonopoulou DepartmentoftheAgricultural Development,SchoolofAgriculturalandForestrySciences, DemocritusUniversityofThrace,Orestiada,Greece
Jirı´ Antos ˇ ovsky ´ DepartmentofAgrochemistry,SoilScience, MicrobiologyandPlantNutrition,FacultyofAgriSciences, MendelUniversityinBrno,Brno,CzechRepublic
MargaridaArrobas CentrodeInvestigac ¸ ãodeMontanha (CIMO),InstitutoPolitecnicodeBraganc ¸a,Braganc ¸a,Portugal Igna ´ cioAspiazu ´ StateUniversityofMontesClaros,Montes Claros,Brazil
CuihuaBai CollegeofNaturalResourcesandEnvironment, SouthChinaAgriculturalUniversity,Guangzhou,People’ s RepublicofChina
ElenaBaldi DepartmentofAgriculturalandFoodSciences, AlmaMaterStudiorumUniversityofBologna,Bologna,Italy
AllenV.Barker UniversityofMassachusetts,Amherst,MA, UnitedStates
BetinaPereiradeBem InstitutoFederaldeSantaCatarina (IFSC),Urupema,Brazil
AdalbertoBenavides-Mendoza AutonomousAgriculturalUniversityAntonioNarro,DepartmentofHorticulture,Saltillo, Mexico
MajaBenkovi UniversityofZagreb,FacultyofFoodTechnologyandBiotechnology,Zagreb,Croatia
RenatoVasconcelosBotelho AgronomyDepartment,State UniversityofMidwesternParaná Unicentro,Paraná,Brazil
AlbertoFontanellaBrighenti EmpresadePesquisaAgropecuáriaeExtensãodeRuraldeSantaCatarina(Epagri),São Joaquim,Brazil
GustavoBrunetto UniversidadeFederaldeSantaMaria (UFSM),CampusUniversitário,CentrodeCi^ enciasRurais, DepartamentodeSolos,Camobi,SantaMaria,Brazil
DavidR.Bryla U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Agricultural ResearchService,HorticulturalCropsResearchUnit, Corvallis,OR,UnitedStates
Hakan Burhan SenResearchGroup,DepartmentofBiochemistry,FacultyofArtsandScience,DumlupınarUniversity, EvliyaÇelebiCampus,Kutahya,Turkey
ThomasO.Butler DepartmentofChemicalandBiological Engineering,TheUniversityofSheffield,Sheffield,United Kingdom
MiaomiaoCai CollegeofResourcesandEnvironment/ Micro-elementResearchCenter/HubeiProvincialEngineeringLaboratoryforNewFertilizers,HuazhongAgriculturalUniversity;KeyLaboratoryofHorticultural PlantBiology(HZAU),MOE,Wuhan,People ’sRepublic ofChina
RodolfoCanet CenterfortheDevelopmentofSustainable Agriculture,ValencianInstituteofAgriculturalResearch, Valencia,Spain
LucianoCavani DepartmentofAgriculturalandFoodSciences,AlmaMaterStudiorumUniversityofBologna,Bologna,Italy
JamesChapman SchoolofMedicalandAppliedSciences, CentralQueenslandUniversity,Rockhampton,QLD, Australia
JohnM.Chater DepartmentofBotanyandPlantSciences, UniversityofCalifornia,Riverside,CA,UnitedStates
ChristosChatzissavvidis DepartmentoftheAgricultural Development,SchoolofAgriculturalandForestrySciences, DemocritusUniversityofThrace,Orestiada,Greece
JianjunChen DepartmentofEnvironmentalHorticulrtureand Mid-FloridaResearchandEducationCenter,Universityof Florida,InstituteofFoodandAgriculturalSciences,Apopka, FL,UnitedStates
Li-SongChen InstituteofPlantNutritionalPhysiologyand MolecularBiology,CollegeofResourcesandEnvironment, FujianAgricultureandForestryUniversity,Fuzhou,China
MarliseNaraCiotta EmpresadePesquisaAgropecuáriae ExtensãodeRuraldeSantaCatarina(Epagri),Lages,Brazil
JucineiJoseComin UniversidadeFederaldeSantaCatarina (UFSC),DepartamentodeEngenhariaRural,Florianópolis, Brazil
LessandroDeConti InstitutoFederaldeEducac ¸ão,Ci^ enciae TecnologiaFarroupilha CampusSantoAugusto,Santo Augusto,Brazil
Ma ´ rcioCleberdeMedeirosCorr^ ea FederalUniversityofCeará, Fortaleza,Brazil
JuanManuelCovarrubias-Ramı´rez CESAL-INIFAP,Saltillo, Mexico
DanielCozzolino SchoolofScience,RMITUniversity, Melbourne,VIC,Australia
SjoerdE.A.T.M.vanderZee SoilPhysicsandLandManagementGroup,WageningenUniversity,Wageningen,The Netherlands;SchoolofChemistry,MonashUniversity, Melbourne,VIC,Australia
JoseAridianoLimadeDeus InstituteofTechnicalAssistance andRuralExtensionofParaná(EMATER-PR),Curitiba,Brazil
SaraDiLonardo ResearchInstituteonTerrestrial Ecosystems ItalianNationalResearchCouncil(IRET-CNR), SestoFiorentino,Italy
BartolomeoDichio DepartmentofEuropeanandMediterraneanCultures:Architecture,EnvironmentandCultural Heritage(DiCEM),UniversityofBasilicata,Matera,Italy
ZhihaoDong CollegeofResourcesandEnvironment/ Micro-elementResearchCenter/HubeiProvincial EngineeringLaboratoryforNewFertilizers,Huazhong AgriculturalUniversity;KeyLaboratoryofHorticultural PlantBiology(HZAU),MOE,Wuhan,People ’sRepublic ofChina
LadislavDucsay DepartmentofAgrochemistryandPlant Nutrition,TheFacultyofAgrobiologyandFoodResources, SlovakUniversityofAgricultureinNitra,Nitra,Slovakia
MadeleineF.Dupont SchoolofScience,RMITUniversity, Melbourne,VIC,Australia
AaronElbourne SchoolofScience,RMITUniversity, Melbourne,VIC,Australia
FatimaElmusa SenResearchGroup,DepartmentofBiochemistry,FacultyofArtsandScience,DumlupınarUniversity, EvliyaÇelebiCampus,Kutahya,Turkey
JeanetteM.VanEmon EVESciences,Henderson,NV,United States
HassanEtesami Agriculture&NaturalresourcesCampus, FacultyofAgriculturalEngineering&Technology,DepartmentofSoilScience,UniversityofTehran,Tehran,Iran
Ro ´ gerFallas-Corrales SoilPhysicsandLandManagement Group,WageningenUniversity,Wageningen,The Netherlands
UmarFarooq DepartmentofFoodScience&Technology, MuhammadNawazShareefUniversityofAgriculture, Multan,Pakistan
LauraOliviaFuentes-Lara AutonomousAgriculturalUniversityAntonioNarro,DepartmentofAnimalNutrition,Saltillo, Mexico
JoseE.Gaiad Fruticultura,FacultaddeCienciasAgrarias, UniversidadNacionaldelNordeste,Corrientes,Argentina BinGao Department ofAgriculturalandBiological Engineering,UniversityofFlorida,InstituteofFoodand AgriculturalSciences,Gainesville,FL,UnitedStates
MaciejGa˛stoł DepartmentofPomologyandApiculture, AgriculturalUniversityinKraków,Kraków,Poland
MelanieD.GomezHerrera Fruticultura,FacultaddeCiencias Agrarias,UniversidadNacionaldelNordeste,Corrientes, Argentina
FulyaGulbagca SenResearchGroup,DepartmentofBiochemistry,FacultyofArtsandScience,DumlupınarUniversity,EvliyaÇelebiCampus,Kutahya,Turkey
PengGuo InstituteofPlantNutritionalPhysiologyand MolecularBiology,CollegeofResourcesandEnvironment, FujianAgricultureandForestryUniversity,Fuzhou;College ofLifeSciences,HenanAgriculturalUniversity,Zhengzhou, China
ZafarHayat DepartmentofAnimalSciences,CVAS-University ofVeterinaryandAnimalSciences,Jhang,Pakistan
Jia-DongHe CollegeofHorticultureandGardening,Yangtze University,Jingzhou,China
ChengxiaoHu CollegeofResourcesandEnvironment/MicroelementResearchCenter/HubeiProvincialEngineering LaboratoryforNewFertilizers,HuazhongAgriculturalUniversity;KeyLaboratoryofHorticulturalPlantBiology (HZAU),MOE,Wuhan,People’sRepublicofChina
AntonioIbacache InstitutodeInvestigacionesAgropecuarias (INIA),CentroRegionaldeInvestigaciónIntihuasi,LaSerena, Chile
DiegoS.Intrigliolo IrrigationDeparment,CEBAS-CSIC,Murcia;CSICAssociatedUnit “RiegoenlaagriculturaMediterránea,” InstitutoValencianodeInvestigacionesAgrarias, Moncada,Spain
MariaDelRosarioJacobo-Salcedo CENIDRASPA-INIFAP, GómezPalacio,Mexico
ByoungRyongJeong HorticultureMajor,DivisionofApplies LifeScience(BK21PlusProgram),GraduateSchool, GyeongsangNationalUniversity,Jinju,RepublicofKorea
WeiJia CollegeofResourcesandEnvironment/MicroelementResearchCenter/HubeiProvincialEngineering LaboratoryforNewFertilizers,HuazhongAgriculturalUniversity;KeyLaboratoryofHorticulturalPlantBiology (HZAU),MOE,Wuhan,People’sRepublicofChina
Huan-XinJiang InstituteofPlantNutritionalPhysiologyand MolecularBiology,CollegeofResourcesandEnvironment, FujianAgricultureandForestryUniversity,Fuzhou,China
AntonioJua ´ rez-Maldonado AutonomousAgriculturalUniversityAntonioNarro,DepartmentofBotany,Saltillo,Mexico
TamaraJurina UniversityofZagreb,FacultyofFoodTechnologyandBiotechnology,Zagreb,Croatia
DavieKadyampakeni UniversityofFlorida,InstituteofFood andAgriculturalSciences,CitrusResearchandEducation Center,LakeAlfred,FL,UnitedStates
EvangelosKaragiannis LaboratoryofPomology,Department ofAgriculture,AristotleUniversityofThessaloniki, Thessaloniki,Greece
JasenkaGajdos ˇ Kljusuric UniversityofZagreb,FacultyofFood TechnologyandBiotechnology,Zagreb,Croatia
JinxueLi CollegeofResourcesandEnvironment/MicroelementResearchCenter/HubeiProvincialEngineering LaboratoryforNewFertilizers,HuazhongAgricultural University;KeyLaboratoryofHorticulturalPlantBiology (HZAU),MOE,Wuhan,People’sRepublicofChina
WenhuanLiu NationalEngineeringResearchCenterfor CitrusTechnology/CitrusResearchInstitute,Southwest University-ChineseAcademyofAgriculturalSciences, Chongqing,China
ArcangeloLoss UniversidadeFederaldeSantaCatarina (UFSC),CentrodeCienciasAgrarias,Florianopolis,Brazil
CledimarRogerioLourenzi UniversidadeFederaldeSanta Catarina(UFSC),DepartamentodeEngenhariaRural, Florianópolis,Brazil
DonglinLuo CollegeofNaturalResourcesandEnvironment, SouthChinaAgriculturalUniversity,Guangzhou,People’ s RepublicofChina
YanYanMa NationalEngineeringResearchCenterforCitrus Technology/CitrusResearchInstitute,SouthwestUniversityChineseAcademyofAgriculturalSciences,Chongqing,China
RuiMachado ICAAM MediterraneanInstituteforAgriculturalandEnvironmentalSciences;CropSciencesDepartment, SchoolofScienceandTechnology,Universityof Evora, Evora, Portugal
VictorMartinsMaia StateUniversityofMontesClaros,Montes Claros,Brazil
BelenMartı´nez-Alca ´ ntara CertificationSection,PlantHealth Service,MinistryofAgriculture,Environment,Climate ChangeandRuralDevelopment,Valencia,Spain
RenatodeMelloPrado SãoPauloStateUniversity UNESP, Jaboticabal,Brazil
GeorgeWellingtonBastosdeMelo EmbrapaUvaeVinho,Bento Gonc ¸alves,Brazil
DonaldJ.Merhaut DepartmentofBotanyandPlantSciences, UniversityofCalifornia,Riverside,CA,UnitedStates
MichailMichailidis LaboratoryofPomology,Departmentof Agriculture,AristotleUniversityofThessaloniki,Thessaloniki,Greece
Nebojs ˇ aMilos ˇ evic DepartmentofPomologyandFruitBreeding,FruitResearchInstitute, Cacak,RepublicofSerbia
TomoMilos ˇ evic DepartmentofFruitGrowingandViticulture, FacultyofAgronomy,UniversityofKragujevac, Cacak, Republic ofSerbia
AlbaN.Mininni DepartmentofEuropeanandMediterranean Cultures:Architecture,EnvironmentandCulturalHeritage (DiCEM),UniversityofBasilicata,Matera,Italy
AthanassiosMolassiotis LaboratoryofPomology,Department ofAgriculture,AristotleUniversityofThessaloniki, Thessaloniki,Greece
IsidroMorales NationalPolytechnicInstitute,CIIDIR-Oaxaca, Oaxaca,Mexico
BabakMotesharezadeh DepartmentofSoilScience,University ofTehran,Tehran,Iran
SeyedMajidMousavi SoilandWaterResearchInstitute,AgriculturalResearch,EducationandExtensionOrganization (AREEO),Karaj,Iran
MarceloMarquesLopesMuller AgronomyDepartment,State UniversityofMidwesternParaná Unicentro,Paraná,Brazil
WilliamNatale FederalUniversityofCeará,Fortaleza,Brazil
ErikaNava-Reyna CENIDRASPA-INIFAP,GómezPalacio, Mexico
RolfNestby DivisionFoodandSociety(Horticulture),NorwegianInstituteofBioeconomy(NIBIO),Ås,Norway
Danu ´ biaAparecidaCostaNobre StateUniversityofMontes Claros,MontesClaros,Brazil
KennethNyombi MakerereUniversity,CollegeofAgricultural andEnvironmentalSciences,Kampala,Uganda
Da ´ marisLeopoldinaOjeda-Barrios AutonomousUniversityof Chihuahua,LaboratoryofPlantPhysiology,Chihuahua, Mexico
FernandaSoaresOliveira StateUniversityofMontesClaros, MontesClaros,Brazil
lbrahimOrtas ¸ UniversityofCukurova,FacultyofAgriculture, DepartmentofSoilScienceandPlantNutrition,Adana, Turkey
GloriaPadmaperuma DepartmentofChemicalandBiological Engineering,TheUniversityofSheffield,Sheffield,United Kingdom
LeonEtienneParent DepartmentofSoilandAgri-foodEngineering,UniversiteLaval,Quebec,QC,Canada
Vı´ctorManuelParga-Torres CESAL-INIFAP,Saltillo,Mexico
MargaritaParra IrrigationDeparment,CEBAS-CSIC,Murcia, Spain
Bet^ aniaVahldePaula UniversidadeFederaldeSantaMaria (UFSM),CampusUniversitário,CentrodeCi^ enciasRurais, DepartamentodeSolos,Camobi,SantaMaria,Brazil
RodineiFaccoPegoraro FederalUniversityofMinasGerais, BeloHorizonte,Brazil
AnaPerez-Piqueres CenterfortheDevelopmentofSustainable Agriculture,ValencianInstituteofAgriculturalResearch, Valencia,Spain
RaffaellaPetruccelli Institute ofBioEconomy ItalianNational ResearchCouncil(IBE-CNR),SestoFiorentino,Italy
AoifePower SchoolofMedicalandAppliedSciences,Central QueenslandUniversity,Rockhampton,QLD,Australia
JohnE.Preece NationalClonalGermplasmRepository, USDA-ARS,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,CA,United States
FangyingQiu NationalEngineeringResearchCenterforCitrus Technology/CitrusResearchInstitute,SouthwestUniversityChineseAcademyofAgriculturalSciences,Chongqing, China
AnaQuinones CenterfortheDevelopmentofSustainable Agriculture,ValencianInstituteofAgriculturalResearch, Valencia,Spain
M.A.Rahim DepartmentofHorticulture,BangladeshAgricultureUniversity,Mymensingh,Bangladesh
R.A.Ram ICAR-CentralInstituteforSubtropicalHorticulture, Lucknow,India
HermannRestrepo-Diaz DepartamentodeAgronomia,FacultaddeCienciasAgrarias,UniversidadNacionaldeColombia, Bogotá,Colombia
JorgeB.Retamales HeadISHSDivisionVineandBerryFruits, ViñadelMar,Chile
FelipeKleinRicachenevsky UniversidadeFederaldeSanta Maria(UFSM),DepartamentodeBiologia,SantaMaria,Brazil
PatriziaRicciuti DepartmentofSoil,PlantandFoodSciences (DiSSPA),UniversityofBari ‘AldoMoro’,Bari,Italy
M.A ˆ ngeloRodrigues CentrodeInvestigac ¸ ãodeMontanha (CIMO),InstitutoPolitecnicodeBraganc ¸a,Braganc ¸a,Portugal
IsabelRodrı´guez-Carretero CenterfortheDevelopmentof SustainableAgriculture,ValencianInstituteofAgricultural Research,Valencia,Spain
DaniloEduardoRozane SãoPauloStateUniversity,UNESP, Registro,Brazil
JoseS.Rubio-Asensio IrrigationDeparment,CEBAS-CSIC, Murcia,Spain
PavelRyant DepartmentofAgrochemistry,SoilScience, MicrobiologyandPlantNutrition,FacultyofAgriSciences, MendelUniversityinBrno,Brno,CzechRepublic
AlefsiDavidSa ´ nchez-Reinoso DepartamentodeAgronomia, FacultaddeCienciasAgrarias,UniversidadNacionalde Colombia,Bogotá,Colombia
AlbertoSandoval-Rangel AutonomousAgriculturalUniversity AntonioNarro,DepartmentofHorticulture,Saltillo,Mexico
EvaSapa ´ kova ´ DepartmentofLanguages,FacultyofRegional DevelopmentandInternationalStudies,MendelUniversityin Brno,Brno,CzechRepublic
DjalmaEug^ enioSchmitt UniversidadeFederaldeSanta Catarina(UFSC),Curitibanos,Brazil
FatihSen SenResearchGroup,DepartmentofBiochemistry, FacultyofArtsandScience,DumlupınarUniversity,Evliya ÇelebiCampus,Kutahya,Turkey
RicardoSerralheiro ICAAM MediterraneanInstitutefor AgriculturalandEnvironmentalSciences;Agricultural EngineeringDepartment,SchoolofScienceandTechnology, Universityof Evora, Evora,Portugal
AfshanShafi DepartmentofFoodScience&Technology, MuhammadNawazShareefUniversityofAgriculture, Multan,Pakistan
Bo Shu CollegeofHorticultureandGardening,Yangtze University,Jingzhou,China
FaqihA.B.AhmadShuhaili DepartmentofChemicaland BiologicalEngineering,TheUniversityofSheffield,Sheffield, UnitedKingdom
PetrS ˇ karpa DepartmentofAgrochemistry,SoilScience, MicrobiologyandPlantNutrition,FacultyofAgriSciences, MendelUniversityinBrno,Brno,CzechRepublic
AdrianoSofo DepartmentofEuropeanandMediterranean Cultures:Architecture,EnvironmentandCulturalHeritage (DiCEM),UniversityofBasilicata,Matera,Italy
GiovambattistaSorrenti DepartmentofAgriculturalandFood Sciences,AlmaMaterStudiorumUniversityofBologna, Bologna,Italy
AndreLuizKulkampdeSouza EmpresadePesquisaAgropecuáriaeExtensãoRuraldeSantaCatarina(Epagri),Videira, Brazil
MatheusSeverodeSouzaKulmann UniversidadeFederalde SantaMaria(UFSM),CampusUniversitário,Centrode Ci^ enciasRurais,DepartamentodeSolos,Camobi,Santa Maria,Brazil
A.K.Srivastava IndianCouncilofAgriculturalResearchCentralCitrusResearchInstitute,Nagpur,India
LinconOliveiraStefanello UniversidadeFederaldeSanta Maria(UFSM),CampusUniversitário,CentrodeCiencias Rurais,DepartamentodeSolos,Camobi,SantaMaria,Brazil
AlyssaL.Stewart TheFoodandHealthLab,Departmentof HealthandHumanDevelopment,MontanaStateUniversity, Bozeman,MT,UnitedStates
MargieL.Stratton*
QilingTan CollegeofResourcesandEnvironment/MicroelementResearchCenter/HubeiProvincialEngineering LaboratoryforNewFertilizers,HuazhongAgriculturalUniversity,Wuhan,People’sRepublicofChina
NingTang InstituteofPlantNutritionalPhysiologyand MolecularBiology,CollegeofResourcesandEnvironment, FujianAgricultureandForestryUniversity,Fuzhou;Research InstituteforSpecialPlants,ChongqingUniversityofArtsand Sciences,Chongqing,China
GeorgiaTanou InstituteofSoilandWaterResources,ELGODEMETER,Thessaloniki,Greece
AdrieleTassinari UniversidadeFederaldeSantaMaria (UFSM),CampusUniversitário,CentrodeCi^ enciasRurais, DepartamentodeSolos,Camobi,SantaMaria,Brazil
TadeuLuisTiecher InstitutoFederalFarroupilha,Campus Alegrete,Alegrete,Brazil
MorenoToselli DepartmentofAgriculturalandFoodSciences, AlmaMaterStudiorumUniversityofBologna,Bologna,Italy
ViKhanhTruong SchoolofScience,RMITUniversity, Melbourne,VIC,Australia
Matjaz ˇ Turinek UniversityofMaribor,Maribor,Slovenia
AnaJurinjakTus ˇ ek UniversityofZagreb,FacultyofFood TechnologyandBiotechnology,Zagreb,Croatia
*Retired
SeetharamanVaidyanathan DepartmentofChemicalandBiologicalEngineering,TheUniversityofSheffield,Sheffield, UnitedKingdom
DavorValinger UniversityofZagreb,FacultyofFood TechnologyandBiotechnology,Zagreb,Croatia
TriptiVashisth UniversityofFlorida,InstituteofFoodand AgriculturalSciences,CitrusResearchandEducationCenter, LakeAlfred,FL,UnitedStates
Nicola ´ sVerdugo-Va ´ squez InstitutodeInvestigacionesAgropecuarias(INIA),CentroRegionaldeInvestigaciónIntihuasi, LaSerena,Chile
ZonghuaWang InstituteofOceanography,MinjiangUniversity;FujianUniversityKeyLaboratoryforPlant-Microbe Interaction,FujianAgricultureandForestryUniversity, Fuzhou,China
XiangyingWei InstituteofOceanography,MinjiangUniversity;FujianUniversityKeyLaboratoryforPlant-Microbe Interaction,FujianAgricultureandForestryUniversity, Fuzhou,China;DepartmentofEnvironmentalHorticulrture andMid-FloridaResearchandEducationCenter,University ofFlorida,InstituteofFoodandAgriculturalSciences, Apopka,FL,UnitedStates
Qiang-ShengWu CollegeofHorticultureandGardening, YangtzeUniversity,Jingzhou,China
CristosXiloyannis DepartmentofEuropeanand MediterraneanCultures:Architecture,Environmentand CulturalHeritage(DiCEM),UniversityofBasilicata,Matera, Italy
Lin-TongYang InstituteofPlantNutritionalPhysiologyand MolecularBiology,CollegeofResourcesandEnvironment, FujianAgricultureandForestryUniversity,Fuzhou,China
LixianYao CollegeofNaturalResourcesandEnvironment, SouthChinaAgriculturalUniversity,Guangzhou,People’ s RepublicofChina
JovaniZalamena InstitutoFederaldoRioGrandedoSul (IFRS) CampusRestinga,PortoAlegre,Brazil
TingZhan CollegeofResourcesandEnvironment/MicroelementResearchCenter/HubeiProvincialEngineering LaboratoryforNewFertilizers,HuazhongAgricultural University;KeyLaboratoryofHorticulturalPlantBiology (HZAU),MOE,Wuhan,People’sRepublicofChina
YuanyuanZhao CollegeofResourcesandEnvironment/ Micro-elementResearchCenter/HubeiProvincial EngineeringLaboratoryforNewFertilizers,Huazhong AgriculturalUniversity;KeyLaboratoryofHorticultural PlantBiology(HZAU),MOE,Wuhan,People’sRepublic ofChina
YongqiangZheng CitrusResearchInstitute,Southwest University-ChineseAcademyofAgriculturalSciences, Chongqing,China
VasileiosZiogas InstituteofOliveTree,SubtropicalPlantsand Viticulture,HellenicAgriculturalOrganization(H.A.O.) Demeter,Chania,Greece
AndresZurita-Silva InstitutodeInvestigacionesAgropecuarias(INIA),CentroRegionaldeInvestigaciónIntihuasi,La Serena,Chile
Fruitsandnutritionalsecurity
UmarFarooqa,*,AfshanShafia,KashifAkramb,ZafarHayatc
aDepartmentofFoodScience&Technology,MuhammadNawazShareefUniversityofAgriculture,Multan,Pakistan bDepartmentofFoodSciences,CholistanUniversityofVeterinary&AnimalSciences,Bahawalpur,Pakistan cDepartmentofAnimalSciences,CVAS-UniversityofVeterinaryandAnimalSciences,Jhang,Pakistan *Correspondingauthor.E-mail:ufd302003@gmail.com
Theconceptofnutritionalsecurityisdifficulttodefineduetoitscomplex,broad,andmultidimensionalnature. Foodavailability,affordability,access,safety,anditsstabilityarethebasicpillarsordimensionsoffoodsecurity. Italsohasmultidisciplinarynaturewiththeinvolvementofavarietyofstakeholderswithnationalandinternational status(Candel,2014; Hendriks,2015).Foodavailabilityreferstothesupplyofqualityfoodwithsufficientquantity, andaccessisconcernedwithsocioeconomicstatusofindividualstopurchaseappropriatefoodstomeetnutritional requirements.Similarly,thestabilityinfoodsecurityisreferredtotheachievementofasituationwhereanindividual orwholepopulationhasaccesstoadequatefoodallthetime(FAO,2006).Thesepillarsoffoodsecurityareinterconnected,forexample,foodaccessisnotpossiblewithoutfoodavailabilityandfoodutilizationislinkedwithfoodaccess (Hendriks,2015).Whenpersonalneedsofsufficient,safe,andwholesomefoodarefulfilledforhealthyandactivelife allthetime,thenthepersonisconsideredasfoodsecured.Asperdefinitionsoffoodsecurity,onlyapersonshouldnot haveaccesstofood;instead,thefoodmustalsofulfilltheenergyandnutritionalrequirementsofthebodytoprevent thesituationofmalnutrition.Incurrentscenario,thefoodsecurityhasbecomeamajorissuenotonlyforthedevelopingcountriesbutalsoforthedevelopedcountries.Notonlythesolutionsforsuchacomplexproblemshouldconsidertheenvironmentalandtechnicalperspectives,butalsothenationsshouldlookattheeconomic,social,and politicalaspectstohandlethesituationoffoodinsecurity(Termeeretal.,2015).
Theconcernsoffoodsecurityarenotonlyfocusedontheprevailingconditionsbutalsorelatedtothefuturechallengesoffeedingofrapidlyincreasingworldpopulation(IFPRI,2015).Theresearchfindingshaveindicatedthatthere isacontinuousexperienceoffoodinsecurity.Thefirstorprimaryindicatoroffoodinsecurityisconsideredtobethe shortageorpoverty,whichreflectstheissuesrelatedtofoodavailabilityandaccess.Tocoversuchsituation,thepeople
trytofindoutthewaystocutfoodconsumption.Thisleadstotheusageofcheaperandenergydensefoodcommoditiestofulfilltheenergyrequirementsofthebody,whichresultsinhiddenhungerthroughmalnutritionofspecific nutrientsespeciallythemicronutrients.Thedeficienciesofsuchvitalnutrientsleadtoacutehunger,andsuchsituation isknownasacutefoodinsecurity(Hendriks,2015).
Thereareanumberofidentifiedreasonsforfoodinsecurity,andthemajorfocusofthenationsistoimprovethe economicstatusoftheindividualsothateachpersonmayhavethecapacityofpurchasing.Theothermajortargetisto ensurefoodavailabilitytofeedthewholeworld.Tocombatsuchsituationsoffoodinsecurity,anumberofprograms arebeinglaunchedbythegovernmentandnongovernmentorganizationstofightagainstfoodandnutritioninsecurity (Tanumihardjoetal.,2007).However,theseprogramshavebeenfoundtobelittlefruitfulinreducingfoodinsecurity andfailedtoaddressthechallengesofnutritioninsecurity(Learetal.,2014; Shisanaetal.,2014).Theseprogramshave beenunabletocombatbothfoodandnutritioninsecurities(Khouryetal.,2014).Thebasicreasonbehindthesituations isbasicallythelackoffooddiversification.Thepeoplerelyononlylimitedfoodsspeciallythestaplefoodsoftheir respectiveregions,whichleadtonutritionalinsecurities.Althoughdifferentprogramsoffoodfortificationandsupplementationhavebeenlaunchedallovertheworld,however,theseprogramsarealsolimitedtothefortificationof specifictargetednutrients,andultimately,theconsumerfailstogetallnecessarynutrientsrequiredforahealthylife (Popkinetal.,2012).Thus,theconsumptionofonlystaplefoodoveralongperiodleadstoanumberofhealthdiseases anddisordersduetothesituationofundernutrition(SmithandHaddad,2015; PapathakisandPearson,2012).Dueto thefact,about800millionpeopleallovertheworldareconsideredtobeundernourishedwithtwobillionpeoplesufferingfrommicronutrientdeficiencies.Similarly,duetounbalanceddiet,1.9billionpeopleareoverweightalloverthe globe,andoneoutofeverythreepersonsismalnourished(IFPRI,2015).
Thepoordietsmostlybasedonstaplefoodsarethecommonsourcesofhiddenhungerassuchdietsnodoubtprovideenoughenergyforbodybutfailtoprovideallessentialnutrientslikevitaminsandminerals.Thepeoplesuffering fromhiddenhungerhavenotenoughawarenessabouttheimportanceofbalanceddiet,ortheymaynothaveenough accesstowiderangeofnutritiousfoods(animalandplantbased)duetoanyreason.Thepovertyandhighpricescould beamongthebasicfactorsthattendtheconsumertocontinuelongtimeintakeofstaplefoodswithreducedoreven zerointakeofnonstaplefoods,whichresultinnutritioninsecurity(Bouisetal.,2011).Themajorreasonsofnutritional foodinsecurityarehighlightedin Fig.1.1.Thesesituationsnecessitatetheintakeofnonstaplefoodslikefruitstomeet theneedsofnutrient-basedfoodsecurity.Fruitsandvegetableshaveimportantroleintheprovisionofahealthydiet, anddailyintakeofsuchnonstaplefoodshelpstocontrolandmanageanumberofhumandiseasesandhealthdisorders.Withintakeoffruitsandvegetables,2.7millionlivescouldbesavedthroughthepreventionofchronicdiseases alongwithalleviationofnutritionaldeficienciesrelatedtomicronutrients(WHO,2003).
Differentstrategieshavebeenadoptedtocombatthes ituationofhiddenhunger.Thestrategiesmayinclude fortification,biofortification,supplementation,anddiversification.Thediversificationindietanddietpattern seemstobeoneoftheeffectivemethodstocontrolhiddenhun ger.Thisdietdiversificat ionhasalsopositiveeffect
FIG.1.1 Determinantsofnutritionalinsecurity. ModifiedfromAijaz,R.,2017.PreventinghungerandmalnutritioninIndia.ORFIssueBrief182, pp.1–12.
onchildnutritionaloutcomesevenwhencontrollingfors ocioeconomicfactors.Thedietarydiversificationno doubtensuresahealthyandbalanceddietwithcombina tionofmacro-andmicronutrientsthroughawiderange offoodchoicesincludingfruits.
2Fruits
Fruitsaretheessentialpartofhealthylifestyleandcrucialpartofsafeandhealthydiet.Asperrecommendationsof theWHO,ithasbeenreportedthatthelessconsumptionoffruitsleadstowardvariousmetabolicdisordersespecially cardiovascularssuchas11%heartstrokesand31%ischemicheartdiseaseglobally.Onthebasisofaforementioned facts,itwasalsopredictedthatdailyconsumptionoffruitsmaycanprotectmorethan2.7millionpeopleannually. Therapeuticsignificantoffruitsalsoprovedmightbeduetothecharacteristicsoflowcalories,highnutritionalcontents,dietaryfibers,androbustbiologicallyactivecompound.Thesecharacteristicsoffruitsmakethemabletocurea numberofdisordersandimprovehealthstatusofcommunity(Duetal.,2011).
2.1Nutritionalcomponentsoffruits
Fruitsarenotonlythemostacceptablefortheirdelightfultastebutalsopossessanumberoftherapeuticbenefits containingfrequentnutrients(Buachanetal.,2014; SlavinandLloyd,2012).Awidevarietyoffruitscontainsignificant amountofascorbicacidorvitaminClikecitrusfruits(orangeandmandarin).VitaminCispresentinabundantquantityincitrusfruitsthatonlyonemandarincanaccomplishtherecommendeddailyallowance(RDA)ofvitaminCfora normalhumanbeing.Similarly,otherfruitsarerichwithsomeotherspecificnutrients.Generally,fruitscontain 70%–80%moisture,1.5%proteins,13%–15%carbohydrates,upto6%dietaryfibers,501mgminerals,andupto 90mgvitamins(Fig.1.2).Butthiscompositionvarieswithfruittofruitandvarietytovarietysuchasmangofruitthat containsnearly81%moisture,0.4%fat,0.6%protein,and0.8%fibers.
Italsocontainsnearly17%ofcarbohydrates.Fruitsalsocontainaperishableamountofmineralslikemagnesium, potassium,sodium,phosphorus,andsulfur.Similarly,guavacomprises77%–86%moisturecontent,whereasthe remainingnutrientsincludecrudefiber(2.8%–5.5%),protein(0.9%–1.0%),fat(0.1–%0.5%),minerals(0.43%–0.7%), andcarbohydrate(9.5%–10%),anditalsocontainsvitaminsandminerals.Thiscompositionofguavafruitdiffers significantlywithseason,maturitystage,productiontechnology,andvariety(Mandaletal.,2009; Jimenez-Escrig etal.,2001).Itisagoodsourceofdietaryfiber,dietaryminerals(potassium,manganese,andcopper),andvitamins (A,C,andfolicacid)(Hassimottoetal.,2005).Thisfruitisalsocalled “superfruit” asithasconsiderableamountsof vitaminAandC(Suntornsuketal.,2002).ExceptvitaminC,agoodquantityofothernutrientssuchasfolatecarotenoidsandpotassiumisalsopresentinmanyfruits. β-Cryptoxanthinand β-carotenearetheknownprecursorsof
FIG.1.2 Phytonutrientstree. ModifiedfromFFL(FoodFitforLiving),2016.Phytonutrients Nature’sUnknownSoldiers.Availablefrom: http://www. foodfitforliving.com/thisweekatfffl/2016/1/9/week-13-phytonutrients-atures-unknown-soldiers.(Accessed27January2019).
TABLE1.1 Nutritionalcompositionofvariousfruits(NationalNutrientDatabaseforStandardReference,2018).
NutrientAppleGuavaMangoCitrusPomegranatePearPeachBananaWatermelonApricot Carbohydrates17.3g14.32g25g11.8g18.70g27g16.7g22.84%21g11.12g
Proteins0.3g2.55g1g0.9g1.67g1g1.4g1.09%1g1.4g Lipids0.2g0.95g0.5g0.1g1.17g0%0.4g0.33%0g0.39g
Vitamins
Minerals
Fiber3.0g5.4g3g2.4g4.0g5%3.1g2.6%1g
vitaminAandareclassifiedunderthecategoryofcarotenoids(Aldegueretal.,2014).Thenutritionalcompositionof variousfruitsisshownin Table1.1
2.1.1Lipids
Amoleculeofnutritivefatnormallycontainsanumberoffattyacids(havinglongchainsofhydrogenandcarbon atoms),attachedwithglycerol.Theyarenormallyfoundastriglycerides(threefattyacidsbondedwithoneglycerol backbone).Inhumandiet,aminimumoftwofattyacidsisimportant.Asuitablebalanceofessentialfattyacids omega-6andomega-3fattyacids looksalsoimportantforhealth,thoughconclusiveexperimentaldemonstration hasbeenelusive.Amongthese “ omega ” long-chainpolyunsaturatedfattyacidsaresubstratesforaclassofeicosanoids calledasprostaglandins,whichplayamajorroleinthehumanbody.Fruitslikebanana,grapes,custardapples,ber, andcashewnutaregoodsourcesoffat(Chadha,2007).
2.1.2Water
Wateressentialtonormalbodyfunctionsasavehicleforcarryingothernutrients.Thehumanbodyconsistsof60% water,whichiscrucialfortheproperphysiologyofthehumanbody.Fruitsaretherichestsourceofwaterasthey contain70%–80%watercontents(Desjardins,2007).pt?>
2.1.3Proteins
Proteinsarethebasisofmanyanimalbodystructures(e.g.,muscles,skin,andhair)andformtheenzymes,which catalyzechemicalreactionsthroughoutthebody.Thesefoodsarethebuildingblocksofthebody.Theseareimportant forbodydevelopment.Lackofproteinsinthebodyisresponsibleforstuntedgrowth,increasedchancesofdiseases, andlethargy.Proteinmoleculesconsistofaminoacidshavingnitrogenandsometimessulfur(duringburningofprotein,adistinctivesmellisproducedduetothesecomponents,suchasthekeratininhair).Toproducenewproteins (proteinretention)andexchangedamagedproteins(maintenance),aminoacidsmustberequiredinthehumanbody. Indigestivejuices,aminoacidsaresolubleinsmallintestine,wheretheyareabsorbedintotheblood.Theycannotbe storedinthebodyafterabsorption,sotheyareeithermetabolizedasrequiredorexcretedintheurine.Theaverage adultrequires1gramofproteinperkilogramofbodyweightperday;childrenmayrequiretwotothreetimesofthis amount.Cashewnut,almond,filbert,pecan,pistachio,andwalnutarerichinprotein.Cashewnutistherichestsource ofproteinamongfruits(Kazietal.,2015).
2.1.4Carbohydrates
Carbohydratesareamongthemostimportantnutritionalcomponentsoffruitwithdominatingcontentsofglucose, fructose,andsucrose.Amongfiberconstituents,pectinisthemajorcomponentpresentinfruits,whichmakes65%–70%ofthetotalfiber.Othercomponentsofthefiberlikecellulose,lignin,hemicellulose,andgumsarealsopartoftotal fiber.Duetoimproperbloodglucosemetabolism,hyperglycemia(highbloodglucose)orhypoglycemia(lowblood glucose)mayappear(Mayesetal.,2011).
2.1.5Ascorbicacid(vitaminC)
VitaminCisacategoryofascorbicacidandisincludedinthegroupofwater-solublevitamins.Inthehuman body,thevitaminCtakespartintheformationofcollagen,whichisthemaincomponentofconnectivetissues.In theconsequences,thedeficiencyofthisvitamincausesweaknessoftissues.VitaminCalsoaidsintheironabsorption.Byusingcitrusproducts,wecancontrolcoldandanemia.TheantioxidativeactivityofvitaminCiswell
recognized,andduetothisbehavior,itisconsideredtoberesponsibleinpreventingtheoxidationoffattyacids,protein,andDNA.Astheseradicalsareresponsiblefordiseaseslikecancer,cardiovasculardiseases(CVD),andcataract formation,vitaminCcanplayroleinthemanagementofthesediseasesaswell.The10gdailyintakeofvitaminCis consideredtobeeffectiveforprohibitionofitsdeficiencies.HighamountofvitaminCmaybehazardousasitmay producedangerofironload(FordandGiles,2000).
2.1.6Folicacid
Folicacidisalsoknownasfoliate.Thiswater-solublevitaminisassociatedwithcellmetabolism.Folicacidhelpsin DNA,RNA,andhemoglobinformationandhaskeyroleinanemiaprevention.Byusing400 μgfolicacid,thedefectsof naturaltubecanbeprevented,and225mLoffreshorangejuicehas75 μgfolicacid(NIH,2018).
2.1.7Potassium
Potassiumcontrolstheacid-basebalanceofthebody.Bloodpressureofthebodyisnormallyassociatedwithminerals.Accordingtodailyrequirementallowance,2000mgofpotassiumshouldbetakenondailybasis.Byusingcitrus fruitproductsandjuices,wecanimprovetheintakeofpotassium.A235mgofpotassiumcomesbydrinking225mL glassoforangejuice(DuarteandPaull,2015).
2.2Bioactivecompoundsinfruits
Itplaysaroleagainstfreeradicalsandpreventsthebodyfromfreeradicals.Itprotectsagainstthedegenerativesicknessessuchasmelanomaandcataracts.Italsoplaysaroleinboostingimmunesystem,ironabsorption, andbovinecollagendevelopment.Bovinecollagenplaysaroleinbonefortificationandligamentandwoundhealing (Liuetal.,2012).
2.2.1Phytochemicals
Fruitsareknownastheamazingnaturalmedicinesduetothepresenceofmanybioactivecompoundslikeflavonoids,vitamins,minerals,anthocyanins,andothercompounds(Halliwell,2006).Thesebioactivecompoundsprevent fruitfrompathogensandareresponsibleforfruitflavorandfruitcolor.Atthesametime,theseplayanimportantrole inthepreventionofmanychronicdiseases.However,thedebatablediscussioniswhethertheextractsfromfruitsrich ofphytochemicalshaveequalbeneficialapproachtowardhumanhealthasachievablethroughwholefoodhaving phytochemicalorthemixtureoffoods.Ithasbeeninvestigatedbytheresearchersthatdifferentportionsoffruitshave differentlevelsofphytochemicals.Forexample,theapplepeelonlycontributes0.4%antioxidantactivityduetovitaminCascomparedwiththewholeantioxidantactivitythatclearlyindicatesthatthemostoftheantioxidantactivityis contributedbyothercompoundslikephenolicsandflavonoids(Liu,2003).So,allthephytochemicalsplayanimportantroleinfunctionaloutcomesofthefruits.Theclassificationofphytonutrientspresentsinfruitsandotherfoodcommoditiesiselaboratedin Fig.1.2.Studiesalsopredictedthatthetwophytochemicals(quercetinandellagicacid)in strawberrieswerefoundresponsibleforanticancerandantimicrobialactivitybyblockingthesuppressprogression, initiationofcarcinogenesis,andtumorproliferation(DennyandButtriss,2007).
2.2.2Phenolics
Thephytochemicalslikephenolicarepresentinfruits,andduetoprotectivebiologicalfunctionsofthephenolic,the fruitshaveprimeimportanceindiettherapiesandshouldbeincludedindietpattern.Thephenoliccompoundsare evenpresentintheby-productsoffruitsandinthefruitindustrywastes.Anumberofphenoliccompoundshavebeen foundinthepeelsofvariousfruits(Schieberetal.,2001).Thefruitslikegrapes,apples,raspberries,cranberries,and strawberriesandalsotheirdrinkssuchasorangeandapplejuicesaregoodsourcesofphenolics.Thesecompounds offerverystrongfactsofantimicrobialsuniqueness(UrquiagaandLeighton,2000).
2.2.3Phenolicacid
Applecontainsphenolicacidsthataredihydrochalcones(phloretinglycosides),caffeicacid(chlorogenicacid),and p-coumaricacid(p-coumaryl-quinicacid);botharepresentwithquinicacidintheiresterifiedform(Awadetal.,2000; Thielenetal.,2005).
2.2.4Flavonoids
Flavonoidsarecomposedofcarbonatomswith15innumber,andthesecarbonatomsareorderedinaC6-C3-C6 configuration.Theseareconsideredaslow-molecular-weightcompounds.Physically,flavonoidsaremadeupoftwo rings(aromatic),whichareunitedthroughthreecarbonbridgesleadingtoheterocyclicringstructure(Balasundram etal.,2006).
Flavonoids(orbioflavonoid)areplacedinthelistof secondarymetabolites of plant andareabundantlypresentin theplantcells,whichareresponsibleforphotosynthesis.Thesecompoundsarealsopresentindifferentpartsofaplant likeleaves,stem,fruit,seeds,andflower.Theyareresponsibleforthecoloroftheflowers.Asperclassificationof IUPAC,thesecompoundscanbefurthercategorizedinto flavones (e.g.,rutinand quercetin), isoflavonoids,and neoflavonoids (Viuda-Martosetal.,2010).
Thetwomainsubtypesofapplepolyphenolsareflavonoidsandphenolicacids.Appleisagoodsourceofthese compounds,andthemostimportantflavonoidsinappleareepicatechin,catechin,quercetins,andproanthocyanidins, whicharetheiroligomers.Thesetypesofphenolshaveastringencyandbitternessinapple(Thielenetal.,2005).
2.2.5Tannins
Tanninsarepolyphenoliccompoundsthatarehighinmolecularweightandsolubleinwater.Duetothepresenceof largenumberofhydroxylgroups,thetanninshavetheabilitytobindwithcarbohydratesandproteinsbutuptolimitedlevels.Tanninsarefurtherclassifiedintotwomaingroups:nonhydrolyzabletanninsandhydrolyzabletannins. Hydrolyzabletanninsareactuallygallicacidesters;afterconsumption,theyareconvertedintogallicacidandthen absorbintodigestivetract.Condensedtanninsarehighinmolecularweightcompoundandcontaincatechinpolymers (Hassanpouretal.,2011).
2.2.6Anthocyanins
Anthocyaninsarethemostimportantandprevalentgroupofflavonoidsfoundinpomegranatearils.Thesecompoundsareresponsiblefortheredcolorofjuiceandfruit.Anthocyaninsarewatersolubleandarepolyhydroxyland polymethoxylglucosidicderivativesof2-phenylbenzopyryliumsaltorflavyliumsalts.Theyarepresentinfruitsand aretitledasdelphinidin,malvidin,cyanidin,pelargonidin,petunidin,andpeonidin.Duetothenumberandlocationof hydroxylgroup,eachanthocyaninwasdifferentfromother.Thedifferenceineachanthocyaninarisesfromthepositionandnumberofhydroxylgroups,thelocation,thelevelofmethylationofthehydroxylgroups,numberandnature ofattachedsugars,andaliphaticoraromaticacidsboundtothesugarsinthemolecule(Afaqetal.,2005).
3Therapeuticbenefitsoffruits
Thereisastrongconsiderationregardingutilizationoffruitsandpositiveimpactonhealthstatus(Table1.2).Epidemiologicalresearchstudieshavedemonstratedthehealth-promotingactivitiesoffruitssuchasanticancerproperties,asthma-curingability,cardiovascularprotectiveeffect,antioxidative,antihypercholesterolemic,immunity boostingeffect,antidiabetic,anddigestion-improvingcharacteristics(Saitoetal.,2002).
3.1Anticancerproperties
Manyfruitshaveanticancerpropertiesduetothepresenceofbioactivecompounds,whichworkagainstcancerous cells. SunandLiu(2008) stronglyrecommendedthatthefrequentconsumptionofappleminimizesthethreatofthe occurrenceofcancerespeciallybreastandcoloncancers.Anotherstudywasconductedby Liuetal.(2008) toexpose theeffectofappleextractoncancerouscellsinrats.Resultsofthestudyrevealedthatappleextracthasthepotentialto reducethetumorsizeinrats.Theysuggestedonthebasisoftheresultsoftheirstudythatwholeapple(peel,pomace, andpulp)hasthepotentialtostopthegrowthofcancerouscellsandtoreducethepossibilityofvarioustypesofcancerslikelungcancer,prostatecancer,andcoloncancer.
SunandLiu(2008) performedaresearchexperimentonanticancereffectofbioactivecompoundsofvariouspartsof apple.Theybasicallyseparatedbiologicallyactivecompoundssuchasphenolicsandflavonoidsfromthedifferent partsofapple.Then,thesebioactivecompoundswereevaluatedfortheirpotentialphysiologicaleffects.Results indicatedthatthreephenoliccomponentsandsixflavonoidcompoundswerefoundtobepresentinapplepeel.
TABLE1.2 Healthbenefitsofsomephytonutrientspresentinfruits(Abuajahetal.,2014; Tanveeretal.,2017; Dolkaretal.,2017).
PhytonutrientsCompound Sources
FLAVONOIDS
Quercetin
Kaempferol
Healthbenefits
Grapefruit,apple,cranberriesWorksasantidiabeticbymediationofglucosetransporter
Strawberries,gooseberries, cranberries,grapefruit,apple
Myricetin Grapes,berries,walnuts
Rutin
Citrusfruits,oranges,lemon,berries, limes,grapefruit,peaches,apples
Hesperidin Citrusfruits
Naringenin Citrusfruits
Tangeritin Citrus
Catechin Grapes,applejuice
Epigallocatechin gallate Pomegranatejuice
Anthocyaninsand anthocyanidins
Bilberry,raspberry,strawberry,black currants,peach,plum
Flavonones Citrusfruit
Flavonols Apple
PhenolicacidsBerries
Possessesantidiabeticactivityduetoinvolvementinimproved insulinsecretion
Helpsincontrollingdiabetesbyimprovinginsulinsensitivity
Hasfreeradicalscavengingactivity,helpfulinthepreventionof oxidativestressandinhibitionoflipidperoxidation
Effectivelyincreasestheconcentrationofglycogenand glycolysis(hepatic)
ActsasantihyperlipidemicbyincreasingexpressionofLDL receptor,reducestheglucoseuptakefromintestine
Increasesphosphorylationandaltersthesecretionsofleptin, adiponectin,etc.
Hasantidiabeticpotentialandpreventshighbloodglucose levels
Helpsenhancetheexpressionofinsulinreceptor
Improvetheinsulinsensitivity,neutralizefreeradicalsand ultimatelyreduceriskofcancer,workasantiinflammatory
Possessantioxidantandanticanceractivity
Serveasantioxidant
Helpinthepreventionofcancerandhaveantioxidantactivity
Resveratrol Darkgrapes,raisins,peanut,berriesHasantidiabeticandantihyperlipidemicpotentials
Curcumin Turmericroot
Ferulicacid Apple,pears,citrusfruit
ProanthocyanidinesCranberries
CAROTENOIDS
Lycopene Grapefruit,guava,papaya, watermelon
α-and β-caroteneSomefruits
Zeaxanthin Citrusfruits
DIETARYFIBER
InsolublefiberNuts
SolublefiberSomefruit
Hasantioxidative,antiinflammatory,andanticlotting potentials
Improveseyevisionandiseffectiveagainstheartdiseases
Helpinthemanagementofcardiovasculardiseaseandurinary tractdisorders
Hasantioxidativeandanticanceractivities
Hasabilitytoneutralizefreeradicals
Providesprotectiontoeyesagainstmusculardegeneration
Hasanticancerpotentials
Possessesanticanceractivities,improvesdigestivetractand managementofcardiovasculardiseases
Thetherapeuticevaluationofbioactivecompoundsshowedsignificantantiproliferativepotentialandstrongantioxidativepropertyagainstthelinesofcancercells.
Similarly,citrusfruitscontainaperishableamountofvitaminC,whichpossessedanexcellentanticancerproperties. VitaminCorascorbicacidhasmarvelousdefensivemodeofactionagainstcancerorcarcinogens(Rafiqetal.,2018).
3.2Cardiovascularprotection
Cardiovasculardisordersincludingheartattack,stroke,andveinblockageareincreasingdaybydayglobally.One ofthemainreasonsofthesedisordersisunhealthydietpattern(RyeandBarter,2014). Auclairetal.(2008) recommendedthefrequentconsumptionoffruitsindailydietafterperformingresearchexperimentoncardiovasculardiseases.Inthereportedstudy,theeffectoffruitextractwasevaluatedagainstatheroscroticlesionsinmousemodel. Theresultsoftheexperimentrevealedthatfruitextracthasastrongpotentialtoreducetheatheroscleroticlesions (fattybuildup)about38%inatheroscroticmouse.Resultsconcludedthatfruitspossessedsignificanttherapeutic characteristics,andthesetherapeuticpropertiesoffruitsmightbeduetothepresenceofphenoliccontents.
Likewise, Griepetal.(2013b) illustratedtheimportanceofcitrusfruitanditsproductsonthebasisofmedicalevidences.Theysuggestedonthebasisoftheirresultsthatcitrusfruitsreducetheriskofcardiovasculardisordersand regulatebloodpressure.Theyalsorecommendedtheconsumptionofcitrusfruitsincombinationwithotherfruits, whichmightbemoreeffective.
Chanetal.(2006) reportedthatapricotphenoliccompoundslikelycopene,chlorogenicacid,and β-carotenealleviatetheoxidationoflow-densitylipoproteins(LDL),thusimprovingtheantioxidantordefensemechanismofbody. Thisantioxidantmechanismdiminishesthedangerofemergingatherosclerosisandcoronaryheartdisease.
3.3Hypercholesterolemia
Hypercholesterolemiaisdefinedashighlevelofcholesterolinbloodstreamthatresultsincardiovasculardiseases. Wholefruitshaveextraordinarynutraceuticalvaluebecausenutrientsarepresentindifferentpartsoffruits,soitcan preventatherosclerosismoreeffectively(Chahoudetal.,2004).Totaldietaryfiberbothsolubleandinsolubleandsome otherbioactivecompoundsarealsoresponsibletomanagehypercholesterolemia(Gorinsteinetal.,2000).Various fruitshavetheabilitytoreduceplasmacholesterol.Forexample,medicalevidencesprovedthattheconsumption of100-gpersimmonregularlyinhibitstheformationofplaque/occlusioninbloodarteries(Gorinsteinetal.,2000).
Oneofthemajorreasonsofoccurrenceoftheheartdiseasesis,elevatedlevelsofhomocysteineintheblood,which causestoxicityinvascularwalls.Highconsumptionofcitrusfruitincreasesthefolatelevelinbloodplasmaand decreasestherisehomocysteinelevels.ThisprocessultimatelycontrolledthebloodLDLlevelandadjustedtheblood pressure(Griepetal.,2013a).Inthesameway,apricotcontainssubstantialquantityoffiberbothsolubleandinsoluble forms(Ishaqetal.,2009).SolubledietaryfiberpresentinapricotlowersLDLcholesterol(Andersonetal.,2009; Aller etal.,2004).
3.4Brainhealth
Astrongassociationexistsbetweenconsumptionoffruitsandbrainhealth(Vauzouretal.,2017). Van-de-Restetal. (2015) emphasizedonthehighconsumptionoffruitsforthebettercognitioninadults.Invivoandinvitromechanistic investigationsrevealedtheneuronprotectiveeffectoffruits,andfruitsalsomotivateneurogenesis.Arandomized controlledmedium-termexperimentalstudywasconductedby Pujos-Guillotetal.(2013) toassessthemetabolomic effectofcitrusjuice.Inthisstudy,500mL/dayofcitrusjuicewasadministratedto12humansubjectsforthetime periodof1month.Attheendoftheexperimentalperiod,theresultsinfluencedthepositiveeffectofcitrusconsumptiononmetabolomics.Inthesimilarway,recentstudiesfoundthepositiveeffectofapplejuiceonmicehavingAlzheimer’sdisease.Thisstudyalsocompriseson1-monthduration.Resultsindicatedasignificantimprovementinthe brain(Chanetal.,2006).
3.5Immunity
Immunityisactuallythebalancedconditionwithsatisfactorybiologicaldefensesystemthathastheabilitytofight againstinfections,diseases,anddisordersandpossessessufficienttolerancetoavoiddifferentautoimmunediseases. Fruitscontainanumberofnutritiveandbioactivecompoundsthatareresponsibletoboosttheimmunesystemof humanbeings(Hosseinietal.,2018).Fruitsarerichinantioxidantsandsolublefiberthatprovideahealthydigestive systemthatresultsastrongimmunity(Aprikian,2003).Applecontainsagoodquantityofdigestiblefibersthatpossess prebioticcharacteristics,andtheseprebioticspromotetheguthealthbyincreasingthecivilizationofbeneficialgut microbiota(Loo,2004).Fruit’ssolublefiberstrengthenstheimmunesystemofhumanbeingspreventingfrommany diseases(Sherry,2010).
3.6Diabetes
Elevatedlevelofplasmaglucoseisreferredasdiabetes.Globally,theprevalenceofdiabeticcomplicationshas increaseddaybyday,anddiabetesisalsobecomingthereasonofotherchronicdiseases.So,itspreventionisbecoming theissueofseriousscientificconcern.Recentresearchdocumentedthatthemanagementofdiabeticcomplicationcan bemanagedbyutilizationoffruits.Itwasalsoobservedthatconsumptionofoneappleperdayreducesthe28%possibilityofdiabetes(Songetal.,2005).Methodically,itisworkablethatfruit’spolyphenolparticularlycatechinsand phloretinglucoside(dihydrochalcones)maybeeffectiveagainstdiabetesandthusdeclinestheonsetofdiabetesespeciallytype2diabetes(Marksetal.,2009).
3.7Infectiousdiseases
Phytochemicalsoffruitspossessedsignificantpotentialtoprotectagainstinfectiousagents.Fruitandtheirextracts havestrongidentifiedantimicrobialproperties(NageshandShanthamma,2009).Variousclinicalstudieshaveindicatedthatfruit’sbioactivecompoundshavethepotentialcomparedwiththecommercialantimicrobialstokillthe microbesbydisruptingtheircellmembranes,deprivingthesubstrate,orinactivatingtheenzymes.Throughthismechanism,thesebioactivecompoundsoffruitsblockthemechanismofmicrobes(Rupasinghe,2003).
Aiswaryaetal.(2011) conductedanexperimentaltrialtoevaluatetheantimicrobialpotentialofaqueousandalcoholicextractsofapple.Inthisreportedstudy,theycomparedtheeffectonGram-positiveandGram-negativebacteria throughdiscdiffusionmethod.TheyfoundasignificantzoneofinhibitionofappleextractsagainstbothGrampositiveandGram-negativebacteria,whichwascomparablewithcommercialantibiotic(ciprofloxacin).
Duetal.(2011) evaluatedtheantimicrobialpotentialagainst Salmonellaenterica, Escherichiacoli,and Listeriamonocytogenes throughinvitroexperiment.Appleskinpowderwasusedinediblefilm/coatingtoevaluatethepotentialof inhibitionagainst S.enterica, E.coli,and L.monocytogenes.Theediblefilmcontainingapplepeelshowedthehighest zoneofinhibitionagainst L.monocytogenes. Thelowestconcentrationrequiredtostopthismicrobewas1.5%.
MalaviyaandMishra(2011) performedacomprehensiveresearchexperimenttoassessantimicrobialpotentialof alcoholicandaqueousextractsofvariousfruitslikeapple,pomegranate,guava,andorangesagainstfungiandbacteria.Oncomparisonofbothextracts,resultsshowedthattheaqueousextractsindicatedgreaterantimicrobialactivity incontrasttoalcoholicextracts.Theywereactiveagainst76.4%ofthefullamountofGram-negativebacteriathat included93.75% E.coli,83.33% Klebsiella sp.,and73.68% Pseudomonas sp.
4Conclusion
Byreviewingtheimportanceoffruitsandtheirnutrientsinthemaintenanceofproperphysiologyforimproved healthstatusofcommunity,itisconcludedthatconsumptionoffruitsinadequateamountisnecessarytomaintain ahealthylife.Variouspartsoffruitspossessedtherapeuticbenefitstothehumanbeingsbecausetheycontainessential nutrientsandbiologicallyactivecomponents.Fortheaimtoprovideahealthystatusandasafehealthtothecommunity,nutritionalsecurityiscrucialnowadays.Topreservethenutrientsormaintainthenutritionalsecurity,apositive androbustroleoffoodscientististhedireneedofthecurrentera.
5Futureperspectives
Theroleandimportanceoffruitstoinsurenutritionalfoodinsecuritycannotbeneglectedatanycost.Thefruitscan provideanumberofnecessarynutrientsrequiredforahealthyhumanbody.Thesefruitsnotonlyprovidethenecessarynutrientsbutalsoprovidemanyhealthbenefitsbeyondthenutrientsduetothepresenceofbioactiveandfunctionalcompoundsindifferentpartsofthefruits.Reasonabledataandinformationareavailableonnutritional compositionofdifferentfruitsandtheirroleinhumanhealth.However,thecompositionoffruitsvariesduetoproductiontechnology,season,soilconditions,andvariety.Thereisaneedofscientificworktoimprovethequalityof fruitsespeciallytheproductionofnutrient-enrichedvarietiesoffruitswithreducedantinutritionalcompounds.Moreover,thereisneedofmoreawarenessamongthecommunityregardingtheimportanceofbalanceddietandroleof fruitsforthemanagementofnutritionaldeficienciesandhumandiseases.
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Furtherreading
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