Acknowledgements
Atsixfootfour,ImaywellbethetallesthistorianofIreland,butifIhaveseenfurther, itisbystandingontheshouldersofgiants.IanMcBridewaswellaheadofmein followingthetrailthatTonyStewarthadblazed.Manyothergreatmindshadalready workedoutmuchthatneededtobeunderstoodsothat,inmorethanonecase,all thatremainedwastoconnectthedots.Theirnamescanbetracedthroughthe bibliographicalreferences.
Writingthisbookhasbeenalongandarduousjourneyandtonameeachandevery personwhohelpedmealongwaywouldrequireanothervolume.Acoupleoftrusty travelguides,whokeptmeonthepath,cannotgounmentioned:thementorshipof DavidFitzpatrickatanearlystageandofRoyFostertowardstheconclusionwasin bothcasesinstrumental.Enroute,Ihaveincurreddebtstonumerousacademicsfrom aroundtheworld,aswellastoarchivists,librarians,andmuseumcurators.Amongthe archivesandspecialistlibrariesconsulted,Iamparticularlygratefulforpermissionto publishmaterialfromtheFrancisJosephBiggercollectionattheBelfastCentral Library,theRichardRobertMaddenpapersatTrinityCollegeDublin,andthe NationalFolkloreCollectionatUniversityCollegeDublin.Localhistoriansand manyothergoodpeopleinNorthernIreland(someofwhomareacknowledgedin footnotes)generouslysharedtheirknowledgeandofferedwisecounsel.Ihopethatthey willallrecognizetheirparticularcontributionsinthetext.
TheresearchbenefittedfromthesupportoftheIrishResearchCouncilforthe HumanitiesandSocialSciences(whichsponsoredafellowshipatTrinityCollege Dublin),theNationalEndowmentfortheHumanities(throughafellowshipatthe IrishStudiesCenterintheUniversityofNotreDame),theIsraelScienceFoundation (grant810/07),theBalassiInstitute(whichfacilitatedascholarshiptoattendthe CentralEuropeanUniversity),andtheGerdaHenkelFoundation(whichfundeda MarieCuriefellowshipattheUniversityofOxford).Forassistanceinreproducing imagesandforpermissiontoincludetheminthebook,IamgratefultotheDeputy KeeperoftheRecordsatthePublicRecordOfficeofNorthernIreland,National MuseumsofNorthernIreland,NationalLibraryofIreland,OfficeofPublicWorks, CAIN(ConflictArchiveontheInternet),OhioStateUniversityBillyIrelandCartoon Library&Museum,UniversityCollegeDublinDigitalLibrary,HesburghLibrariesof theUniversityofNotreDame,DigitalLibraryatVillanovaUniversity,BrownDigital RepositoryattheBrownUniversityLibrary, CountyDownSpectator , MourneObserver, BelfastNews-Letter,andthe IrishIndependent.MatthewStoutkindlyprovidedthe cartography.ThisbookwaspublishedwiththesupportoftheIsraelScienceFoundation. Onecantooeasilybecomedizzyfromthearithmeticofmemory.Specialthanksare duetoCathrynSteeleatOxfordUniversityPressforneverlosingherpatience,though itwastaxedtotheverylimit.HavingnarrowlyavoidedthefateofPhilitasofCos,my finaltributemustgotoJorgeLuisBorges,whoknewalltoowellwhathemeantwhen, paraphrasingAlfonsoReyes,heremarkedthat ‘onepublishesabookinorderto forgetit’ .
4.RegeneratedForgetting:TheSecondHalfoftheNineteenthCentury
ListofFigures
I.1. ‘“StandtotheGuns!” HenryJoyMcCracken’slastrallyoftheUnited IrishmenattheBattleofAntrim,June7,1798’ 36
I.2. ‘HenryMunrochiefoftheIrishrebels’ (1798)37
1.1.McCracken’suniform50
1.2. ‘TheHeroesof ’98’ 60
1.3.WilliamOrrmemorabilia84
2.1. ‘TheExecutionofHenryJoyMcCracken’ 110
2.2. ‘WattyGraham’sBeech’,Maghera111
3.1.ObscuredgravesofUnitedIrishmen154
3.2.Earlycollectorsof ’98traditions:SamuelMcSkimin,R.R.Madden, andRev.ClassonEmmettPorter215
3.3.Custodiansofmemory:MaryAnnMcCrackenandJamesHope246
4.1.RelicsoftwoHenrys:HenryJoyMcCracken’sswordandtheaxethat beheadedHenryMunro283
4.2.UnionistCollectorsof ’98traditions:WilliamMcCombandHughMcCall296
4.3.R.R.MaddensearchingforRobertEmmet’sgrave306
4.4.W.G.Lyttle, BetsyGray (coverof9thedn)314
4.5.FrancisJosephBigger325
4.6.AliceMilliganandEthnaCarbery336
4.7.Fin-de-sièclerevivalistjournals339
5.1. ‘RememberOrr!’ 361 5.2.BetsyGraymonument373
5.3. ‘OrangeRowdyismatBallynahinch’ 378
5.4.DecommemoratingBetsyGray382
5.5. ’98CentenarycelebrationsinBelfast385
5.6.OrangemenmarchinginBallynahinch394
6.1.CollectingfolkloreonRathlinIsland476
6.2.BetsyGraymemorabilia485
6.3.RelicsfromBallynahinch489
6.4.ColinJohnstonRobb493
6.5.DecommemoratingF.J.Bigger506
7.1. ‘TheBattleofBallynahinch’ (1798)554
7.2.RoddyMcCorleySocietymemorials564
7.3.BetsyGraybicentennialmural565
7.4.Decommemoratingandre-commemoratingRoddyMcCorley584
7.5.CommemoratinganddecommemoratingJamesHope602
I.1.MainsitesmentionedinUlster38
I.2.SitesmentionedincountyAntrim43
I.3.SitesmentionedincountyDown44
I.4.ReligiousdividesineastUlster45
Preface:ForgetfulRemembrance
Iprefertoseehistoriansastheguardiansoftheskeletonsinthecupboardofthe socialmemory.
PeterBurke, ‘HistoryasSocialMemory’¹
Thisbookpursuesamodesttaskwithdoggedambition.Thescopeislimitedtoan explorationofhowanepisodeinprovincialhistory,inaperipheralcornerofEurope, wasparadoxicallybothforgottenandrememberedlocally.Theinvestigationnaively aspirestocomprehensiveness,yetacceptsthattherealizationofsuchagoalisultimately unattainable.Inchoosingtofocusonwhatseemedtobeaclassicexampleofcollective amnesia,ashorterandtighterbookwasoriginallyenvisaged,onethatwouldhave amountedtoameditative,albeitspeculative,reflectionongapsofsilence.However, meticulousresearchuncoveredthousandsofsourcesthatofferaccesstovoicesthathave beenmuffledandcloakedbehindaperceivedveilofsilence.Reticenceisshowntobe quiteverbal,evenmultivocal.Thesesupposedlyhiddensourceswerefoundbyporing throughmanuscripts,closereadingofpartiallyobscurepublications,combingof provincialnewspapers,andundertakingethnographicoralhistory fieldwork.Each andeveryaccountwascarefullytranscribed,catalogued,contextualized,andanalysed, andtheresultsofthispedanticexaminationyieldedaself-constructedarchiveof vernacularhistoriography.Additionalresearchwould,nodoubt,haveyieldedeven moresources.
Makingsenseofapuzzleofthousandsoffragmentedpiecesinordertoputtogethera coherentpictureprovedtobenomeantask.Amongthevoluminouspublicationson historyandmemorythathavecomeoutinthelastthreedecades,Iamnotawareof anotherstudythathaschartedthevicissitudesofmemoryovermorethantwohundred yearsinsuchhighresolution.Inwritingupthe findings,theintentionhasbeento accommodatearangeofreaderships,fromresearcherscomingfromthediversedisciplinesthatarebroadlyinterestedinhowsocietiesdealwithproblematicepisodesintheir past,throughtoamateuraficionadosoflocalhistory,whilealsoappealingtoagamutof morespecialistscholarsinvarious fieldsofEuropean,British,andIrishstudies.Juggling thedemandsofsuchavariedclienteleisadevilishlytrickytaskandIcanonlyhopethat theparticularcuriositiesofvariousreaderswillberewardedastheyperusethepagesof thisbook.
Forthoseperplexedbythesheeramountoflocalminutiaethroughwhichthe argumentsaredemonstrated,itisworthpointingoutthatstudiesofculturalandsocial memoryhavetoooftenmadesweepingclaimsthathavenotbeenfullysubstantiated.It isthereforenecessarytolayoutthenutsandboltsofremembranceinordertoclosely examinethemechanicsofhowsocialforgettingactuallyworks.Thesamecanbesaid
¹PeterBurke, ‘HistoryasSocialMemory’,in VarietiesofCulturalHistory,editedbyPeterBurke (Cambridge:Polity,1997),p.59.
Preface:ForgetfulRemembrance
forstudiesofhistorythattendtooverlookprovincialdiscourses.Oncefolkloreand othervernacularaccountsaretreatedwiththesamerespectnormallygiventomore conventionalhistoricalsources,thepastbeginstolookverydifferentindeed.Admittedly,theanalysiscouldhavepatternedthematerialsotherwise,leadingtodifferent results.Unsatisfiedreadersarethereforeinvitedtotakethebookapartandrewrite itanew.
Atitsmostambitiousgoal,thebookaspirestoofferanewmodelforthestudyof memory,aswellasanalternativewayofapproachinghistory.Withsomanysources, includingasubstantialvolumeofpublishedliteraryworks,theinevitablequestion arisesastowhetheritisatallstillpossibletospeakofforgetting?Theanswerdepends onwhatwemeanbyforgettinganditsrelationshiptohistory.Accordingly,thisbook proposesarethinkingoftherelationshipbetweenrememberingandforgetting,interms ofsocialforgetting,andofthestudyofhistory,intermsofvernacularhistoriography. ThisseemstoworkwellforthenorthernIrishprovinceofUlsterand,Iamconvinced, shouldbeequallyapplicabletoplaceselsewhere.
Overthecourseofthisexploration,Ihavebecomekeenlyawareofsomeofthe pitfallsthatawaitthosewhodaretoventureintotheBorgesianlabyrinthsofMneme andtonavigatetheriverLethe.Somethingstrangeseemstohappentothepoor wayfarerswhospendmanyyearsinpursuitofmemory.Oftentimes,theygoslightly madandbegintoimaginethattherecollectionsofothers,withwhichtheyhave intimatelyfamiliarizedthemselves,aretheirown.Evendoctorsarenotimmuneto thispsychosis.RichardRobertMadden,aphysicianbytraining,whowasbornin1798, devotedhimselftodocumentingthememoriesofUnitedIrishmen.Hebecameso engrossedinthistaskthatheendedupwritingpoetryasifhehadbeenoneofthem. Twentyyearsearlier,somethingsimilarhappenedtoanotherphysician,JohnGamble, whotouredtheUlstercountrysidecollectingrecollectionsofthosethathadwitnessed therecentUnitedIrishrebellion.Hethenwroteanovelinwhichtheprotagonistisa youngerversionofhimself,traversingtheverysamelandscapeatthetimeofthe rebellion,asifthishadbeenhisownpersonalexperience.TwentyyearsafterMadden, anotherphysician,T.C.S.Corry,wrotealongpoeticreminiscenceof1798,thoughhe wasbornmuchlater.ThejournalistW.G.LyttleandtheantiquarianFrancisJoseph Bigger,amongmanyothers,weresimilarlyaffected.Theirwritingsdemonstratethe irresistibly fixatingpowerofmemory,whichcanpossess,likea dybbuk,eventhe scholarlymind.
Asanoutsider,IwouldliketobelievethatIaminoculatedtothispeculiarsyndrome, thoughsomehow,Idoubtthatthisistrulythecase.Overthecourseofrepeatedvisitsto NorthernIreland,Icouldnothelpmyselffromviewingpresent-daysurroundings throughtheprismofstoriesthatweretoldandretoldovertwocenturiesinmuted forms,oftentimesbehindcloseddoors.VisitstoplaceslikeBallynahinch,Saintfield, Antrim,Templepatrick,Randalstown,Ballymena,Toome,Coleraine,Greyabbey,and eventheverymoderncityofBelfastseemedtobringbackdisturbingmemoriesof eventsthatIhadnotpersonallyexperienced.Isitnormaltobetroubledbyrecollections ofpeoplethatonehasneverknown?Somememoriesareprobablybestforgotten.But whatdoesthatmean?
Introduction
SitesofOblivion
Myintentionwasnottowritethehistoryofthatlanguage,butratherdrawupthe archaeologyofthatsilence.
MichelFoucault, HistoryofMadness¹
But, firstofall,isthereahistoryofsilence?Further,isnotanarchaeology,evenof silence,alogic,thatis,anorganizedlanguage,aproject,anorder,asentence,a syntax,awork?
JacquesDerrida, ‘CogitoandtheHistoryofMadness’²
FascinationwiththeEmeraldIsle aname firstbestowedonIrelandbytheUnited IrishpoetWilliamDrennan hasbeenasourceofendlessinspiration,bothforitsown peopleandforoutsiders.³Inthe1830s,GustavedeBeaumont lifelongcompanion andalteregoofAlexisdeTocqueville foundreasontotourtheislandontwo occasionsandtoinspectcloselyitssocial,political,andreligiousfeatures.Heconcluded that ‘Irelandisalittlecountrywhichraisesthegreatestquestionsofpolitics,moralsand humanity’ . ⁴ Irishwritersofallsorts novelists,poets,andplaywrights haverisento thechallengeand,inaskingdaringquestions,havereachedforthestars.Thequestions posedbyhistoriansofIreland,however,havebeenconstrainedbyconcernsthat irresponsibleexplorationsofthepastmayhaveharmfulramifications,inparticular whenitcomestotheprovinceofUlster perceivedbysomeas ‘TheBlackNorth’ . ⁵
¹MichelFoucault, HistoryofMadness,translatedbyJonathanMurphyandJeanKhalfa(London andNewYork:Routledge,2006),p.xxviii;thequotationistakenfromFoucault’soriginalprefaceto FolieetDéraison:HistoiredelaFolieàl’âgeClassique (Paris:Plon,1961),whichwasremovedfrom subsequentFrencheditions.
²JacquesDerrida, WritingandDifference,translatedbyAlanBass(London:Routledge,2001), p.41;originallypublishedasJacquesDerrida, ‘Cogitoethistoiredelafolie’,in L’écritureetladifférence (Paris:Seuil,1967),pp.51–97.
³ ‘TheEmeraldIsle’ firstappearedinthepoem ‘Erin’,describedas ‘apartysong,writtenwithout therancourofparty,intheyear1795’;WilliamDrennan, FugitivePieces,inVerseandProse (Belfast: printedbyF.D.Finlay,1815),pp.1–4.OriginallypublishedintheUnitedIrishnewspaperthe Press in1797,itfeaturedastheopeningsongfora1798editionoftheUnitedIrishsongbook ‘Paddy’ s Resource’ ; TheIrishHarp(Attun’dtoFreedom):ACollectionofPatrioticSongs;SelectedforPaddy’ s Amusement (Dublin:s.n.,1798),pp.1–3.
⁴‘L’Irlandeestunepetitecontréesurlaquellesedébattentlesplusgrandesquestionsdelapolitique, delamoraleetdel’humanité’;GustavedeBeaumont, L’Irlandesociale,politiqueetréligieuse,3rdedn (Paris:LibrairiedeCharlesGosselin,1839),vol.1,p.ii.
⁵‘TheBlackNorth’ wasnotedinprintintheearlynineteenthcenturyandbythe1830sand1840s wasinwideuseinnewspapersandmagazines.ForanearlyexampleseeEdwardWakefield, AnAccount
Theshirkingawayfromponderingthemoretrickyconundrumsofmemoryisatelling indicator.AlthoughIrishculturehasgeneratedadazzlingpanoplyofcomplexmnemonicpractices,whichcanbefoundamongotherplacesinIreland’srichfolklore traditions,foralongtimeIrishdisciplesofCleowerehesitanttoengagecreativelywith themysteriesofMnemosyneandrarelyventuredbeyondconventionalconceptionsof howthepastcanbestudied.
OntheyearofhisretirementfromtheErasmusSmith’schairofmodernhistoryat TrinityCollegeDublin,theBelfast-bornhistorianTheodoreWilliam(‘Theo’)Moody deliveredinMay1977apresidentialaddresstotheDublinUniversityHistorySociety, whichopenedwithagrandiloquentstatement: ‘Thepastisdead.Nothing,forgoodor ill,canchangeit;nothingcanreviveit.’ Moodyqualifiedthistruismbyaddingthat ‘thereisasenseinwhichthepastliveson:inworksofhumanhandsandminds,in beliefs,institutions,andvalues,andinusall,whoareitslivingextension.Itlivesonin us,bothforgoodandill,shapingourlivesandhelpingtodetermineouraction, whetherornotweknowhowourpresentisrelatedtoourpast.’ Hearguedthat ‘justas individualscannotexistascompletepersonswithoutknowledgeoftheirpast,so humansocietiesmusthavetheirself-knowledgeiftheyaretopreservetheircorporate identityandtheirdistinctivepatternsofliving’.Althoughhewasconvincedthatit wasthedutyofhistorians ‘tosupplythisknowledge’,Moodyconcededthat ‘nations derivetheirconsciousnessoftheirpastnotonly andnotmainly fromhistorians. Theyalsoderiveitfrompopulartraditions,transmittedorally,inwriting,andthrough institutions’
Moody’slecturewasdeliveredagainstthebackdropofabloodyconflictragingin NorthernIreland knownlocallyas ‘theTroubles’.Thiswasatimewhenhistorians becameparticularlyself-consciousaboutappropriationsofhistorythatcouldbeusedto justifypoliticalviolence.Accordingly,Moodydrewacleardistinctionbetweenpopular ‘receivedviews’,whichhelabelled ‘mythology’,andthemoredispassionate ‘knowledge thatthehistorianseekstoextractbytheapplicationofscientificmethodstohis evidence’,whichinhiseyeswashistoryproper.Thetwoweredeemedtobeinevitably atoddswitheachother: ‘historyisamatteroffacingthefactsoftheIrishpast,however painfulsomeofthemmaybe;mythologyisawayofrefusingtofacethehistoricalfacts.’ Historians,heconcluded,mustbecommittedto ‘demythologising’,evenif ‘theeffect onthepublicmindappearstobedisappointinglyslow’ ⁶
Moodydidnotbothertopreciselydefinewhathemeantbymyths,butexplained thatthey ‘combineelementsoffactandof fiction;theyarepartofthedeadpastthat historiansstudy,aswellasbeingpartofthelivingpresentinwhichweall,historians included,areinvolved’.LessinterestedintheancientandmedievallegendsofCeltic mythologythanincurrentpopularbeliefsaboutthepast,hetouchedonasubjectthat wouldpreoccupyEnglishhistorianssomeyearslater,asevidentinthecollectionsof essays TheMythsWeLiveBy (1990),editedbyRaphaelSamuelandPaulThompson, ofIreland,StatisticalandPolitical,vol.2(London:printedforLongman,Hurst,Rees,Orme,and Brown,1812),p.737.
⁶ T.W.Moody, ‘IrishHistoryandIrishMythology’ , Hermathena,124(1978),pp.7–24;reproducedin InterpretingIrishHistory:TheDebateonHistoricalRevisionism,1938–1994,editedbyCiaran Brady(Blackrock,Co.Dublin:IrishAcademicPress,1994),pp.71–86.
and MythsoftheEnglish,editedbyRoyPorterin(1992).⁷ Moody’sinsistenceonan oppositionbetweenhistoryandmythologymirrored,albeitwithoutthecontinental suave,thedistinctionbetweenhistoryandmemoryespousedbytheFrenchhistorian PierreNora.Whereasagenerationofso-called ‘revisionist’ Irishhistorians,mentored byMoodyandhisequallyinfluentialpeerRobert(‘Robin’)DudleyEdwards,chairof modernIrishhistoryatUniversityCollegeDublin,obstinatelydeniedthehistorical valueofmythsandshiedawayfrommemory,Noraassembled125leadinghistorians ofFrancetocollaborateonaninnovativeinterrogationoftheinterfaceofmemory andhistory.Theproduceoftheirlabour,themulti-volume LesLieuxdemémoire (1984–1992),signalledtheadventofaworldwide ‘memoryboom’,whichwould reshapehistoriography.⁸
Insubsequentyears,similarcollaborativestudiesofnationalmemorywereundertakeninall fiveoftheotherfoundingmemberstatesoftheEuropeancommunity,as theconceptof Lieuxdemémoire wasadaptedtoItaly(Luoghidellamemoria,editedby MarioIsnenghi),Germany(Erinnerungsorte,editedbyHagenSchulzeandÉtienne François),theNetherlands(Lieuxdemémoireetidentitésnationales,editedbyPimden BoerandWillemFrijhoff,and Plaatsenvanherinnering,editedbyH.L.Wesseling etal.),Belgium(Belgie,eenparcoursvanherinnering,editedbyJohanTollebeeketal.), andLuxemburg(LieuxdemémoireauLuxembourg,editedbyKmecetal.).Theconcept wasalsotriedoutonaprovincialscaleinvariousareasofFrance,atatransnational regionallevelinCentralEuropeandevenasanall-Europeanproject.⁹ Itwouldtakea whilebeforehistoriansofIrelandcaughtupwiththistrend.Thepublicationin2001of HistoryandMemoryinModernIreland,editedbyIanMcBride,heraldedthebelated arrivalofmemorystudiestotheforefrontofIrishhistory.¹ ⁰ Adecadelater,the interdisciplinaryfour-volumecollection MemoryIreland (2011–14),editedbyOona Frawley,signalledthecomingofageofIrishmemorystudies.¹¹
⁷ RaphaelSamuelandPaulThompson,eds, TheMythsWeLiveBy (LondonandNewYork: Routledge,1990);RoyPorter,ed., MythsoftheEnglish (Cambridge:PolityPress,1992).Subsequent studieshaveexaminedingreaterdetailthehistoryofhistoricalmyths;foraDutchexampleseeLaura CruzandWillemFrijhoff,eds, MythinHistory,HistoryinMyth (LeidenandBoston:Brill,2009).
⁸ PierreNora, LesLieuxdemémoire (Paris:Galimard,1984–1992),3vols.Forareappraisalsee PatrickH.Hutton, TheMemoryPhenomenoninContemporaryHistoricalWriting:HowtheInterestin MemoryHasInfluencedOurUnderstandingofHistory (NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2016), pp.29–48.
⁹ SeePimDenBoer, ‘Locimemoriae Lieuxdemémoire’,in CulturalMemoryStudies:An InternationalandInterdisciplinaryHandbook,editedbyAstridErllandAnsgarNünning(Berlinand NewYork:WalterdeGruyter,2008),pp.22–4;BenoîtMajerus, ‘LieuxdeMémoire AEuropean TransferStory’,in WritingtheHistoryofMemory,editedbyStefanBergerandWilliamJohnNiven (London:BloomsburyAcademic,2014),pp.157–71;BenoîtMajerus, ‘The “LieuxdeMémoire” : APlaceofRemembranceforEuropeanHistorians?’,in Erinnerungsorte:Chancen,Grenzenund PerspektiveneinesErfolgskonzeptesindenKulturwissenschaften,editedbyStefanBergerandJoana Seiffert(Essen:Klartext,2014),pp.117–30.
¹
⁰ IanMcBride,ed., HistoryandMemoryinModernIreland (CambridgeandNewYork:Cambridge UniversityPress,2001);seealsoGuyBeiner, ‘HistoryandMemoryinModernIreland’ , IrishHistorical Studies,32,no.128(2001):pp.600–2.
¹¹OonaFrawley,ed., MemoryIreland (Syracuse,N.Y.:SyracuseUniversityPress,2011),vol.1: HistoryandModernity (2011);vol.2: DiasporaandMemoryPractices (2012);vol.3: TheFamineandthe Troubles (2014);vol.4(co-editedwithKatherineO’Callaghan): JamesJoyceandCulturalMemory (2014).
Writingin2001,atatimewhenitseemedthattheextremeviolenceoftheTroubles maybeover,theNorthernIrishhistorianAnthonyTerenceQuincey(‘Tony’)Stewart revisitedMoody’sdictum ‘Thepastisdead,andnothingthatwechoosetobelieve aboutitcaneitherharmorbenefitthosewhowerealiveinit’,addingawarning that ‘ithasthepowertoharmus’.Stewarttookissuewithhistorianscommittedto demythologizing those ‘whowouldpersuadeusthatifonlywecoulddiscoverthe truthaboutourhistory,someofthatharmmightbeneutralised’—andpointedoutthat ‘themythisoftenmorepotentthanthereality,andperhapsadifferentkindoftruth.’ Hepragmaticallyrealizedthat ‘academichistoriansmustresignthemselvestothefact thattheyhavelittlerealinfluenceonanation’sviewofitspast’ andshouldacceptthat ‘whatanationthinksofitshistoryisshapedratherbycolourfulnarrativeandtheneed forapoliticalmyth.’ Keenlyaware ifnotapprehensive ofthepotencyofmemory, Stewartsensedthatvernacularhistoricaltraditionssuggestedotherwaysoflookingat thepastwhichdidnotsitwellwiththewayIrishhistorianshavewrittenhistory.¹²
Inacharacteristicallyquirkyhistoriosophicalreflection,Stewartopinedthat ‘thereis somethingwrongwiththeshapeofIrishhistory ... itisverydifficulttoseewherethe pastendsandthepresentbegins.’ Forsome,hediscerned,history ‘isaburden,tobe castasideassoonaspossible’,whileforothersitis ‘aproblemtowhichonedaysome cleverpersonwill findtheanswer’.Yet, ‘formostIrishpeople’,Stewartobserved, ‘itis simplyafamilyheirloom,a fineoldpaintinginagiltframe,whichtheywouldmissifit wasnolongerthere.’¹³Thelikeningofpopularhistoricalconsciousnesstothepossessionofatreasuredinheritedpaintingisbothsuggestiveandelusive.Heirloomsare oftenkeptinprivatepossessionandlittleisknownofhowtheyhavebeenregarded behindcloseddoors.
Rev.RobertLyonsMarshall,aPresbyterianministerandprofessorofHistoryand EnglishatMageeCollegeinLondonderry,recalledhowhewasonceallowedrareaccess tosuchapainting.Uponvisiting ‘ahousewhereToryismisareligion’,Marshall, who asaunionistandmemberoftheOrangeOrder wasgreetedasatrustedally, happenedtomentionthatoneofhismaternalancestorshad ‘carriedapikein ’98’,that istosaythathehadbeenamongtheUnitedIrishmenwhorebelledagainsttheCrown in1798.Thisconfidentialdisclosureunlockedasecret:
IwastakentoanupstairsroomandtherefromitscoveringofmanywrappersIwasshowna smallwornoilpaintingofthedirectprogenitorofthefamilywhowashangedasarebelin ’98. Buttheportraitisnevershowntoanyexceptthosewhoseforbearsalsocarrythetaint.¹⁴
LiketheportraitofDorianGray,lockedawayinanattictohideitsrecordofunspeakable sins,theawkwardrecollectionofaloyalistfamilyhavingarepublicanrebelancestorwas keptoutofsightandwasonlyfurtivelyrevealedtothosewhocouldbetrusted.
Concernsthatthediscoveryofsuchcompromisingheirloomsmightcauseembarrassmentgavethemahauntingpresence,whichcouldnotbesimplydiscardedand donewith.TheUlsterpoetMaryFlorenceWilsonpennedaninsightfulshortstorythat toldofayoungladywhohadkilledherselfuponhearingthatherlover ‘washangedasa
¹²A.T.Q.Stewart, TheShapeofIrishHistory (Belfast:Blackstaff,2001),p.185. ¹³Ibid.,p.2.
¹⁴ R.L.Marshall, ‘Magherain ’98’,in PresbyterianisminMaghera:ASocialandCongregational History,editedbyS.SidlowMcFarland(Maghera:PresbyterianChurch,1985),p.174.
rebelsometimeinthedarkdaysafter ’98’.Thelady’sfather, ‘amanwhopridedhimself onhisunansweringloyaltytotheBritishthrone’,wasintentonwipingoutthisblemish onthefamily’sreputationandhadherpicturedestroyed.Nonetheless,acenturylater, theghostsoftherebelandofhissweetheartwerereportedlyseenintheareaclutching totheportrait.Uponhearingofanencounterwiththeseshunnedapparitions,a descendantoftheloyalisthouseholdinsistedthatitmustnotbetalkedaboutinthe open: ‘best,weshouldforgetallaboutit.’ But,asWilsonremarked,theadvicetoforget was ‘easiersaidthandone’.¹⁵
Bylisteningtosuchstories,wehavemovedawayfrom History (capitalizedandinthe singular),asithasbeennormallystudiedinthehallsoftheacademy,and findourselves intherealmof histories (inlowercaseandinevitablyintheplural),whichreflectthe myriadwaysinwhichthepastisroutinelyrecalledindiscreetsocialandcultural interactions,someofwhicharebarelynoticeabletooutsiders.¹ ⁶ Wehavealsomoved beyond lieuxdemémoire andstumbledintotheunfamiliardomainof lieuxd’oubli, whichhavebeendefinedas ‘sitesthatpublicmemoryhasexpresslyavoidedbecauseof thedisturbingaffectthattheirinvocationisstillcapableofarousing’.¹⁷ Theserealmsof forgetting,whereindividualsandcommunitiesanxiouslytrytoconcealdiscomforting skeletonsintheircupboards,arestill,byandlarge, terraincognita.Newterminology andconceptualframeworksarerequiredinordertohelpus findourbearingsandtotry andunderstandthedenizensofthesestrangeplaces.Letus firstturnourgazeupon whatwemeanby ‘histories’ andthenconsiderwhatwemeanby ‘forgetting’
VERNACULARHISTORIOGRAPHY
Itisenlighteningtorethinkourrelationshipwiththepastintermsof mythistory andto questionasteadfastconviction,whichhasbeenuphelddogmaticallybymanyhistorians,thatHistory(seenasatruthfulrepresentationoffacts)mustbeirreconcilably divorcedfromMyth(considereda fictionalfabrication).Theiconoclasturgefor demythologizingisanexpressionofamodern ‘hermeneuticsofsuspicion’,which harksbacktotheclassicaldifferentiationbetweensymbolic mythos andcritical logos, throughwhichgenerationsofscholarshavedevaluedtraditions,regardlessofthevital roletheycontinuetoplayinsocietyandculture.¹⁸ ByinsistingthatIrishhistoriansturn theirbackonmyths,TheoMoodynotonlyreiteratedthetenetsofanempiricist historiography,associatedwiththedisciplesofLeopoldvonRanke,butalsoeliciteda time-olddebateonwhetherhistoricalinquiryshoulddisregardpopulartraditions.After
¹⁵ FlorenceMaryWilson, ‘TheManattheWell’ (unpublishedtypescript);FlorenceMaryWilson Papers,IrishLinenCentreandLisburnMuseum.
¹
⁶ Forthedistinctionbetweenofficialhistoryand ‘histories’,inthecontextof ‘thewaythatsilences andcommemorationslieindifferentkindsofrelationshiptooneanother’,seeGeraldM.Siderand GavinA.Smith,eds, BetweenHistoryandHistories:TheMakingofSilencesandCommemorations (Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,1997),pp.8–17.
¹⁷ NancyWood, VectorsofMemory:LegaciesofTraumainPostwarEurope (Oxford:Berg,1999), p.10;seealsoYosefHayimYerushalmi, ‘Réflexionssurl’oubli’,in Usagesdel’oubli (Paris:Seuil,1988), pp.7–21.
¹⁸ RichardKearney, ‘MythandtheCritiqueofTradition’,in ReconcilingMemories,editedbyAlan FalconerandJosephLiechty(Blackrock,Co.Dublin:ColumbaPress,1998;orig.edn1988),pp.37–56.
all,RankewasanadmirerofThucydides,whohadtakentotaskHerodotusforhisuse ofmythsand,indoingso,hadnarrowedthescopeofhistory.
Herodotushadwrittenhis Histories ‘inthehopeoftherebypreservingfromdecay theremembranceofwhatmenhavedone’.Heconsideredithisduty ‘toreportallthat issaid’,thoughhedidnotfeel ‘obligedtobelieveitallalike’.¹⁹ Evaluatingthegreater contributionofthisopen-mindedapproach,ArnaldoMomiglianoperceptively observedthat ‘whenHerodotustooktherecordingoftraditionashisprimaryduty, hewasinfactdoingsomethingmorethansimplysavingfactsfromoblivion.Hewas guidinghistoricalresearchtowardstheexplorationoftheunknownandtheforgotten.’²⁰ Conversely,Thucydides,inwritingacontemporaryaccountofthe Historyofthe PeloponnesianWar,waswaryof ‘imperfectmemory’,aswellasof ‘unduepartiality foronesideortheother’,andtookprideinthe ‘absenceofromance’ inhiswork.²¹In dismissingoraltraditionsasunreliable fictions,Thucydidessteeredthestudyofhistory towardsafocusonpolitical,diplomatic,andmilitaryaffairs.Nevertheless,hiswriting ofhistorywasinevitablyshapedbyprevalentculturalconventionsandreflectedthe mythsofhisday.Despiteitspromisetoprovide ‘exactknowledgeofthepast’,the historicalaccountwrittenbyThucydideswasperspicaciouslylabelled,inasomewhat neglectedcritiquebyFrancisMacdonaldCornford, ‘mythistoria’.²²
AnHerodoteaninterestinhistoricaltraditionsperseveredintomoderntimes throughthescholarlywritingsofalonglineofantiquarians,whoseeruditestudies wereregularlybelittledbyhistoriansfortheirtendencytocollectseeminglytrivial details.²³TheEnlightenment’sinherentaversionofsuperstitionreintroduceddoubts aboutthevalueofpopularbelief.Useoftheterm ‘mythistory’ inEnglishwas first recordedin1737byNathanBaileyinasupplementaryvolumeaddedtothethird editionofhis UniversalEtymologicalEnglishDictionary,whereitwasdefinedas ‘ an historymingledwithfalsefablesandtales’.²⁴ Romanticismoverturnedthisdismissive attitude.Withtheriseofhistoricism,anumberofphilologists,philosophers,and historians whowereindirectlyinfluencedbyGiambattistaVico’ s ScienzaNuova (1725)andmoredirectlybythewritingsofJohannGottfriedHerder rediscovered thehistoricalvalueofpopulartraditions.BesttypifiedbytheBrothersGrimm, collectorsoftraditionsoperatedwithinabuddingenvironmentofculturalnationalism, towhichtheycontributedvernacularresources,whilerekindlingthestudyofmythologyandestablishingthestudyoffolklore.²⁵ Theircontributiontothestudyof history,labelledbyDonaldR.Kelley ‘mythistory’,canbeseenasahistoriographical
¹⁹ TheHistoryofHerodotus,translatedbyGeorgeRawlinson,vol.1(1858),p.121[Histories,Book 1,intro]andvol.2(1860),p.129[Histories,Book7,152].
²
⁰ ArnaldoMomigliano, TheClassicalFoundationsofModernHistoriography (Berkeley:University ofCaliforniaPress,1990),p.37.
²¹Thucydides,HistoryofthePeloponnesianWar,translatedbyRichardCrawley(London: J.M.DentandSons,1910),p.15[Book1,22].
²²FrancisMacdonaldCornford, ThucydidesMythistoricus (London:EdwardArnold,1907).
²³ArnaldoMomigliano, ‘AncientHistoryandtheAntiquarian’ , JournaloftheWarburgand CourtauldInstitutes,13,no.3/4(1950):pp.285–315;Momigliano, ClassicalFoundationsofModern Historiography,pp.54–79.
²
⁴ NathanBailey, TheUniversalEtymologicalEnglishDictionaryContaininganAdditionalCollection ofWords(NotintheFirstVolume),3rdedn,vol.2(London:ThomasCox,1737).
²⁵ PeterBurke, PopularCultureinEarlyModernEurope,3rdedn(FarnhamandBurlington: Ashgate,2009;orig.edn1978),pp.23–48;JoepLeerssen, ‘OralEpic:TheNationFindsaVoice’ ,
counter-movementthatwaslargelyexcludedfromtheprofessionalizationofthe disciplineofhistoryandwassidelinedbytherisetodominanceoftheRankean schoolofhistory.²⁶
Anotherformofmythistory,markedby ‘therecognitionofmyth’,hasbeenidentifiedbyJosephMaliasadistinctlymodernisthistoriography,whichcanbefoundin theexceptionalhistoricalwritingsofJacobBurckhardt,AbyWarburg,ErnstKantorowicz, WalterBenjamin,and,notleast,inthe fictionofJamesJoyce.²⁷ Indeed,asalreadynoted, Irishcreativewritershavebeenaheadofhistoriansindevelopinginnovativeapproachesto thepastandJoyce,morethananyotherauthor,hasbeenrecognized evenby historians forhisinsightsintoculturalmemory.²⁸ Mainstreamhistoriographyhasbeen reluctanttopursuesuchdirections.
Neverafraidtoraisebigquestions,WilliamMcNeill,inhis1985presidential addresstotheAmericanHistoricalSociety,reconsideredthefraughtrelationship between ‘truth,myth,history,andhistorians’ andofferedanappraisalofmythistory.
Acknowledging ‘theelastic,inexactcharacteroftruth’,heshrewdlypointedoutthat ‘ oneperson ’struthisanother’smyth,andthefactthatagroupofpeopleacceptsagiven versionofthepastdoesnotmakethatversionanytruerforoutsiders.’ Hesoberly cautionedthat ‘mythical,self-flatteringversionsofrivalgroups’ pastssimplyserveto intensifytheircapacityforconflict’.Yet,hemaintainedthatthestudyofhistorical mythswas ‘ahighandseriouscalling’ andthatthehistorianmuststrivetounderstand ‘whatagroupofpeopleknowsandbelievesaboutthepast’,asthiswasasigni ficant factorinshapingbothviewsandactions.Incallinguponhistorianstoovercometheir engrainedinhibitionsandembracethestudyofmythistory,McNeillcandidlyadmitted thathedid ‘notexpectthetermtocatchoninprofessionalcircles’.²⁹ McNeill’spredictionhasfulfilleditself.Althoughtheportmanteau ‘mythistory’ aptly capturesthesynthesisoffactsandimaginationthatischaracteristicofmorecreative formsofengagingwiththepast,itisacumbersometermandapartfromafewnotable examples,suchasGaryDickson ’sexaminationofhowthemedievalChildren’sCrusade evolvedintomodernmythistory,ithasnotenteredintocommonusage.³⁰ Thereisa needforamoresuitablelabel,whichcanbetterdescribethewiderrangeofactivities throughwhichthepastisrecalledoutsideofmainstream-of ficialhistory.Consideration ofalternativeterminologyopensarangeofpossibilitiesforthestudyofotherhistories.
in FolkloreandNationalisminEuropeduringtheLongNineteenthCentury,editedbyTimothyBaycroft andDavidM.Hopkin(LeidenandBoston:Brill,2012),pp.11–26.
²⁶ DonaldR.Kelley, ‘MythistoryintheAgeofRanke’,in LeopoldVonRankeandtheShapeofthe HistoricalDiscipline,editedbyGeorgG.IggersandJamesM.Powell(Syracuse,N.Y.:Syracuse UniversityPress,1990),pp.3–20;seealsoPeterBurke, ‘RanketheReactionary’,inibid.,pp.36–44.
²⁷ JosephMali, Mythistory:TheMakingofaModernHistoriography (Chicago:UniversityofChicago Press,2003).
²⁸ Seethecollectedessayson ‘JamesJoyceandCulturalMemory’,inFrawleyandO’Callaghan, MemoryIreland,vol.4.
²⁹ WilliamH.McNeill, ‘Mythistory,orTruth,Myth,History,andHistorians’ , TheAmerican HistoricalReview,91,no.1(February1986):pp.1–10;seealsoChrisLorenz, ‘DrawingtheLine: “Scientific ” HistorybetweenMyth-MakingandMyth-Breaking’,in NarratingtheNation:RepresentationsinHistory,Media,andtheArts,editedbyStefanBerger,LinasEriksonas,andAndrewMycock (NewYork:BerghahnBooks,2008),pp.35–55.
³⁰ SeeGaryDickson, TheChildren’sCrusade:MedievalHistory,ModernMythistory (Houndmills andNewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2008).
