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John Connell · Kristen Lowitt Editors Food Security in Small Island States FoodSecurityinSmallIslandStates JohnConnell • KristenLowitt Editors
FoodSecurityinSmall IslandStates Editors JohnConnell UniversityofSydney
Sydney,NSW,Australia
KristenLowitt BrandonUniversity Brandon,MB,Canada
ISBN978-981-13-8255-0ISBN978-981-13-8256-7(eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8256-7
© SpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd.2020
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Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthis publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfrom therelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse.
Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthis bookarebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernorthe authorsortheeditorsgiveawarranty,expressedorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontained hereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregard tojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations.
ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd. Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:152BeachRoad,#21-01/04GatewayEast,Singapore189721, Singapore
Preface Foodsecurityisoneofthegreatissuesofourtimewithalltheavailableevidence suggestingthatinmostpartsoftheworldclimatechangeismakingthechallenges ofproducingadequatefoodmoredifficult.Atthesametime,neoliberalpolicies relatedtotradeandmarketingarenotalwayssupportiveoffoodsovereignty,with theireffects,inmanycontexts,beingtoundermineprotectionsofhealth,equity,and sustainability.
Thesechangeshaveparticularlyaffectedsmallislanddevelopingstates(SIDS) thathaveweakereconomies,arelesseasilyabletoadapttoclimatechange,and wherepatternsofagricultureand fi shingarealreadychanginginresponse.This bookshowshowtheproblemsoffoodsecurityandfoodsovereigntyareafunction ofdistinctiveinteractionsbetweeneconomic,social,political,technological,and environmentalprocesses.ItshowshowinsomanySIDSfoodinsecurityisnota problemoffoodproduction,orevenoneoffooddistribution,butafunctionof livelihoodinsecurity.Thus,considerablecarehasgoneintothinkingaboutthe structuresandcircumstancesthataffectlivelihoods,howchangesmightbebest supported,andhowtheserelatetowiderprocessesofdevelopment.
Thisbookemergesfromaspecialissueof RegionalEnvironmentalChange in 2015;ithasdevelopedtheissuesthatwereraisedinthatinitialvolume,drawingin morechaptersfromotherSIDStobroadenaccountsoffoodsecurityandensure coverageofdifferentoceanrealms.Thechaptersexplorearangeofcircumstances fromsmallcoralatollsinMicronesiatolargerCaribbeanstatessuchasTrinidadand Tobago.Collectivelytheypointtothemanydifferentcontextsoffoodsecurity, differentresponsestotrade,socialchange,andtechnologicalinnovations,andthe needfornewpoliciesandpracticestoensuremoresecurelivelihoodsinsupportof foodsecurityandfoodsovereignty.
Wewouldliketothankalltheauthorsthatcontributedtothisvolume,aswellas theworkofArletteSaintVille,GordonM.Hickey,andPatsyLewisonthe2015 specialissueof RegionalEnvironmentalChange thatwasthegenesisofthisvolume.
Acknowledgements Wewouldliketothanktheanonymousreviewersfortheirimportantcontributiontotheoriginalmanuscriptsinthiscollection.Wearealsoverygratefulforthesupportand assistanceprovidedbytheSpringereditorialteamandfortheworkofArletteSaintVille, GordonM.Hickey,andPatsyLewisonthespecialissueof RegionalEnvironmentalChange that wasthegenesisofthisvolume.Wehopethatresearchersandpolicymakers findthework presentedinthisbookuseful.
Sydney,AustraliaJohnConnell
Brandon,CanadaKristenLowitt January2019
1FoodSecurityandSovereigntyinSmallIslandDevelopingStates: ContemporaryCrisesandChallenges 1 JohnConnell,KristenLowitt,ArletteSaintVille andGordonM.Hickey
2ClimateChangeandFoodSecurityinthePacificIslands 25 JonBarnett
3Development,GlobalChangeandFoodSecurityinPacificIsland Countries ............................................ 39 JohnR.Campbell
4LostRoots?FadingFoodSecurityinMicronesia .............. 57 JohnConnell
5Modernisation,TraditionalFoodResourceManagement andFoodSecurityonEauripikAtoll,FederatedStates ofMicronesia 77 AndrewScourseandCorinneWilkins
6FramingFoodSecurityinthePacificIslands: ResilienceinMalo,Vanuatu 91 MatthewG.Allen
7PostharvestLossinFruitandVegetableMarketsinSamoa ...... 111 StevenJ.R.Underhill,ShukrullahSherzad,YuchanZhou, SeeseeiMolimau-SamasoniandSemuaMilitiniTagoai
8CantheTropicalWesternandCentralPacifi cTunaPurse SeineFisheryContributetoPacifi cIslandPopulation FoodSecurity? ........................................ 133 GrahamM.Pilling,SheltonJ.Harley,SimonNicol,PeterWilliams andJohnHampton
9AddressingFoodandNutritionInsecurityintheCaribbean ThroughDomesticSmallholderFarmingSystemInnovation 157 ArletteSaintVille,LeroyE.PhillipandGordonM.Hickey
10Knowledge,MarketsandFinance:FactorsAffecting theInnovationPotentialofSmallholderFarmers intheCaribbeanCommunity .............................
KristenLowitt,GordonM.Hickey,ArletteSaintVille, KaywanaRaeburn,TheresaThompson-Colón,SoniaLaszlo andLeroyE.Phillip
11FisheriesGovernanceandFoodSecurityintheEastern Caribbean ............................................
PatrickMcConney,Shelly-AnnCoxandKemrajParsram
12FoodSecurityandLivelihoodVulnerabilitytoClimateChange inTrinidadandTobago 219 KalimU.Shah,HariBanshaDulalandMohammedT.Awojobi
13TheRoleofSocialCapitalinInfluencingKnowledgeFlows andInnovationinSt.Lucia 239 ArletteSaintVille,GordonM.Hickey,UliLocher andLeroyE.Phillip
14EatingMeatorEatingMoney?FactorsIn fluencing Animal-SourceFoodConsumptioninTimor-Leste .............
JohannaT.Wong,BrigitteBagnol,HeatherGrieve, JoanitaBenditadaCostaJong,MuLiandRobynG.Alders
15WildFoodsandFoodSecurity:TheCaseofTimor-Leste
WilliamErskine,AnitaXimenes,DianaGlazebrook, MarcelinodaCosta,ModestoLopes,LucSpyckerelle, RobertWilliamsandHarryNesbitt
Contributors RobynG.Alders SchoolofLifeandEnvironmentalSciencesandCharlesPerkins Centre,UniversityofSydney,Sydney,Australia; InternationalRuralPoultryCentre,KyeemaFoundation,Brisbane,Australia; InternationalRuralPoultryCentre,KyeemaFoundation,Maputo,Mozambique; CentreforGlobalHealthSecurity,ChathamHouse,London,UK
MatthewG.Allen SchoolofGovernment,DevelopmentandInternationalAffairs, TheUniversityoftheSouthPacifi c,Suva,Fiji
MohammedT.Awojobi BidenSchoolofPublicPolicyandAdministration, UniversityofDelaware,Newark,DE,USA
BrigitteBagnol SchoolofLifeandEnvironmentalSciencesandCharlesPerkins Centre,UniversityofSydney,Sydney,Australia; DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityoftheWitwatersrand,Johannesburg, SouthAfrica; InternationalRuralPoultryCentre,KyeemaFoundation,Brisbane,Australia; InternationalRuralPoultryCentre,KyeemaFoundation,Maputo,Mozambique
JonBarnett SchoolofGeography,TheUniversityofMelbourne,Melbourne, Australia
JohnR.Campbell GeographyProgramme,UniversityofWaikato,Hamilton, NewZealand
TheresaThompson-Colón DepartmentofAnimalScience,Facultyof AgriculturalandEnvironmentalSciences,McGillUniversity, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue,QC,Canada
JohnConnell SchoolofGeosciences,UniversityofSydney,Sydney,Australia
Shelly-AnnCox CentreforResourceManagementandEnvironmentalStudies (CERMES),TheUniversityoftheWestIndies,CaveHillCampus,Bridgetown, Barbados ix
MarcelinodaCosta SeedsofLifeEastTimor,Dili,Timor-Leste; MinistryofAgriculture,ForestryandFisheries,Comoro,Dili,Timor-Leste
HariBanshaDulal KennedySchoolofGovernment,HarvardUniversity, Cambridge,MA,USA
WilliamErskine SchoolofPlantBiology,CentreforPlantGeneticsand Breeding,InstituteofAgriculture,UniversityofWesternAustralia,Crawley,WA, Australia
DianaGlazebrook SeedsofLifeEastTimor,Dili,Timor-Leste
HeatherGrieve Dili,Timor-Leste
JohnHampton OceanicFisheriesProgramme,ThePaci ficCommunity,Nouméa, NewCaledonia
SheltonJ.Harley MinistryofPrimaryIndustries,Wellington,NewZealand
GordonM.Hickey DepartmentofNaturalResourceSciences,Facultyof AgriculturalandEnvironmentalSciences,McGillUniversity, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue,QC,Canada
JoanitaBenditadaCostaJong VeterinaryandLivestockServices,Ministryof AgricultureandFisheries,Dili,Timor-Leste
SoniaLaszlo DepartmentofEconomics,FacultyofArts,McGillUniversity, Montreal,QC,Canada
MuLi SchoolofPublicHealth,UniversityofSydney,Sydney,Australia
UliLocher DepartmentofSociology,McGillUniversity,Montreal,QC,Canada
ModestoLopes SeedsofLifeEastTimor,Dili,Timor-Leste; MinistryofAgriculture,ForestryandFisheries,Comoro,Dili,Timor-Leste
KristenLowitt DepartmentofGeographyandEnvironment,BrandonUniversity, Brandon,MB,Canada
PatrickMcConney CentreforResourceManagementandEnvironmentalStudies (CERMES),TheUniversityoftheWestIndies,CaveHillCampus,Bridgetown, Barbados
SeeseeiMolimau-Samasoni PlantsandPostharvestTechnologiesDivision, Scientifi cResearchOrganisationofSamoa,Apia,Samoa
HarryNesbitt SchoolofPlantBiology,CentreforPlantGeneticsandBreeding, UniversityofWesternAustralia,Crawley,WA,Australia; SeedsofLifeEastTimor,Dili,Timor-Leste
SimonNicol InstituteforAppliedEcology,UniversityofCanberra,Canberra, ACT,Australia
KemrajParsram EnvironmentalPlanningAgency(EPA),Georgetown,Guyana
LeroyE.Phillip DepartmentofAnimalScience,FacultyofAgriculturaland EnvironmentalSciences,McGillUniversity,Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue,QC,Canada
GrahamM.Pilling OceanicFisheriesProgramme,ThePacificCommunity, Nouméa,NewCaledonia
KaywanaRaeburn DepartmentofEconomics,UnionCollege,Schenectady,NY, USA
AndrewScourse FormerlyoftheSchoolofMathematics,Universityof Cambridge,Cambridge,UK
KalimU.Shah BidenSchoolofPublicPolicyandAdministration,Universityof Delaware,Newark,DE,USA
ShukrullahSherzad FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations, Sub-RegionalOfficeforthePacifi cIslands,Apia,Samoa
LucSpyckerelle SeedsofLifeEastTimor,Dili,Timor-Leste
SemuaMilitiniTagoai PlantsandPostharvestTechnologiesDivision,Scienti fic ResearchOrganisationofSamoa,Apia,Samoa
StevenJ.R.Underhill AustralianCentreforPaci ficIslandResearch,University oftheSunshineCoast,SunshineCoast,QLD,Australia; QueenslandAllianceforAgricultureandFoodInnovation,TheUniversityof Queensland,StLucia,Australia; SchoolofNaturalResourceandAppliedSciences,SolomonIslandsNational University,Honiara,SolomonIslands
ArletteSaintVille DepartmentofNaturalResourceSciences,Facultyof AgriculturalandEnvironmentalSciences,McGillUniversity, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue,QC,Canada
CorinneWilkins DepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs(Defra), London,UK
PeterWilliams OceanicFisheriesProgramme,ThePaci ficCommunity,Nouméa, NewCaledonia
RobertWilliams SchoolofPlantBiology,CentreforPlantGeneticsand Breeding,UniversityofWesternAustralia,Crawley,WA,Australia; SeedsofLifeEastTimor,Dili,Timor-Leste
JohannaT.Wong SchoolofLifeandEnvironmentalSciencesandCharles PerkinsCentre,UniversityofSydney,Sydney,Australia
AnitaXimenes SeedsofLifeEastTimor,Dili,Timor-Leste; MinistryofAgriculture,ForestryandFisheries,Comoro,Dili,Timor-Leste
YuchanZhou AustralianCentreforPaci ficIslandResearch,Universityofthe SunshineCoast,SunshineCoast,QLD,Australia
Chapter1 FoodSecurityandSovereigntyinSmall IslandDevelopingStates:Contemporary CrisesandChallenges JohnConnell,KristenLowitt,ArletteSaintVilleandGordonM.Hickey
Abstract SmallIslandDevelopingStates(SIDS)arewidelyrecognizedasaspecial caseforsustainabledevelopmentduetotheuniquesetofchallengesandvulnerabilitiestheyface.WhileSIDSareadiversegroupofnations,mostsharesuchcharacteristicsaslimitedlandavailability,insularity,susceptibilitytonaturaldisasters anddeepintegrationintoglobalmarketsthatmakethemparticularlyvulnerableto globalenvironmentalandeconomicchangeprocesses.Suchprocessesandchanges areincreasinglyplayingoutintherealmoffoodsecurity.Inthischapter,anoverview isgivenofthekeysocial–ecologicalvulnerabilitiesdrivingSIDSfoodsecurityin differentcontexts,includinginherentproblemsofecologyandlocation;particular trajectoriesofdevelopmentwheremodernity,migrationandurbanizationhavedistancedmanypeoplefromagriculturalsystems;newstructuresoftradethathave disadvantagedsmallstatesandcontributedtoshiftsinnutritionalpatterns;governance;andthegrowingsignificanceofclimatechange.Thechaptersthatcomprise thisvolumeareoutlinedanddrawnontooffernewdirectionsforhowpolicyand practicemightbettersupportmoreresilientSIDSfoodsystems.
Keywords Environmentalchange · Foodsecurity · Smallislanddeveloping states · Nutrition · Health · Trade · Governance
J.Connell(B)
SchoolofGeosciences,UniversityofSydney,Sydney,Australia
e-mail: john.connell@sydney.edu.au
K.Lowitt
DepartmentofGeographyandEnvironment,BrandonUniversity,Brandon,MB,Canada
e-mail: lowittk@brandonu.ca
A.SaintVille · G.M.Hickey
DepartmentofNaturalResourceSciences,FacultyofAgriculturalandEnvironmentalSciences, McGillUniversity,Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue,QC,Canada
e-mail: Arlette.saintville@mail.mcgill.ca
G.M.Hickey
e-mail: Gordon.hickey@mcgill.ca
©SpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd.2020
J.ConnellandK.Lowitt(eds.), FoodSecurityinSmallIslandStates, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8256-7_1
1.1Introduction:TheSIDSandFoodSecurity Thisbookprovidesacontemporaryoverviewofthesocial,ecological,economicand politicalvulnerabilities1 thatdrivefoodandnutritioninsecurityindifferentSmall IslandDevelopingStates(SIDS)contexts,includingbothhighislandsandatolls, fromthePacifictotheCaribbean.Itexaminesthehistoricalandcontemporarycircumstancesthathaveaccompaniedtheshiftsfromafocusonsubsistenceproduction totheconsumptionofimportedprocessedfoodsanddrinks,andtheimpactofthis transitiononnutritionandontheriseofnon-communicablediseases.Italsoassesses thechallengestoreversingthistrend,andhowmoreeffectivesocialandeconomic policies,agriculturalandfisheriesstrategies,andgovernancearrangementsmight bettersupportmoreresilientandsustainablesmallislandfoodsystems.Ittherefore offersboththeoreticalandpracticalperspectives,bringingtogetherformerlydistinct policyareassuchasagriculture,foodandnutrition,commerce,health,planningand socio-economicpolicy.
SIDSwerefirstrecognizedasadistinctbutdiversegroupofcountries(including somenon-independentstates)withparticularsize-relatedproblemsandneedsatthe UnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopment(UNCED)inBarbadosin1992.TheUnitedNationshassinceclassified52countriesandterritoriesas SIDS,themajorityofwhicharelocatedintheCaribbeanandPacificregions(United Nations 2011).ThisbookprimarilyexcludesSIDSwithsubstantiallymorethana millionpeople(suchasCubaandtheDominicanRepublic)wherecircumstances associatedwithsmallsize(areaandpopulation)andsocio-economiccontextsare somewhatdifferent.However,thebookincludesseveralreferencestoPapuaNew Guinea,anationthatincludesmanysmallerMelanesianislandswithsimilaritiesto thoseofnearbyVanuatuandFiji.
AllSIDSareconsideredvulnerabletoenvironmentalshocksandsharecharacteristicsofsmallsize,limitedresourcesandover-dependenceontrade(andimports). Collectively,thesecharacteristicsexacerbatethechallengesofachievingtheUnited NationsSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)by2050.DevelopmentinSIDSis furtheraffectedbyhighcommunication,energyandtransportationcosts,irregular internationaltransportvolumes,disproportionatelyexpensivepublicadministration, andscarcephysicalandskilledhumanresourcesthatpreventeconomiesofscale, especiallyinarchipelagicstatessuchasKiribatiandtheMaldives.SIDSuniquechallengesarecomingundermoreintensepressureatatimeofincreasingglobalization andenvironmentalchange(McGillivrayetal. 2010;GanpatandIsaac 2014;Pelling andUitto 2001;Scandurraetal. 2018).
OneareawherethevulnerabilityofSIDStoglobalchangeisincreasinglybeing playedoutisfoodsecurity,identifiedasapriorityattheThirdInternationalConferenceonSIDSconvenedbytheUNin2014inSamoa.Alreadytypifiedbybeing
1 Inthisbook,weemploytheconceptofvulnerabilityasa“diagnostictooltogaugetheinherent limitationsanddependenciesofcommunitiesexperiencingchange”,whilealsorecognizingthat vulnerabilityisapower-ladenconcept,withpotentiallysignificantimplicationsforthepopulations beinglabelledasvulnerable(HaalboomandNatcher 2012).
particularlyhazard-prone,byvirtueoflongcoastlinesrelativetolandareas,SIDSare amongthemostsusceptibleplacestotheimpactsofclimatechange.Moreextreme weatherevents,sealevelrise,stressedwaterresourcesduetochangesinrainfall patterns,intermittentdroughtsandacidificationoftheoceansallposethreatstothe agriculturalandfisheriesresourcesunderlyingtheirlocalfoodsystems(UNFCC 2007).Inrecentyears,forexample,partsofTuvalu,KiribatiandtheCookIslands haveexperienceddroughtsthathavenecessitatedtheimportoffreshwater,while intensecyclonesinVanuatu,FijiandTongaintheSouthPacificandhurricanesin theCaribbeanislandsofDominicaandBarbudahavedevastatedagriculturalproduction.Inlightofthesethreats,SIDSacrosstheworldhavedemonstratedleadershipin formingglobalcoalitionstoensureclimatechangebecomesamatterofinternational diplomacy(OurbakandMagnan 2018;Sealey-Huggins 2017).
Interactingwithenvironmentalchangeprocessesareinequitiesinglobaltrade, risingfoodprices,underdevelopeddomesticfoodsystemsandlimitedlocalfood productioncapacities(AllianceofSmallIslandStates 2012;UnitedNations 2011). Atthehouseholdlevel,foodinsecurityissuesinSIDSareincreasinglypresenting themselvesintheformofhighratesofchronicNon-CommunicableDiseases(NCDs) includingdiabetes,strokesandhypertension,spurredbymoreglobalizeddietsand increasingimportationofenergy-densefoods(Chaseetal. 2014;Francisetal. 2010; PAHO/WHO 2012).ObesitylevelsinseveralPacificSIDSputthemintheworld’s topten.
Despitethesignificanceoftheseissues,relativelylittleresearchfocushasbeen giventotheparticularcontextoffoodsecurityinSIDS,wherenaturalresourcesare scarceandresidentshavelimitedflexibilityinusinganddevelopingresources.This isremarkableatatimewhenthemostrecentglobalreportoftheFAOhasindicated that,afteraperiodofdecline,worldhungerisrisingagainand,despitearguingthat thetrendtowardsfoodinsecurityisduetoclimate-relatedchanges,gaveverylittle attentiontoSIDS(FAO 2018,cf.Fanzoetal. 2018).
Generally,SIDS-relatedfoodsecurityresearchhasnotbeenparticularlywell integrated.Researchonagriculturalintensification,forexample,hasoftenhada relativelynarrowfocusonspecificsubcomponentsofeitherhumanlivelihoods(such asincome),productiontechnologies(suchasirrigationorenhancedseedvarieties) orofecosystemservices(suchasbiodiversity).Similarly,studiesfocusingonthe socialcontextoffisheries,includingtheircontributionstofoodsecurity,areoften divorcedfromstudiesfocusedonmanagementandconservation(Chuenpagdeeand Jentoft 2018).Consequently,thereisaneedtoimproveourunderstandingofthe differentsocial–ecologicalcontextsaffectingfoodsecurityinSIDSacrossthefood system(BlancardandHoarau 2013;CamplingandRosalie 2006;Campling 2006; ScheyvensandMomsen 2008).
Collectively,thechaptersinthisbookexaminethecomplexandinterconnected factorsthatshapeSIDSfoodsystems,atmultiplescales,andconsiderhowtheir adaptivecapacitycanbebettersupportedtoensurefoodsecurity.Asastartingpoint forunderstandingfoodsecurity,weusethe1996FoodandAgricultureOrganizationdefinitionwhichstates:‘Foodsecurityexistswhenallpeople,atalltimes,have physicalandeconomicaccesstosufficient,safeandnutritiousfoodthatmeetstheir
dietaryneedsandfoodpreferencesforanactiveandhealthylife’.Thisdefinitionis commonlyfurtherbrokendownintothedimensionsoffoodaccess,availability,utilizationandstability(FAO 2008).FoodsecurityisacentralcomponentoftheUnited NationsSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)withagriculturalintensificationof akeystrategyforendinghungerwhileachievinggenderequality,reducingpoverty, increasinghealthandwell-beingandthesustainableuseofmarineandterrestrial ecosystems.
Increasingly,discussionsconcerningfoodsecurityhavebroadenedtoalsoinclude socialissuessuchastherolesofcultureandidentity,communitywell-being,sustainablelivelihoodsandfoodasahumanright(seeHolt-Gimenez 2011).Thishasledto theconceptoffoodsovereignty,whichbringsgreaterattentiontothepoliticsoffood security,withquestionsofgovernance,powerandjusticeattheforefront(DeKeyser etal. 2018).Foodsovereigntyassertsthatallpeoplehavetherighttofood,that democracyisfundamentaltothisrealizationandthatdecisionsaboutfoodsystems, includingmarkets,formsofproductionandfoodcultures,shouldbemadeforemost bythelocalpeoplewhodependonthem(Wittmanetal. 2011;Patel 2012;Fairbairn 2010).Foodsovereigntyisoftenunderstoodaskeytoachievingfoodsecurityand isparticularlyrelevanttoSIDSbecauseoftheirgenerallyhighdependenceontrade andoftenlimitedinvolvementinproduction(PaddockandSmith 2018).
Itisimportanttoacknowledgethattheconceptsoffoodsecurityandfood sovereigntyarefluid,changingandgenerallycomplementary,withtheformerbeing moreneutralonpowerrelationsandthelatterfocusedmuchmoreonwhocontrols themeansofproduction(GordilloandJeronimo 2013).Wethereforedrawonboth conceptsinourdiscussionofthefoodsystemchallengesandissuesfacingSIDSto informandidentifyareasrequiringfurtherresearchandpolicyattention.Wenow turntointroducingthemajorthemesofthebook,organizedintermsofthekey factorsinfluencingfoodsecurityinSIDS,andpresentthechaptersthatcomprise thiscollection.Weconcludebyconsideringhowpoliciesandgovernanceresponses mightbebetterintegratedintosupportofmoreresilientsmallislandfoodsystems.
1.2MajorThemesoftheBook 1.2.1Modernity,CultureandConvenience:SocialChange andDecliningFoodSystemsDiversity
ImportantregionalandlocaldifferencesexistbetweenSIDSthathavecontributed tovariationsinthestructureandroleofgovernance.Hence,thesechaptersidentify arangeoffactorsanddifferentpatternsofdevelopmentthathavegivenrisetofood andnutritionsecuritychallenges.VirtuallythroughouttheSIDS,therehavebeen arangeofhistoricaltrajectoriesofchange,looselyandmorerecentlyconceptualizedasglobalization.Suchdriversofchangeincludecolonialism,decolonisation, missionization,trade,transport,migration,urbanizationandtheascentofmulti-
plemodernities.Necessarilytheirimpacthasvariedenormouslyaccordingtothe locationofSIDS,theirsize,resources,climate,culturaldistinctivenessandcolonial policies.However,allSIDShavebeenshapedinsomewaybybothinternalfacets ofgeographyandculture,andbythevariableinfluencesemanatingfrombeyond.In manycases,globalizationhasmeantasubsequentweakeninginsystemsoffoodselfprovisioning,andmostrecentlyadecline,eveninsomecasesacompletecollapse, ofexport-orientedagriculturalproductionsystems.
Thesedistinctivedirectionsandtheirregionalvariationsaredescribedinseveral chaptersinthisvolume.Campbell(Chap. 3),Connell(Chap. 4)andSaintVille etal.(Chap. 9)allprovideimportantinsightsintotheconsequencesandrelevanceof historyforSIDSfoodsecurityintheformofunderdevelopeddomesticfoodsystems, highrelianceonenergy-densefoodimportsanddiet-relatedhealthproblems.Saint Villeetal.(Chap. 9)furtherarguethatCaribbeanSIDSarestrugglingtobreakout ofanengrainedexport-orientedagriculturalpolicyframeworkwhichlimitstheir abilitytosupportanddevelopdiversedomesticsmallholderfarmingsystemsdespite thecollapseoftraditionalexportcommoditymarkets.MauritiusandSaoTomeand Principeareinthesameposition.
Particularchallengestofoodproductionandfoodsecurityexistinsomeplacesdisadvantagedbygeography.Coralatollsofferpoorsoilswhereplantdiversityislimited, andoftenexperiencenaturalhazardssuchaswindandwaveerosion.Despiteoften productivelagoons,andadiversityofmarinespecies,foodshortagesarenotunusual (andaccountedforsignificantmobilityinpre-contacttimes).Difficultiesareaccentuatedwherepopulationdensitiesarehighandhouseholdshaveonlylimitedaccessto land.Smallatollshavebeenparticularlydisadvantaged.TheCarteretIslands,Papua NewGuinea(PNG)haveexperiencedfoodshortagesofvaryingseverity,especially sincethe1960s,associatedwithasteadilygrowinghumanandpigpopulation,the increaseduseofcoconutsforcopratogenerateincome,andlandshortagesthathave givenrisetooutmigration(Connell 2016).Theparticularproblemsofachieving foodsecurityonEauripik(FederatedStatesofMicronesia.FSM),oneofthesmallestandmostdenselypopulatedatollsinthePacific,arewelldescribedbyScourse andWilkins(Chap. 5),andmoregenerallydescribedforthefiveMicronesianSIDS byConnell(Chap. 4).
Incontrasttothedifficultiesexperiencedbyresidentsofcoralatolls,highislands offermuchgreaterpotentialforfoodproductionbasedonbettersoils,diverseecologies,accesstoland,lowerpopulationdensities,andusuallyfewernaturalhazards. However,thereaselsewhere,pressuresonlandexist,localpeoplehaveshiftedfrom subsistencetocashcropproduction,foodimportshavebecomesignificantanddiets areincreasinglydominatedbyimportedprocessedfoodsoftenhighinfat,sugar andsalt,leadingtoanincreaseinobesityanddiet-relatedNCDs.Allen’saccount ofagriculturalchangeandnutritiononMaloisland,Vanuatu(Chap. 6)istypical ofrecentchangesinvillagesinmanyMelanesianSIDSthatareneitherparticularly remotenorexperiencingamarkedurbaninfluencebutexperiencingnutritionalshifts characteristicofmostSIDS.
Despitethedriversofmodernityandglobalization,mostSIDSpopulationsremain inruralareasandagricultureandfishingprovidevaluablelivelihoods.Inaddition,
agricultureandfishingcontributeasignificantproportion(sometimestheentirety) ofexports,generateleasefees(infisheries),enablelocalmarketprovisionandare thekeytofoodsecurityandnutritionalwell-being.Subsistence-basedeconomies inSIDShavelastedlongerthaninmanyotherpartsoftheworld,especiallyinthe PacificandsurvivingbestintheMelanesianSIDSofSolomonIslandsandVanuatu. Yet,diversityoflandandseaproductionisdeclining,asevenremotepeople haveabsorbedacasheconomyignoringtraditionalstaplesandimportingfoodfrom distantplaces.Inseveralislandcontexts,agriculturalworkhasbeendisparagedas demeaningandunworthy(Connell 2013).Ashiftawayfromtraditionalstaplesposes particularproblemsforfoodsecurityafternaturalhazardevents.Rootcropssuchas taroaremoreresistanttocyclones,hencewhenFijiexperiencedaseriesofcyclones inthemid-1980stherewasagreatersubsequentdependenceonimportedfoods thanmighthithertohavebeenexpectedsincelesslabour-intensivetarowasbeing planted(Chung 1987).Insomeplaces,suchasinKadavu(Fiji),‘arichtraditionof agrodiversitypersistsinadversity…becauseofgeographicisolationandascarcityof profitableexportcommodities’(Kuhlken 2007:72).However,thereandelsewhere, thepersistenceofadistinctiveagriculturalsystemhasbeenasmuch‘theproductof anexternallyimposedpoliticaleconomymorethanofconsciousresistance’(BaylissSmithetal. 1988:8).Theconsiderabledifficultyofsecuringamiddlegroundbetween achievingtheretentionandpromotionoflocal‘traditional’foodsandbalancingthis withimportedfoods,whichmaybecostlybutofferstatuswithnegativenutritional consequences,isaubiquitoushealthandeconomicchallenge.However,despitethe vulnerabilitiesSIDSface,Allen(Chap. 6)remindsusthatanarrativeofadecline intofoodinsecurityshouldnotbeequallyappliedtoallSIDS.Basedonthechanging contextofMalo(Vanuatu),Allenfoundconsiderableevidenceofresilienceinthe island’sfoodsystem,ascommunitiesforgedlocallyappropriatesolutionstofood insecurityandsustainabilitychallengesbyadaptingtheirtraditionalpracticesand institutionstonewglobalrealities.
Atthehouseholdlevel,asuiteofinteractingfactorshelpstoexplainwhy somehavemanagedtomaintainadequateaccesstonutritiousfood.Shahetal. (Chap. 12)lookatthefactorsinfluencinghouseholdfoodsecurityincoastal wetlandcommunitiesofTrinidadandTobagointhecontextofintensifyingclimatechange.Ingeneral,householdsthataremorefoodsecureinSIDShave relativelygoodaccesstousefulland,whichenablesarangeoffoodplants, andaccesstoincomethroughthesaleofbothexportcropsandfreshproduce, whichusuallymeansashortdistancetomarkets.Accesstolocalfoodmarketsofferstheabilitytoearnincomefromthesaleoffreshproduceaswellas purchasefoodsinlocalstores,enablingmorediverseconsumptionpossibilities. Challengesaresignificantwheresurplusesdonotexist,marketsareremoteand transportandstorageisdifficult(seeSchandletal. 2011),andlimitedincomes reducetheoptionsavailableforpurchase.Whilethechaptersinthisvolumelargely focusonfoodsecurityathousehold,islandandnationallevels,importantintrahouseholdvariationscanalsooccur.Forexample,inTimor-Leste,meninvariably takesomedegreeofprecedenceasdescribedbyWongetal.(Chap. 14).
1.2.2EnvironmentalManagement ManagementofnaturalresourcesandthecapacityforlocalinvolvementingovernanceisalsoofcentralimportancetofoodsecurityinSIDS,withmanagement practices,andtheirabsence,varyingconsiderablyacrossislands.Inthecaseofsmallscalefisheries,thewidespreadexistenceoftraditionalfisheriesprotectionstrategies (suchasclosedseasons,restrictedareasandconstraintsontechniques)isindicative oftheperceivedneedforconservationinthepast(attimesofsmallerpopulations andgreaternecessityforself-reliance).Socialchangeanddiversemarketpressures havemeantthatinmanycasesconservationpracticeshavedisappeared,evenin relativelyremoteareas.Atthesametime,managementpracticeshavecomeunder increasedpressurewithsustainedentryintothecasheconomy,increasedcapacityforexploitationthroughimprovedgeartechnology(e.g.nylonnets,spearguns, snorkellingmasks,waterprooftorches),changingsocial,politicalanddemographic circumstances,weakenedleadership,andreducedrespectforcustoms(Winthorpe 2004;Connell 2013).InFiji,ithasbeensuggestedthatyoungpeopleplacelessvalue onmanagementandviewtheseathroughacommercialratherthan‘traditional’lens (DeMersandKahui 2012).Blastinghaskilledoffsignificantproportionsofreefs insomeareas.Necessarily,therefore,thereisalsopotentialforpositiveinnovations infisheriesmanagementatthecommunitylevelasdescribedbyMcConneyetal. (Chap. 11).
Pressuresoninshorefisheriesaregreatestaroundgrowingurbanareas,especially wherethepoortakeadvantageofthiseconomicandsubsistenceresource,where populationsareinfluxandregulatoryregimesineffectiveorabsentinaleadership vacuum.Thishasoftenresultedinconflictsoveraccesstomarineresourcesand fishinggrounds,thefailureofmarineprotectedareasandreductioninspeciesavailability(AswaniandSabetian 2009;Cinner 2009;Bakeretal. 2015).Fishinghas becomelessproductivearoundsomeurbanareas,suchasaroundthetownsofGizo (SolomonIslands),Majuro(MarshallIslands)andFunafuti(Tuvalu)wherelagoons havebecomepollutedandwhereoverfishingoccurs(e.g.McCubbinetal. 2017;Paddock 2017).Perhapsunusually,subsidiesandloansfromgovernmentandfromthe nationaldevelopmentbankhaveexacerbatedovercapacityandoverfishinginFiji, eventuallypushingevenexperiencedfishermenbelowthepovertyline(DeMersand Kahui 2012).IntheGalapagos,overfishing,speciesdecline,ecosystemstressand distancetoportsarecorrelated(Edgaretal. 2010).OnpartsofUpolu(Samoa)and inRodrigues(Mauritius),declinesininshorefishcatcheshavebeenattributedto sedimentationofreefsasaresultofdeforestation(includingmangroveremoval)and agriculture,asituationcertainlymorewidespread.Likewise,managementoflagoon andoceanicfisherieshascomeunderpressure.Pressuresarelikelytoincreasefurther withthecontinuedriseofamiddleclass,especiallyinAsia,associatedwithgreater demandsforfishconsumption.
Theimpactofmanydifferentpressuresoninshorefisherieshasbeenpoorlydocumented,butithasbeenpredicted,atleastforthePacificIslands,thatovertheperiod 2010–2035:
theamountoffisheryproductsoriginatingfromcoastalfisheriesthatisaccessibletourban residentswilldeclinesharplyduetooverexploitationandhabitatdestruction.Agrowing proportionofthepopulationwillnotbeabletocatchsufficientfishtoprovideforhousehold consumption,andpurchasedfishwillbecomerelativelyexpensive.Foodsecurityissueswill growtremendouslyinimportance(GillettandCartwright 2010:7).
ThisscenarioisprobablyalreadyinplaceinseveralCaribbeanSIDS,asitappears tobeinRodrigues(Mauritius),whereweakenforcementoffisheriesregulationsand alackofincomegeneratingalternatives‘havecreatedahistoryofnoncompliance anddegradingfisheries’(PetersonandStead 2011:2).Geographicalvariationsin theextentofdepletionofinshorefisheriesareconsiderable,withsomeofthegreatestdeclineofinshorefisheriesexperiencedinCaribbeanSIDS,stronglyassociated withpopulationdensity,increasedfishingandhumanimpactsonreefs.Largerfish, onceabundantintheCaribbean,areincreasinglyabsentfromhigh-densityareas, especiallyintheAntilles,butremainnearuninhabitedislands.Largerfisharemore likelytoexperiencedeclinessincetheyaretargetedbyfishers,maturemoreslowly andoftenformaggregations,whichincreasestheirvulnerability.Theconsequence ofshortagesishigherpricesbeyondthereachofmanyurbanpeople.
Inadditiontofisheries,pressureonforestshasaccentuated;biodiversityhas declinedsharplyandwoodhasgraduallybecomeacommodity.InlargepartsofPNG, includingsouthBougainville(Connell 1978),huntingandgatheringhavedeclined considerablyinrecenttimesbecauseofthedestructionandpollutionofhabitats, theavailabilityofsuperiortechnology(guns)andextirpationofsomespecies.Land grabshavebeencommoninseveralprimecoastalareas,notleastinVanuatu,takingagriculturallandoutofproductionandfundamentallychallenginglocalfood sovereignty.Consumptionofwildfoodshasalsodeclinedinsomeareasbecause ‘bushfoods’areassociatedwithsubsistencelifestylesandthe‘denialofsocialand economicprogress’(Paddock 2017:104).Nonetheless,thediversitythatwildfoods offercanbeinvaluablefornutrition.Chapters 14 and 15 offeruniqueinsightsinto wildfoodconsumptioninTimor-Leste,amongthepoorestoftheSIDS.Inastudy onmaternalandchilddietdiversity,Wongetal.(Chap. 14)foundnutritiontobe superiorinvillageswherehuntingandgatheringinforestareasremainspossible. Erskineetal.(Chap. 15),basedonsurveysandinterviewsofhouseholdwildfood consumptionovera7-yearperiod,foundthatwhengardenfoodsarescarce,wild foodsprovideagreaterdegreeoffoodandnutritionsecurity.
1.2.3KnowledgeandLinkages Newstructuresofeducation,adeclineinlocalleadershipandagreaterdependenceondistantgovernmentshavecombinedtoreducetheextentanduseoftraditionalenvironmentalknowledgeinmanySIDS,whetheroffishingseasons,famine foodsorstrategiesformanagementofresources.InmostSIDS,environmentshave beendegraded,localfoodsecurityreduced,traditionalmechanismsandpractices forcopingwithhazardsdisregarded,andexternaldependenceincreased.InWoleai
(FederatedStatesofMicronesia(FSM)),forexample,whenhazardssuchascyclones devastatedislands,peopleonceturnedtopreservedandstoredfoodsorsoughtassistancefromtheir‘traditionalpartners’onotheratollislandsoronmoredistantatolls. Insimilarcontemporarydisasters,islandersnowturntoYapstateortheFSMgovernmentforsupport(seeConnell,Chap. 4).
Hazardshavecontributedtoshiftsinfoodconsumptionwherecriticalshortages havebeenremediedbyreliefsuppliesofmodernfoods.Forexample,thismeantthat duringthe2012droughtonNiue,mostfamilieslivedonimportedfood,including potatoes,rice,flourandbiscuits,stimulatinggrowingrelianceonthem(McNamara etal. 2015);riceconsumptioninPNGsimilarlyincreasedrapidlyafterthe2016 drought(seeCampbell,Chap. 3).Simultaneously,asaccesstodisasterreliefexists, localpeoplenolongerplantandmaintain‘faminefoods’orengageinprocessing andstorageoffoods,andknowledgeofsuchpracticesdisappears.
Adecreaseinvarietaldiversityhasoccurredinmanyplacesaspartofawider processofagriculturaldisintensification,orsimplytheabandonmentofintensive agriculturalpractices(suchasbothirrigationoftaroandtaropitsandthereplacement oftarobylessnutritiouscassava).Thishasreducedtheamountoflabourdevoted toagriculture.Taroproductionandcookingiswidelyseenasdrudgery.Disintensificationoccursforanumberofreasons,includingthereplacementofasubsistence economybyawageeconomy,lossofagriculturallabourandproductionasaresult ofmigration,theintroductionoftradestoresandstore-boughtfoods(discussedmore inthefollowingsection),thereplacementofhumanlabourbymachinery,andaccess tohigheryieldingcropsorspecies(Manner 2008;Boyd 2001;Umezakietal. 2000; GaillardandManner 2010;daCostaetal. 2013).Bycontrast,resilienceisacharacteristicofmanytraditionalagriculturalsystems,butcommercialisationhasgradually erodedthesocialsignificanceofmanytraditionalcrops,asislandershavemoved closertothecommercialeconomy.
Onsomeislandswhereexport-orientedagriculturedominatedforcenturies,traditionalknowledgeaboutcropproductionwasalsoeroded.Thisgapinknowledgehas recentlybecomeparticularlyacuteforsomefarmersinCaribbeanSIDSasexportorientedstructureshavecollapsedandtheyfindthemselveshavingtoreorienttheir livelihoodsaroundsmallholderproductionfordomesticmarkets(seeLowittetal. Chap. 10).Whilesomefarmershadsomeexperienceintendinggardensfortheir families,theknowledgeandskillsrequiredtorunasmall,independentfarmasa viablebusinessisanewventure.SaintVilleetal.(Chap. 13)provideinsightsinto howsociallearningmaybefosteredamongsmallholderfarmersinSt.Lucia,looking particularlyattheroleofsocialcapital.Localknowledgehasalsobeenchangingin someplaceswithregardtoaccessingotherresources,suchaswater,thatarevital forfoodproduction.OnlimestoneVatuleleIsland(Fiji),whichoccasionallyrequires freshwatersuppliesfromthemainisland,McInnes(1986:132–3)suggeststhatrun on
dependenceonthecentralgovernmentisinfacttheresultofnational,responsibledecisionmaking.Withregardtowaterresources,dependencyissanctionedandencouragedbygovernmentactionandisculturallyalegitimatestrategythatiseffectivelynodifferentfrom formerislandnetworkrelationships.
Ironically,localmechanismsformanagementandself-reliancehavebeendevolved upwards,fromthelocal‘privatesector’toadistantbutflaggingpublicsector.In multipleways—chosenandimposed—islandsareincreasinglypartofawiderworld andthelossofknowledgetiedtofoodsecurityisoftenpartofthatlossofconnection toplace.
1.2.4AWorldofImports Whilefoodsecurityisthreatenedbychangingproductionpractices,landlossesand environmentaldegradation,asdescribedabove,itisthreatenedjustasmuchby changingtastesandtheavailabilityofnewimportedfoods.Thetransitionfromfood productionforlocalconsumptiontotheproductionofcommoditiesforexporthas beenlongestablished,notablyinCaribbeanSIDSwheresugarandlaterbanana plantationshistoricallytookupvaluableland,andopportunitiesfordomesticfood productionwerecorrespondinglylimited.
Changingnutritionispartlyassociatedwithdeclininglocalfoodproductionand reducedcropdiversity,butalsobylowincomes,theinabilitytopurchaseadequate diets(athighmarketprices),agrowingdependenceonstorefoods,disdainfor cooking(andagriculturallabour),andthepoorqualityofcheap,readilyavailable, importedprocessedfoodsanddrinks.Insomeeyes,exclusiveconsumptionoflocal foodsevenhintsatpoverty,whilestatusandprestigearegainedfromtheconsumption ofimportedfoods.InmanySIDS,thetastepreferencesofchildrenhavecontributed toshiftsinconsumption,withtheirpreferencesforsofter,sweeterfoods,suchas two-minutenoodles,sweetbiscuits,breadandriceratherthantaroandcassava.
Importedfoodsrangefromcornedbeef,turkeytailsandmeatflapstoinstant noodles,biscuitsandsoftdrinks(e.g.Grossman 1998;Evansetal. 2001;Dixonand Jamieson 2005;Cassels 2006;Oles 2007;Foster 2008;GewertzandErrington 2010; Rudiak-Gould 2009, 2010;Thowetal. 2010;Seidenetal. 2012;Wichman 2012), afunctionofcost,status,taste,convenienceandaccessibility.Frozenfoods,from chickenstoicecreamandsoftdrinks,increasinglyfilterintoruralareas.Tinnedfish isaremarkablycommonimportinmanyislandcontexts,withimportedfishandmeat preferredtolocalversions(e.g.PotterandSluyter 2010;DixonandJamieson 2005). InWoleai(FSM),wheremorethan200speciesofediblefishinhabitthelagoon, thebest-sellingiteminmoststoresistinnedfish,asituationtypicalofmanyatoll contextsinMicronesiaandelsewhere(seeConnell,Chap. 4).Inmostsuchcontexts, asintheplantationsystemsoftheIndianOceanandthePacific,workersweregiven importedfoods—notablyriceandtinnedmeatandfish.Ricequicklybecameastaple inmanyislandsocietiesandaccountsfornumerous,mainlyunsuccessful,effortsto producericeinSIDS.
Eveninthemostremoteplaces,storesaredominatedbyimportedgoods,mainly tinnedfoods.Riceandflourhavebecomefoodstaples,sometimeseatenwithout accompanimentswhenincomesareshort(Schwarzetal. 2011;Rudiak-Gould 2009). OnVatulele(Fiji),morethanathirdofstoregoodswerefoodsandmorethanhalfof
themcamefromoutsideFiji(McInnesandConnell 1988),muchasinMartinique, where‘theproductsonitsdustyshelvesformastartlingmicrocosmoftheworld system,anastonishingtestimonytothehistoryofcolonialismandthemorerecent organizationofinternationalcommerce’(Price 1985:119).Imports,especiallyfood, haveembeddedislandersinwiderworlds.Thehumblevillagestoreistheubiquitous symbolofglobalization.
Moreover,theabilitytopurchaseandconsumeimportedfoodscanfunctionasa powerfulsymbolofmodernity,statusandthe‘goodlife’,withsomeofthese‘new’ foodstuffs—suchasrice,muttonflapsandnoodles—firmlyincorporatedintohouseholdconsumption,exchangerelationshipsandceremonies(ErringtonandGewertz 2008).Inpre-warSiwai(Bougainville,PNG)whenverylittleelsehadchanged,it wasextremelyprestigioustobeabletoincorporatericeintraditionalfeasts.Through importedfoods,individualsareconnectedwithandexperiencetheoutsideworld,and becomepowerfulthroughtheirassociationwithmoneyandmodernity(Hess 2009; Dundon 2004).Typically,comparedwithpreviousgenerations,thepercentageof store-boughtfoodshassteadilyincreased,ascashbecomesmoreavailableandtastes ofhouseholdmembersarehabituatedtoit.
Thetransitiontotheconsumptionofimportedfoodbecamemorerapidasinternal migrationandurbanizationoccurred.Migrantshadlesstimeforfoodproductionand manyhadatleastsomeability—andneed—topurchasefood,asaccesstourbanland wasunavailable.Eveninprimarilyruralcontexts,asinPNG,thetransitionwasrapid andsymbolizedinthetitleofbookssuchas FromKaukau [SweetPotato] toCoke (Jeffries 1979).Thattransitionposedproblems.Someurbanresidentswereunableto paythehighpriceofmarketproduceandonlyabletoaffordcheapimportsoflesser nutritionalvalue,ortogowithoutfoodonoccasion.Manyurbanresidentsgrow foodwheretheycanbut,astownshavegrownlarger,suchpossibilitiesdeclined asagriculturallandwasconvertedintootheruses,especiallywheretourism(and suchinfrastructureasportsandpowerstations)contributedtoacoastalsqueezethat simultaneouslymadeurbanareasmorevulnerabletohazards.IntownssuchasPort Vila(Vanuatu)urbanresidentseithertravelledlongerdistances,atsomecost,to producefoodorsimplygaveup(Petrouinpress).However,bychoiceandnecessity, urbanagricultureandhomegardeninghassurvived,eveninsuchunpropitiousand denselypopulatedplacesasthecoralcapitalsofTarawaandFunafuti(Eastand Dawes 2009).Yet,inboththeseurbancentres,itiscurrentlyalmostimpossibletofind anythingmorethanbananas,breadfruit,coconutsandfishforsale,hence,freshfood commandshighprices.Urbannutritionisthereforeparticularlyproblematicbecause oflimitedaccesstogardenland,lowincomes(whichlimitaccesstolocalproduce whichcanbeexpensive)andtherelativelylowcostofimportedfoods.Manyimported foodsarelesscostlythanlocalfreshfoods,andthusconsumedbytherelativelypoor. Thesechangingpatternsoffoodconsumptionandpoornutritionhaveparalleledan epidemiologicaltransitiontowards‘lifestylediseasesofmodernisation’,knownas non-communicablediseases(NCDs).ThehealthproblemsassociatedwithNCDs arediscussedbelow.
1.2.5Trade,WTOandPoliticalEconomy AfreeflowoftradefacilitatedbytheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO),alongwith globalinvestmentsinindustrialagriculture,hasbeensignificantincontributingto shiftsinrelativefoodpricesthatfavouranimal-sourcefoods,edibleoilsandother globalcommodities,includingsugar.Combinedwithmoreopenborders,thishas resultedinfoodimportsbeingavailableinthemostisolatedislandsoftheSouth Pacific,withrice,biscuitsandcannedfishandmeatreplacingtraditionalfoods.
AgriculturalpolicydevelopmentintheSIDSisbasedonneoliberaltradepoliciesfacilitatedbytheWTOthathavedisadvantagedsmalllocalproducersthrough competitionwithcheaperfoodfromindustrialagriculturalsystems(SaintVilleetal. 2015).Economicandtradeliberalizationreformsbeginninginthe1980shavehad theeffectofreducingdomesticcontrolsontradeandimporttariffswhichareimportanttoprotectingsmallholderfarmersinSIDS(Fordetal. 2007).AsLowittetal. (Chap. 10)discuss,supportingcollectiveactionamongfarmerscanhelpimprove theirmarketaccessandmakethemlessvulnerabletoliberalizingmarkets(Devaux etal. 2009;Markelovaetal. 2009).
ThroughouttheSIDS,foodandbeverageimportsareconsistentlyhigh,often beingmorethanathirdofthevalueofallimports,contributingsignificantlytotrade imbalances.Further,theinabilitytoretainpoliciesbanninginappropriateimports, asWTOregulationsareenforced(seeBarnett,Chap. 2),mayworsennutritionand healthamonglow-incomegroups,andcanbeseenasanerosionoffoodsovereignty. Forexample,Samoa’saccessiontotheWTOin2011meantthatitwasnolongerable toimposeabanonturkeytailsandotherproblematicimports,despitethenutritional andhealthadvantages(Thowetal. 2010;Snowdonetal. 2011).Somehavesuggested thattheaccessionprocessitselfisinherentlyflawedgiventhepowerimbalances betweenexistingandaccedingWTOmembers,andtheresultantdiminishedcontrol overfoodsuppliesandfoodsecurity(HughesandLawrence 2005;Tigerstrom 2005).
Alongsidetradeimbalances,almostwithoutexceptionSIDSarecharacterizedbyhighlevelsofmigration,bothtourbancentresandinternationally.TheMIRAB2 modelofPacificIslandmicro-economiesexplainslimited economicactivityinSIDSunmanagedbypublicpolicyasaresultofhigh importleakagefromtiedforeignaidandinternationalremittances(Bertram andWatters 1985).InsomePacificSIDS,suchasSamoaandTonga,remittanceshavebecomethesinglegreatestcomponentofnationalandhousehold incomes.Whileremittancescanplayacriticalroleforhouseholdstogainaccess toresources,theoveralltrendisforremittancestocontributelittletoselfrelianceandfoodproduction.Remittancesarecharacteristicallyinitiallydirected tohighlevelsofwelfareprovision,includingthepurchaseoffoods(Connelland Conway 2000).Theyhavethustendedtodiscouragelocalproduction,especially wherethemigrationhasbeenthatoftheproductivelabourforce,buthavesmoothed outconsumption,reducedhouseholdvulnerabilityandledtoimprovedfoodsecurity
2 MIRABisanacronymformigration(MI),remittance(R)andforeignaid(A)andthepublic bureaucracy(B).
(Thowetal. 2010).Foodtransfersthroughremittancesarealsobidirectionaland havecontributedtotheretentionofsomelocalfoods(PetrouandConnell 2017).The combinationofmigrationandremittanceshasresultedinthedeclineandabandonmentofstaplefoodsinpartsofMicronesiaandSt.Vincent,butnotinJamaica(see Connell,Chap. 4;alsoThomas-Hope 2017),withconsequentsocial,economicand environmentalcosts.Furtherresearchisneededtoexaminethenexusofmigration, remittancesandfoodsecurityinthecontextofclimatechange.Theneedtobuildadaptivecapacityandenhancefoodsecurityinlightofclimate-inducedchangesrequires improvedunderstandingoftheseinterconnectedissuesbecausetheseeconomicand climaticshocksmayleadtoworseningconditionsforthepoorandvulnerable.
1.2.6Health,NCDs(‘Diabesity’)andtheEconomics ofChoices Thetrendsintradeandpoliticaleconomydiscussedaboveintersectwithprocesses ofmodernity,urbanizationandenvironmentalchangetoinfluencehealthoutcomes inSIDS.MostSIDShaveexperiencedanepidemiologicaltransitionfrominfectious diseasestoNCDs,atransitionmostadvancedintheCaribbeanbutofenormous significanceinthePacific.Especiallyamongsttheurbanpoor,peopleareturningto cheaperbutlessnutritiousfoodimports.Povertypartlyexplainssuchshifts,as‘any governmentthatheavilytaxesthese[imported]productsorbansthemwillsufferthe ireoftheworkingpooratelectionsandsotheissueislargelyavoided’(Grynberg 2010:34).InKiribati,theformerPresident,IeremiaTabai,hasobserved,‘iftheshops arewithoutriceandsugaritisabigpoliticalissue’(quotedinConnell 2013:87).
NCDshavebeenexacerbatedbyvariousfacetsofurbanizationincludingamore sedentarylife,lackofrecreationalfacilitiesandopenspace,combinedwithincreased alcohol,softdrinkandtobaccoconsumption,especiallyincontextsofinadequate educationandhousing,lackofaccesstocleanwaterandsanitation,overcrowding, andpoverty(e.g.Calvert-Faamoeetal. 1997;Cameron 1997;Christensen 1995). Cardiovascularrisksfollowmoresedentaryandsuburbanlifestyles,bureaucratic employmentandcommutingbyvehicleratherthanbybicycleoronfoot—evenin flatcitiessuchasthoseinatollstates–whereunderinvestmentinpublictransport exacerbatestheproblem.Someofthegreatestnutritionandhealthproblemsare experiencedininformalurbansettlements.
Theseresource-poorenvironmentshavebeennotedasfostering‘anatomical,hormonalandphysiological’changesonfoetaldevelopmentthatresultsintheintergenerationaleffectsofpoornutritionwithconsequencesofobesity,NCDsandlongtermhealthimpacts(Popkinetal. 2012;4).Thisepidemiologicaltransitionhas increasedthealreadyhighpercapitahealthcarecostsandreducedtheeffectiveness ofhealthcareinsmallstateshistoricallytargetedattropicalandcommunicablediseases.ChangingdietsandmoresedentarylifestyleshaveresultedinNCDsreaching epidemicproportionsinmanystates(Connell 2013;Inaokaetal. 2007).Thisisespe-
ciallysoinMicronesia(seeConnell,Chap. 4).TheSecretary-GeneraloftheSPC, Dr.JimmieRogers,hasdeclaredthatNCDsareagreaterthreattothePacificregion thansealevelrise(quotedinConnell 2013:148).InSamoa,almost53%ofadultsare obese,23%havediabetesand21%highbloodpressure;thecostofsendingpatients overseasfortreatmentwasestimatedatabout$4.5millionin2011,whilecostswithin Samoaweresignificantlygreater(RadioNewZealandInternational,15November 2011).IntheCaribbeanaswell,hypertensionanddiabetesareasubstantialeconomic burdeninstatessuchastheBahamasandBarbados(Abdulkadrietal. 2009).
Linkedtopoverty,urbanization,tourism,greatermobilityandmigration,and renegotiationofsexualidentities,HIV/AIDSisslowlyincreasinginmostSIDS,a challengenoteasilyamenabletopolicyformation(ConnellandNegin 2010).The combinedriseofNCDsandHIV/AIDSposesachallengetohealthservicesinmost SIDSsincemanyhealthservicesareusuallyweak,under-resourcedandunderstaffed, withhighstaffturnover,andNCDsarecostlyandlabour-intensivetotreat.Health servicesareparticularlyweakinsmallerSIDS,suchasNiue(Connell 2007).Linked topoverty,suicideratesarealsohighinseveralSIDS,especiallytheMarshallIslands andFijiwherein2011incidencereachedan‘epidemiclevel’—thesecondhighest rateintheworld—especiallyamongstIndo-Fijiansinthesugarcanebeltsofthewest andnorth,wherepovertywasincreasing(RadioAustralia,7November2011).
Giventhecloseinterconnectionsamongtrade,socialmarginalizationandhealth, themosteffectiveinterventionsarenotusuallyspecifichealthandnutritioninterventionsbutarepoliciesthatreducetheextentofpovertyandeaseuptimeforexercise and,especiallyforchildren,forplay,andalsothatseektoreformthetermsoftrade. However,puttinginplacethesetypesofintegratedpoliciesisachallenge,towhich weturninthenextsection.
1.3Governanceand(Elusive)PolicyFormation Concertedeffortstodevelopandimplementeffectiveintegratedruralandregional developmentpolicieshavegenerallybeenlacking.ItisnotonlyintheCaribbeanthat ‘thepolicyofmostgovernmentsonfisherieshasappearedtobeintokenform’(Walters 1984:95).Oneexplanationforthisgapmaybetheculturalmismatchandlack ofcommonunderstandingbetweenruralcommunitiesandnationalpolicymakers (elites)(Rahmanetal. 2017).Ruralbiasanddecentralizationofservicesinfavourof fisheries,agricultureandintegratedruraldevelopmentisnearlyimplausible.Householdsthemselveshavehadtodiversifytoachievedevelopment,ashasoccurredeven onsmall,remoteislands(Turneretal. 2007;Wilson 2013).Justasmanyindividualshavemovedoutofagricultureandfisheries,wheretheycould,infavourof othereconomicactivities(or,insomecases,intounemployment),sogovernments havenotalwayslookedfavourablyonruralpeople.InMauritius,forexample,there wasreportedlyan‘island-widementalitytoviewtraditionalfishermenwithcontemptandblametheirdistressandmiseryoninsufficientvolitionandsalubrity’ (Paul 1987:144).CookIslandsagriculturalworkershavebeensimilarlydenigrated
(Alexeyeff2008).InSt.Lucia,theculturalandlinguisticgapthatseparatedbureaucratsfromfarmerssawthelatterviewedasilliterate,ignorantandincapableof innovation(Moberg 2008:89–90).
ThroughouttheSIDS,theevidencestronglyindicatesthatwherehouseholds havesomeaccesstooff-farmlivelihoods,andthusagreaterdiversityofincome sources—especiallywherethiscontributestogenderempowermentandtoemploymentduringvillagefoodshortages—nutritionislikelytobesubstantiallybetter.That isparticularlytrueincontinentalstateswhereaccesstoemploymentopportunities canbesuperior,asinGhana(Kuwornuetal. 2018);thatislesseasytoachieve,especiallyinthesmallermorefragmentedSIDS,butnotunattainable.Wherewomen’s roleshavechangedwithsomeformsofempowerment,intermsofgreatereconomic agency,accesstophysicalcapitalandgreatergenderparity,foodsecurityandfood sovereigntyaremorelikelytobeachieved(FAO 2014;Patel 2012;Sharaungaetal. 2016).Consequently,severalchaptersinthisvolumefocusontheneedformore effectivegovernmentpoliciesandpractices,bothrelatedtothegreaterinclusionof womenineveryphaseoffoodproductionandmarketing(seeWongetal.,Chap. 14) ortheprovisionofbetterinfrastructure,suchasfeederroadsandelectrification,either togainaccesstomarketsortostorefreshfoods(seePillingetal.,Chap. 8).
Manyofthechaptersinthiscollectionalsosuggestthatexperimentingwith moredecentralizedgovernancemayhelpincreaseSIDSadaptivecapacitytoglobal changeandimprovedfoodsecurity.InmanySIDS,hierarchicalgovernancestructuresdevelopedduringearliercolonialperiodsareincreasinglyill-suitedtocoordinatingresponsestofoodinsecurity.ThechaptersbySaintVilleetal.(Chap. 9),and McConneyetal.(Chap. 11)arguethatthehighlevelofcentralizedpowerheldby stateinstitutionsisconstrainingthecapacityforagriculturalsysteminnovationand collectiveactionatlocallevels.Thislikelycontributestoasituationinwhichcommunitiesfeeldisempoweredastheylooktothestateforleadership,whileworking connectionsamongcitizensandbetweencitizensandinstitutionsremainsweak.At thesametime,thechaptersbyConnell(Chap. 4)andLowittetal.(Chap. 10)highlightthatcentralizedstateinstitutionshavebeeninadequateontheirowninadvancing actiononresilientfoodandnutritionsecurityoutcomesduetothecomplexityofthe challenge.
Moreover,asconservationandmanagementofresourceshasbecomeevermore critical,itisevidentthatthisisnotalwaysoccurringatthelocallevelforarangeof reasons,principallyaspopulationpressuresonscarceresourcesincreaseandtraditionalknowledgeisignored.Theneedtovaluefarmers’knowledgewithinagriculturaldevelopmenteffortsandsupportmorepeer-to-peerknowledgeexchangeamong farmersisaddressedbyLowittetal.(Chap. 10)andSaintVilleetal.(Chap. 13). Challengesarealsoevidentinsuchareasasfoodstoragethatposetechnicaland infrastructureproblems.Post-harvestfoodlossesposeproblemsinmanycontexts, alltooevidentinUnderhilletal.accountoftheproblemsofgettingfoodtoSamoan markets(Chap. 7),emphasizingtheneedforgoodtransportandstorageinfrastructure.MoregeneralsupportformarketinginitiativesisanongoingneedforSIDS, andonethatmaybeaddressed,atleastinpart,byenhancedcollectiveactionamong farmersasexplainedbyLowittetal.(Chap. 10).
