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FoodProcessingTechnology ForWenandMolly WoodheadPublishingSeriesinFoodScience, TechnologyandNutrition
FoodProcessing Technology PrinciplesandPractice
FourthEdition
P.J.Fellows ConsultantFoodTechnologist
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ISBN:978-0-08-100523-1(online)
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PartIBasicPrinciples1
1Propertiesoffoodandprinciplesofprocessing3 1.1Compositionoffoods3 1.2Physicalproperties35
1.3Biochemicalproperties50
1.4Foodquality,safety,spoilageandshelf-life54
1.5Qualityassurance:managementoffoodqualityandsafety90
1.6Processmonitoringandcontrol105
1.7Hygienicdesignandcleaningofprocessingfacilitiesandequipment126
1.8Engineeringprinciples143 References180
Recommendedfurtherreading200
PartIIAmbientTemperatureProcessing201
2Rawmaterialpreparation203
2.1Coolingcropsandcarcasses203
2.2Cleaningfoods210
2.3Sortingandgrading219
2.4Peeling229 References231 Recommendedfurtherreading234
3Extractionandseparationoffoodcomponents235
3.1Centrifugation236
3.2Filtration245
3.3Expression252
3.4Extractionusingsolvents259
3.5Membraneseparation266
3.6Effectsonfoodsandmicroorganisms283
3.7Effectonmicroorganisms283 References284 Recommendedfurtherreading289
4Sizereduction291
4.1Sizereductionofsolidfoods292
4.2Sizereductioninliquidfoods314 References324
Recommendedfurtherreading328
5Mixing,formingandcoating329
5.1Mixing330
5.2Forming353
5.3Coatingfoods364 References380 Recommendedfurtherreading386
6Foodbiotechnology387
6.1Fermentationtechnology387
6.2Microbialenzymes406
6.3Bacteriocinsandantimicrobialingredients410
6.4Functionalfoods411
6.5Geneticmodification414
6.6Nutritionalgenomics421 References422
Recommendedfurtherreading430
7Minimalprocessingmethods431
7.1Introduction431
7.2High-pressureprocessing434
7.3Irradiation451
7.4Ozone467
7.5Pulsedelectricfieldprocessing473
7.6Pulsedlightandultravioletlight482
7.7Powerultrasound487
7.8Otherminimalprocessingmethodsunderdevelopment490 References498
Recommendedfurtherreading511
8Overviewofheatprocessing515
8.1Sourcesofheatandmethodsofapplicationtofoods515
8.2Energyuseandmethodstoreduceenergyconsumption518
8.3Typesofheatexchanger520 References521 Recommendedfurtherreading522
24.5Packagingdevelopments1005
24.6Environmentalandregulatoryconsiderations1023 References1032
Recommendedfurtherreading1044
25Fillingandsealingofcontainers1045
25.1Rigidandsemirigidcontainers1045
25.2Flexiblecontainers1060
25.3Twist-wrapping1066
25.4Shrink-wrappingandstretch-wrapping1068
25.5Tamper-evidentandtamper-resistantclosures1069
25.6Labelling1069
25.7Checkweighing1071
25.8Metaldetection1072 References1073
Recommendedfurtherreading1076
26Materialshandling,storageanddistribution1077
26.1Materialshandling1077
26.2Storage1087
26.3Logisticsandcontrolofstorageanddistribution1099 References1104
Recommendedfurtherreading1108
Index1109
Foradditionalinformationonthetopicscoveredinthebook,visitthe companionsite: http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780081019078/
Biography DrPeterFellowsisaseniorconsultantinfoodprocessing,workingmostlyin AfricaandAsia.Overthelast40years,hehasworkedextensivelyasafoodtechnologistinover20countries,supportinginstitutionsthatpromotesmall-scaleagroindustrialdevelopmentprogrammes,andidentifyingopportunitiesforpostharvest processingandagro-enterprisedevelopment.Hisworkincludesdevelopmentof informationresources,designoftrainingcourses,projectandprogrammemanagementandevaluation,andconsultanciesforenterprisesupportinstitutionsand tertiaryeducationalinstitutions.Hehasprovidedsupporttolocalproductionof ready-to-usetherapeuticfoodsinAfricaandIndiatotreatchildrensufferingfrom severe-acutemalnutritionandhehasheldtheUNESCOChairinPostharvest TechnologyatMakerereUniversity,Uganda.Beforehisconsultancywork,hewas HeadofAgroprocessingattheinternationaldevelopmentagency,PracticalAction (previouslytheIntermediateTechnologyDevelopmentGroup),wherehemanaged programmesinfoodprocessing,predominantlyinSouthAsia.Priortothishewas seniorlecturerinFoodTechnologyatOxfordBrookesUniversity.Hegraduated fromtheUniversityofReading(NationalCollegeofFoodTechnology),andafter spending2yearsinNigeriamanagingaweaningfoodproductionproject,he returnedtoReadingUniversitytocompletehisPhD,studyingthesymbioticgrowth ofedibleyeastsonfruitprocessingwastes.Inadditiontothefoureditionsof Food ProcessingTechnology,hehaswritten30bookspublishedbyPracticalAction Publications,theFoodandAgricultureOrganisationoftheUnitedNations,the UnitedNationsIndustrialDevelopmentOrganisation,theInternationalLabour OrganisationoftheUnitedNations/TOOL,andtheTechnicalCentrefor AgriculturalandRuralCooperationACP-EU(CTA).Heiseditorofthejournal FoodChain,publishedbyPracticalActionandhaswritten 50papersandarticles ondifferentaspectsoffoodprocessing.HehaslivedinruralDerbyshireinthe UnitedKingdomforover20yearsandisactiveinresearchinglocalhistory,and coeditinghisvillagenewsletter.Heispart-ownerofasharednarrowboatandeditor ofthemagazinefortheNationalAssociationofBoatOwners.
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Acknowledgements Iamindebtedtothelargenumberofpeoplewhohavegivenfreelyoftheirtime andexperience,providedmewithinformation,checkedthetextandgivenme supportduringthislatestrevisionof FoodProcessingTechnology.Mythanksto MarianaKuhl,EditorialProjectManageratElsevier,forherideas,suggestionsand administrativesupport.Myparticularthanksalsotothemanycompaniesthat respondedpositivelytomyrequestsforinformationabouttheirequipmentand products;someofwhichwentoutoftheirwaytosharetheirdetailedspecialist knowledge.Finally,butnotleast,myspecialthankstoWenforherconstructive support,encouragementandforbearanceatmylonghoursinfrontofacomputer screenovermanymonths.
PeterFellows
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Introduction Abriefhistoryoffoodprocessing Pre-historytoAD1000 Archaeologicalandethnographicevidenceindicatesthatthefirstfoodprocessing haditsoriginsinhunter gatherersocietiesinAfricathatusedheatfromopenfires orboilingwatertomakemeat,rootsandvegetablesmorepalatable.However, becauseoftheirlifestyleandtropicalclimate,theydidnotneedtopreservefoods toanysignificantextent.Thegradualchangetosettledagriculturalsocietiesnecessitatedstorageandpreservationoffoodsandby3000 1500BC,theEgyptianshad developedprocessingtechniques,includingsun-dryingtopreservefishandpoultry meat,fermentationtoproducealcohol,cerealgrindingandovenstobakeleavened bread.ThesewereslowlyadoptedbypastoralsocietiesthroughouttheMiddleEast andthenfurtherafield,topreservefoodsagainsttimesofshortage,toimprovetheir eatingqualityandtogiveamorevarieddiet.By1500BC,allofthemainfood plantsthatareusedtoday,exceptsugarbeet,werecultivatedsomewhereinthe world.
Duringtheensuing1000years,similarfoodprocessesdevelopedindependently inmanyplaces,withlocalvariationsduetodifferencesinclimate,cropsorfood preferences.EarlyprocessesdevelopedinChinaincludetofu(soybeancurd), roasteddriedmilletanddriedbeefasmilitaryrations.InJapan,saki(wine)was producedfromrice,saltmadefromdriedseaweedwasusedtopreservefoods,and soyawasprocessedtosoysauceandmiso(soypaste)toflavourfoods.InEurope, thefirstwater-poweredflourmillsandcommercialbakeriesweredevelopedbythe Romans,whoalsousedicefrommountainstorefrigeratefruitsandvegetables.In India,themanufactureofsugarfromcanehaddevelopedintheIndusValleyby 100BC(Trager,1995).Incountrieswithatemperateclimate,processingtechniquesweredevelopedtopreservefoodthroughwintermonths,includingsaltingand smokingofmeatsandfish,fermentationtoproducevinegarwhichwasalsousedto preservemeatandvegetables,andboilingfruitsorvegetablestoproducejamsor chutneys.
InthefirstmillenniumAD,thecomparativeisolationofdifferentcivilisations begantochange,andfirsttravellersandthentradersbegantoexchangeideasand foodsacrosstheworld.ForexampleinAD400,theVandalsintroducedbutterto SouthernEurope,whichwasusedinNorthernEuropetoreplaceoliveoil.By AD600,JewishmerchantshadestablishedthespicetradewiththeOrientandby AD700,thefirstwrittenlaw,whichestablishedregulationsfortheproductionof dairyproductsandpreservationoffoods,wasencodedinChina.
AD1000 1800 Bytheturnofthesecondmillennium,arapidexpansionoftradeandexchangeof foodsandtechnologiestookplacebyEuropeanexplorersandmilitaryexpeditions: forexample,in1148,knightsreturningfromthesecondCrusadebroughtsugarto EuropefromtheMiddleEast;MarcoPolobroughtnoodlesfromChina;andinthe 13thcenturytheMongolsspreadtechnologiesformakingkumiss(fermentedmare’s milk),driedcheeseandalesmadefromfermentedmilletintheirinvasionsof CentralAsiaandEasternEurope.Inthe1500s,thePortuguesebroughtclovesfrom theEastIndiesforuseinpreservesandsauces,andtodisguisespoiledmeat. Spanishconquistadorsdiscoveredsun-driedllama,duckandrabbit,whichwere eatenuncookedinPeru;andtheyreturnedwithfoodsthathadneverbeenseen beforeinEurope,includingavocado,papaya,tomato,cacao,vanilla,kidneybeans andpotatoes.OriginallypreparedasafermenteddrinkinMesoamericafrom 1900BC,chocolatewasservedasabitter,frothyliquid,mixedwithspices,wine orcornpure ´ e,beforeitsarrivalinEuropeinthe16thcentury.Thereitwasmixed withsugarandeventuallybecamethesweetconfectioneryweknowtoday.Atthe sametime,thePortugueseintroducedchillipeppersandcayennefromLatin AmericatoIndia,wheretheywereusedtopreparespiceddishes.
Associetiesdeveloped,specialisationtookplaceandtradesevolved,including millers,bakers,cheese-makers,brewersanddistillers.Variationsinrawmaterials orprocessingmethodsgaverisetothousandsofdistinctivelocalvarietiesofbreads, cheeses,beers,winesandspirits.Theseweretheforerunnersofpresent-dayfood industries,andsomefoodshavebeenincontinuousproductionfornearly800years bythesamecommunities.Duringthisperiod,mechanicalprocessingequipment usingwater,windandanimalpowerwasdevelopedtoreducethetimeandlabour involvedinprocessing;forexample,animal-poweredmillswereusedtocrush olivesforoilinMediterraneancountriesandtocrushapplesforciderinNorthern Europe.TheDomesdayBookof1086inEnglandlistsnearly6000water-and wind-poweredflourmills,oneforevery400inhabitants.Thegrowthoftownsand citiesgaveimpetustothedevelopmentofpreservationtechnologiesandthe extendedstoragelifeallowedfoodstobetransportedfromruralareastomeetthe needsofurbanpopulations.InEngland,FrancisBaconpublishedhisideasin1626 onfreezingchickensbystuffingthemwithsnow.Duringthe1600s 1700s,the slavetradehelpedchangefoodsupplies,eatinghabits,agricultureandcommerce. ShipsreturningfromdeliveringslavestoBraziltookmaize,cassava,sweetpotato, peanutsandbeanstoAfrica,wheretheyremainstaplefoods.CocoafromWest AfricawasbroughttoEuropeandin1725thefirstchocolatecompanybeganoperationinBritain.Atthistime,inMassachusetts,UnitedStates,morethan60distilleriesproducedrumfrommolassesthatwassuppliedbyslavetraders.Therum providedthecapitalneededtobuyAfricanslaves,whowerethensoldtoWest Indiansugarplanters.Asimilarcirculartradeexistedinsaltedcodfishandslaves betweenBritain,America,AfricatheCaribbeanandLatinAmerica(Kurlansky, 1997,2002).
Thescaleofoperationbyfoodprocessingbusinessesincreasedduringthe IndustrialRevolutioninthe18thcentury,buttherewasanalmosttotalabsenceof scientificunderstanding.Theprocesseswerestillbasedoncraftskillsandexperience,handeddownwithinfamiliesthatheldthesametradesforgenerations.Bythe late1700s,thefirstscientificdiscoverieswerebeingmade,resultinginchlorine beingusedtopurifywaterandcitricacidbeingusedtoflavourandpreservefoods.
1800 2000 Thefirst‘new’foodprocesswasdevelopedinFranceafterNapoleonBoneparte offeredaprizeof12,000Francstoinventameansofpreservingfoodforlongperiodsformilitaryandnavalforces.NicholasAppert,aParisianbrewerandpickler, openedthefirst‘vacuumbottlingfactory’(cannery)in1804,boilingmeatand vegetablesandsealingthejarswithcorksandtar,andhewontheprizein1809. The19thcenturysawthepaceofscientificunderstandingincrease:Russianchemist,GottliebIorchoff,demonstratedthatstarchbreaksdowntoglucoseandaDutch chemist,JohannMulder,introducedtheword‘protein’.Technologicaladvancesin canningandrefrigerationacceleratedatanunprecedentedrate.In1810,thefirst patentforatin-platedsteelcontainerwasissuedinBritain,andin1849acanmakingmachinewasdevelopedintheUnitedStatesthatenabledtwounskilled workerstomake1500cansperday,comparedto120cansperdaythatcouldbe madepreviouslybytwoskilledtinsmiths.In1861acannerinBaltimorereduced theaverageprocessingtimefromsixhoursto30minutesbyraisingthetemperature ofboilingwaterto121 Cwithcalciumchloride;andin1874,apressure-cooking retortusingsteamwasinvented,leadingtorapidexpansionoftheindustry.In1858 thefirstmechanicalrefrigeratorusingliquidammoniawasinventedinFranceand in1873thefirstsuccessfulrefrigerationcompressorwasdevelopedinSweden.The pasteurisationprocess,namedafterFrenchchemistandmicrobiologistLouis Pasteur,wasdevelopedin1862.Towardstheendofthe19thcentury,increasedscientificunderstandingledthechangeawayfromsmall-scale,craft-basedindustry, andbythestartofthe20thcentury,thefoodindustryaswenowknowitwas becomingestablished.Technologicaladvancesgatheredspeedinallareasoffood technologyasthecenturyprogressed.Forexample,‘instant’coffeewasinventedin 1901,thefirstpatentforhydrogenatingfatsandoilswasissuedin1903,transparent ‘cellophane’wrappingwaspatentedinFrancein1908,thesameyearthattheflavourenhancer,monosodiumglutamate,wasisolatedfromseaweed.In1923dextrosewasproducedfrommaize,andwidelyusedinbakeryproducts,beveragesand confectionery.In1929,themergerofLeverBrothersandtheMargarineUnion formedtheworld’sfirstmultinationalfoodcompany.
Theintroductionofelectricityrevolutionisedthefoodindustryandpromptedthe manufactureofnewspecialistfoodprocessingmachinery.Forexample,in1918, theHobartCompanyintheUnitedStatesdevelopedthefirstelectricdoughmixer, electricfoodcuttersandpotatopeelers.Mostfoodprocessingatthistimesupplied
staples(e.g.,driedfoods,sugar,cookingoil)andprocessedfoodsthatwereusedin thehomeorincateringestablishments(e.g.,cannedmeatandvegetables).The impetusfordevelopmentofsomeofthesefoodscamefrommilitaryrequirements duringWorldWarI.Later,a‘luxury’marketdeveloped,whichincludedcanned tropicalfruitsandicecream.AfterWorldWarII,awiderangeofready-to-eat meals,snackfoodsandconveniencefoodsbegantoappearinretailstores.Again thesedevelopmentshadbeenpartlystimulatedbytheneedtopreservefoodsfor militaryrations.Fromthe1950s,foodscienceandtechnologyweretaughtatuniversitylevel,andthescientificunderpinningfromthisandtheworkoffood researchinstitutionscreatednewtechnologies,productsandpackagingthatresulted inmanythousandsofnewfoodsbeingdevelopedeachyear.
Post-2000:thefoodindustrytoday Theaimsofthefoodindustrytoday,asinthepast,arefourfold:
1. Toextendtheperiodduringwhichafoodremainswholesome(theshelf-life)bypreservationtechniquesthatinhibitmicrobiologicalorbiochemicalchangesandthusallowtime fordistribution,salesandhomestorage
2. Toincreasevarietyinthedietbyprovidingarangeofshapes,tastes,colours,aromasand texturesinfoods
3. Toprovidethenutrientsrequiredforhealth
4. Togenerateincomeforthemanufacturingcompanyanditsshareholders.
Eachoftheseaimsexiststoagreaterorlesserextentinallfoodprocessing,but agivenproductmayemphasisesomemorethanothers.Forexample,theaimof freezingistopreserveorganolepticandnutritionalqualitiesascloseaspossibleto thefreshproduct,butwithashelf-lifeofseveralmonthsinsteadofafewdaysor weeks.Incontrast,sugarconfectioneryandsnackfoodsareintendedtoprovidevarietyinthedietbycreatingalargenumberofshapes,flavours,coloursandtextures frombasicrawmaterials.Allfoodprocessinginvolvesacombinationofprocedures toachievetheintendedchangestotherawmaterials.Eachofthese‘unitoperations’ hasaspecific,identifiableandpredictableeffectonafoodandthecombinationand sequenceofoperationsdeterminesthenatureofthefinalproduct.
Inmanycountries,themarketforprocessedfoodshaschangedandconsumers nolongerrequireashelf-lifeofseveralmonthsatambienttemperatureforthe majorityoftheirfoods.Changesinfamilylifestyleandincreasedownershipof refrigerators,freezersandmicrowaveovensarereflectedindemandforfoodsthat areconvenienttoprepare,aresuitableforfrozenorchilledstorage,orhaveamoderateshelf-lifeatambienttemperatures.Therehasalsobeenanincreasingdemand byconsumersforfoodsthathavea‘healthy’or‘natural’imageandhavefewersyntheticadditivesorforfoodsthathaveundergonefewerchangesduringprocessing. Manufacturershaverespondedtothesepressuresbyreducingoreliminatingsyntheticcolourantsfromproductsandsubstitutingthemwithnaturalor‘nature-equivalent’alternatives;andbyintroducingnewrangesoflow-fat,sugar-freeorlow-salt productsinnearlyallsubsectors.Functionalfoods,especiallyfoodsthatcontain
probioticmicroorganismsandcholesterol-reducingingredients,haveshownadramaticincreaseindemand,andproductscontainingorganicingredientsarealso widelyavailable.Consumerpressurehasalsostimulatedimprovementstoprocessingmethodstoreducedamagecausedtoorganolepticandnutritionalproperties, andledtothedevelopmentofarangeofnovel‘minimal’processes,including high-pressureandpulsedelectricfieldprocessing.
Trendsthatstartedduringthe1960s 1970s,andhaveacceleratedduringthelast 40years,havecausedfoodprocessorstochangetheiroperationsinfourkey respects:(1)therehasbeenincreasedinvestmentincapital-intensiveequipmentto reducelabourandenergycostsandtoimproveproductquality;(2)higherinvestmentincomputercontrolofprocessingoperations,warehousinganddistribution logisticstomeetmorestringentlegislativeandconsumerrequirementsfortraceability,foodsafetyandqualityassurance;(3)highlevelsofcompetitionandslower growthinfoodmarketsinindustrialisedcountrieshaspromptedmergersortakeoversofcompetitors;and(4)ashiftinpowerandcontroloffoodmarketsfrom manufacturerstolargeretailcompanies.
Inthe21stcentury,changesintechnologyhavebeeninfluencedbysubstantial increasesinthecostsofbothenergyandlabour,andbypublicpressureandlegislationtoreducenegativeenvironmentaleffectsofprocessing,includingecosystem degradation,greenhousegasemissions,lossofbiodiversity,overfishinganddeforestation.‘Sustainability’hasbecomeakeyconceptinfoodprocessing(Ohlsson, 2014),whichincludesreducingtheuseofresources,energyandwasteproduction (WRI,2016).Foodprocessingequipmentnowhasincreasinglysophisticatedlevels ofmicroprocessorcontroltoreduceresourceuseandprocessingcosts,toenable rapidchange-overbetweenshorterproductionruns,toimproveproductqualityand toprovideimprovedrecordsformanagementdecisionsandtraceability.Entireprocesses,fromreceptionofmaterials,throughprocessingandpackagingtowarehousingarenowautomated.Thishasallowedproducerstogenerateincreasedrevenue andmarketsharefromproductsthathavehigherqualityandaddedvalue.
Althoughsmall-andmedium-scalefoodprocessingbusinessesaresignificant contributorstonationaleconomiesinmanycountries,globallysomeareasoffood processingaredominatedbyarelativelyfewmultinationalconglomerates,for example:fivecompaniescontrol90%oftheinternationalgraintrade;twocompaniesdominatesalesofhalftheworld’sbananasandthreetrade85%oftheworld’s tea;and30companiesaccountforathirdoftheworld’sprocessedfood(Action Aid,2005).Duringthelast30 40yearsfoodcompanieshaveformedinternational strategicalliancesthatenablethemtodeveloppan-regionaleconomiesofscaleand enternewmarkets,especiallyinSouthEastAsia,India,EasternEuropeandLatin America.Globalsourcingofrawmaterialshasbeenafeatureofsomeindustries fromtheirinception,butthishasexpandedtomanymoresectorstoreducecosts andensurecontinuityofsupply.Thedevelopmentofglobalproductionanddistribution(or‘globalvaluechains’,GVCs)ispossiblebecauseofdevelopmentsin informationandcommunicationstechnologies,particularlytheinternetandcloud computing.Thesetightlyintegratedglobal-scalesystemsinwidelyseparatedlocationshavereducedtheneedforhighlyskilled,highlypaidworkforces.Thismakes
itpossibleforcompaniestomovetheiroperationstonewcountries,ofteninthe developingworld,whereunskilledandlower-paidworkerscanbeemployed.Food productioniscoordinatedbetweendistantsitesandsupplierscanbecalleduponto transfergoodsacrosstheworldatshortnotice.Thesedevelopmentshaveinturn promptedincreasedconsumerawarenessofethicalpurchasingissues,employment andworkingconditionsinsuppliers’factories,andtheenvironmentalimpactof internationaltransportationoffoods.Therehasalsobeenaresurgenceofconsumer interestinlocallydistinctivefoodsand‘fair-traded’foodsinsomecountries.
Muchofthechangeinglobalfoodproductionandprocessinghasbeenassisted byinternationalagreementstoremovetariffandnontariffbarriers,privatisationand deregulationofnationaleconomiestocreate‘free’marketsintradeandforeign investment.TheearlyGeneralAgreementsonTariffsandTrade(GATT)heldfrom 1986to1994expandedtheprincipleof‘free’tradeinkeyareas,includingagriculture,wherecountrieswererequiredtoreducesubsidiespaidtoproducersand reducetariffsonimportedgoods(Hilary,1999).Agreementsrelatedtoinvestment undertheWorldTradeOrganisationextendedthescopeofGATTnegotiationsto includeservicesandintellectualproperty(TheGeneralAgreementonTradein Services),foreigndirectinvestmentandcopyright,trademarks,patentsandindustrialdesigns.ThiswasfacilitatedbychangesintroducedbytheInternational MonetaryFundandWorldBankthatopenedupinvestmentopportunitiesinmany developingcountriesandhelpedthecreationofGVCs.Morerecently,theTransPacificPartnershiphasbeenagreedandthereareongoingnegotiationsoverthe TransatlanticTradeandInvestmentPartnership(TTIP).Thesearefreetradeagreementsthataimtopromotetradeandmultilateraleconomicgrowthfromincreased marketaccessandbroaderrules,principlesandmodesofco-operationbetween signatorycountries.
References ActionAid,2005.Powerhungry:sixreasonstoregulateglobalfoodcorporations.Action Aid.Availablefrom: www.nfu.ca/story/power-hungry-six-reasons-regulate-global-foodcorporations (www.nfu.ca . search‘Powerhungry’)(lastaccessedFebruary2016). HilaryJ.,1999.GlobalisationandEmployment.PanosBriefingPaperNo.33,May,Panos Institute,London.
Kurlansky,M.,1997.Cod:ABiographyoftheFishThatChangedtheWorld.Penguin,New York.
Kurlansky,M.,2002.Salt:AWorldHistory.Penguin,NewYork. Ohlsson,T.,2014.Sustainabilityandfoodproduction.In:Motarjemi,Y.,Lelieveld,H. (Eds.),FoodSafetyManagement:APracticalGuidefortheFoodIndustry.Academic Press,SanDiego,CA,pp.1085 1098.
Trager,J.,1995.TheFoodChronology.AurumPress,London. WRI,2016.CreatingaSustainableFoodFuture.WorldResourcesReport,WorldResources Institute.Availablefrom: www.wri.org/our-work/topics/food (lastaccessedFebruary2016).
Aboutthisbook Allprocessedfoodshavethefollowingstagesintheirproduction:(1)rawmaterial selection,growthandharvest/slaughter;(2)postharveststorageandpreprocessing; (3)processingandpackagingoperations;(4)storageanddistribution;and(5)retail displayandsale.Therearethreeoverarchingconsiderationsforeachofthese stages:
1. Technicalconsiderations,whichinclude:thepropertiesoffoodsandhowthesechange (duetospoilageorfoodsbecomingunsafe)orcanbechanged(alterationofeatingquality and/ornutritionalvalue),qualityandsafetymanagement;engineeringconsiderationssuch astheselectionofequipmentandprocessingconditionstoachievetherequiredeffectson foods,designandconstructionofprocessingfacilities
2. Businessconsiderations,including:financial/economicmanagement,foodandfoodrelatedregulations,marketselection,marketingandadvertising,scaleofoperationand competition(e.g.,multinational,large,medium,smallandmicro-scalefoodbusinesses), specialistservicesrequiredatdifferentscalesofoperationandtheiravailability
3. Globalconsiderations:environmentalissuesandsustainability,valuechainsandinternationaltrade.
Foodprocessingisthereforeamultidisciplinarysubjectthatincludeschemistry/ biochemistry,physics,biologyandmicrobiology,sensoryanalysis,engineering, marketing,financeandeconomics,managementandpsychology.
Thisbookfocusesmainlyonthetechnicalconsiderations,butwhereappropriate itmakesreferencetosomeofthebusinessconsiderations(e.g.,foodandfoodrelatedregulations)andenvironmentalconsiderations(e.g.,increasedsustainability byreductionsintheuseofresources,energyandpollution).Thebookaimstointroducestudentsoffoodscienceandtechnologyorbiotechnologytothewiderangeof processingtechniquesthatareusedtoprocessfoods.Itshowshowknowledgeof thepropertiesoffoodsandtherequiredchangesareusedtodesignequipmentand tocontrolprocessingconditionsonanindustrialscale.Theaimisalwaystomake productsthatareattractive,saleable,safeandnutritiouswiththerequiredshelf-life.
Itisacomprehensiveyetbasictext,offeringanoverviewofmostunitoperations (Fig.I.1),writteninstraightforwardlanguagewiththeminimumuseofjargonand withexplanationsofscientifictermsandconcepts.Itprovidesdetailsoftheprocessingmethodsandequipment,operatingconditionsandtheeffectsofprocessingon bothmicroorganismsthatcontaminatefoodsandthephysicochemicalpropertiesof foods.Itcollatesandsynthesisesinformationfromawiderangeofsources,combiningfoodprocessingtheoryandcalculationsandresultsofscientificstudies,with descriptionsofcommercialpractice.Whereappropriate,referencesaregivento relatedtopicsinfoodmicrobiology,nutrition,foodengineering,physicochemical propertiesoffoods,foodanalysis,andbusinessoperations,includingqualityassurance,marketing,productionandlogisticsmanagement.
Energy source
(gas, petroleum based liquid fuels, solid fuels)
(heating)
Steam/ hot water
Microbial inhibition/ destruction by:
Types of unit operations
Evaporation & distillation (13)
Extrusion (17)
Dehydration (14)
Baking (16)
Frying (18)
Blanching (9)
Industrial cooking (10)
Pasteurisation (11)
Sterilisation/UHT (12)
Renewable sources (solar (photovoltaic), wind, wave, hydro)
Nuclear energy (radioactive isotope decay)
Electricity
Moisture removal
Chemicals
Smoking (15)
Sugar preserves, salting
Temperature reduction
Direct electrical energy
Pressure, light, sound Gamma rays, Xrays
Freeze drying/ freeze concentration (23)
Chilling (21) Freezing (22)
Fermentation/ bacteriocins (6)
Centrifugation/ filtration/ membrane separation (3)
PEF/ Electric arc (7)
Dielectric/Ohmic (19)
PEF = Pulsed Electric Field, HPP = High Pressure Processing, IR = Infrared, UHT = Ultra-High Temperature, UV = Ultraviolet
Irradiation (7)
HPP/IR/pulsed light/ UV/ultrasound (7)
FigureI.1 Typesofprocessingandtheirpreservativeeffects(chapternumbersforunitoperationsareshowninparenthesis).
Thebookisdividedintofiveparts:
PartIdescribesimportantbasicconcepts,includingfoodcomposition,physicaland biochemicalproperties,foodqualityandsafety,processmonitoringandcontroland engineeringprinciples
PartsII IVgroupunitoperationsaccordingtothenatureoftheheattransferthat takesplace;PartIIdescribesoperationsthattakeplaceatambienttemperatureorinvolve minimumheatingoffoods
PartIIIincludesoperationsthatheatfoodstopreservethemortoaltertheireatingquality
PartIVdescribesoperationsthatremoveheatfromfoodstoextendtheirshelf-lifewith minimalchangestonutritionalqualityorsensorycharacteristics
PartVdescribespostprocessingoperations,includingpackaging,storageanddistribution logistics.
Ineachchapter,thetheoreticalbasisofaunitoperationisfirstdescribed. Formulaerequiredforcalculationofprocessingparametersandsampleproblems aregivenwhereappropriate,andsourcesofmoredetailedinformationareindicated.Detailsoftheequipmentusedfor commercialfoodproductionanddevelopmentsintechnologyaredescribed.Finally,theeffectsofeachunitoperation onsensorycharacteristicsandnutritionalpropertiesofselectedfoods,andthe effectsoncontaminatingmicroorganismsaredescribed.
Thebookdescribeseachtopicinawaythatisaccessiblewithoutanadvanced mathematicalbackground,whileprovidingreferencestomoredetailedormore advancedtextsandothersourcesofinformation.Thebookisthereforesuitablefor studentsstudyingfoodtechnology,foodscience,foodengineering,biotechnology orbioprocessing,andasanadditionalperspectiveontheirsubjectareasforstudents studyingnutrition,consumerscience,hospitalitymanagement/catering,engineering oragriculturalsciences.
Thisfourtheditionhasbeensubstantiallyupdated,rewrittenandextended withanewchapteronindustrialcooking,anexpandedandconsolidatedsection onfoodstorageandvideolinkstomanyprocessesandequipmentoperations includedforthefirsttime.Nearlyall unitoperationshaveundergonedevelopmentsandthesearereflectedintheadditionalmaterialineachchapter,particularlydevelopmentsinminimalprocessing,freezingandpackagingtechnologies, processcontrol,robotics,machineimaging,microencapsulation,liposomes,ediblebarriercoatingsandtime temperaturemonitoringofchilledandfrozen foods.Therevisededitionhasmoreth an200newphotographs,diagramsand tables.
Readership:Undergraduateandpostgraduatestudentsinfoodtechnology,food science,foodmarketinganddistribution,agriculture,engineering,nutrition,and hospitalitymanagement/catering.
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PartI BasicPrinciples 
