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FOOD,MEDICAL,ANDENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONSOFNANOMATERIALS FOOD,MEDICAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONSOF NANOMATERIALS Editedby KUNAL PAL
DepartmentofBiotechnologyandMedicalEngineering,NationalInstituteofTechnology,Rourkela,Odisha,India
ANGANA SARKAR
DepartmentofBiotechnologyandMedicalEngineering,NationalInstituteofTechnology,Rourkela,Odisha,India
PREETAM SARKAR
DepartmentofFoodProcessEngineering,NationalInstituteofTechnologyRourkela,Rourkela,India
NANDIKA BANDARA
DepartmentofFoodandHumanNutritionalSciences,RichardsonCentreforFoodTechnologyandResearch, UniversityofManitoba,Winnipeg,Manitoba,Canada
VEERIAH JEGATHEESAN
Water:EffectiveTechnologiesandTools(WETT)ResearchCentre,SchoolofEngineering,RMITUniversity, Melbourne,Australia
Elsevier
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Contributorsix
1.Fabricationofnanomaterials1
VaidhegiKugarajah,HushnaaraHadem,AtulKumarOjha, ShivenduRanjan,NanditaDasgupta,BhartenduNathMishra,and SangeethaDharmalingam
1Introduction2
2Fabricationofnanomaterials5
3Top-downfabricationmethods7
4Bottom-upfabricationmethods17
5Othercommonmethodsavailablefor nanomaterialsproduction26
6Nanocomposites32
7Futuretrends33 References33
2.Nanoparticlesandnanofluids: Characteristicsandbehavioraspects41
VaidhegiKugarajah,AtulKumarOjha,HushnaaraHadem, NanditaDasgupta,BhartenduNathMishra,ShivenduRanjan,and SangeethaDharmalingam
1Introduction42
2Nanoparticleaggregationanddispersion behavior45
3Physicochemicalcharacteristicsof nanoparticles48
4Interactionsbetweennanoparticles51
5Propertiesofnanofluid53
6Masstransferinnanofluids62
7Futuretrends64 References64
3.Robustorganometallicgoldnanoparticles innanomedicineengineeringofproteins73
MahreenArooj,MehaveshHameed,SeemaPanicker,IhsanShehadi, andAhmedA.Mohamed
1Introduction74
2BSAconjugatedgold-carbonnanoparticleswith outstandingrobustnessandhemocompatibility74
3Greenandcytocompatiblecarboxyl-modified gold-lysozymeantibacterial76
4Inhibitionofamyloidfibrillationat carboxyl-tailoredgold-arylnanoparticles76
5Protein-coatedgoldnanoparticles:Greenand chemicalsynthesisroutesandtheircellular uptake80
6Computationalmethods84
7Conclusion90 References90
4.Polysaccharide-basednanomaterials95 LilyJaiswal,AlyaLimayem,andShivShankar
1Introduction95
2Agarnanoparticles97
3Agarosenanoparticle98
4Alginatenanoparticles99
5Carrageenannanoparticles100
6Chitinnanoparticles101
7Chitooligosaccharidenanoparticles103
8Chitosannanoparticles104
9Cellulosenanoparticles105
10Conclusion106 References106
5.Lipid-basednanostructuresinfood applications113
AnujitGhosalandNandikaBandara
1Introduction:Potentialoflipid-based nanostructure113
2Typeoflipidnanostructuresusedinfood industries115
3Differentsynthesismethodologies120
4Applicationoflipidnanostructureinfood industries122
5Futureoflipid-basednanostructures123 References124
6.Bio-basedmultifunctionalnanomaterials: Synthesisandapplications129
TaranginiKorumilli,K.JagajjananiRao,andSaiSateeshSagiri
1Introduction130
2Biomoleculesinnanomaterialsynthesis132
3Microbialmoleculesinnanomaterialsynthesis132
4Plantresourcesinnanoparticlesynthesis140
5Template-basedsynthesis144
6NPshapecontrolwithbiomolecularsystems146
7Extensiveuseofnanoparticles152
8Scopeandapplicationsofas-synthesizedNPs154
9Summaryandfutureoutlook158
Acknowledgement159
References159
7.Nanocompositesinfoodpackaging167
DebarshiNath,RahulChetri,R.Santhosh,andPreetamSarkar
1Introduction167
2Fabricationmethodsofnanocomposites169
3Typesofnanoparticles172
4Essentialoils175
5EffectoftheincorporationofnanoparticlesandEOs onthepropertiesofthenanocompositepackaging films176
6Regulatoryissues193
7Concludingremarks196
References196
8.Nanodeliverysystemsforfood bioactives205
L.Mahalakshmi,K.S.Yoha,J.A.Moses,and C.Anandharamakrishnan
1Introduction205
2Requirementofnanodeliverysystem207
3Propertiesofthedeliverysystem208
4Nanodeliverysystem209
5Conclusionandfutureperspective225
References226
9.Nanostructuresforimprovingfood structureandfunctionality231
SophiaDeviNongmaithemandNishantRachayyaSwamiHulle
1Introduction231
2Overviewofmethodsfornanostructure formations232
3Sourcesofbiopolymersfornanostructure development239
4Applicationonnanostructuresinfood systems243
5Conclusion247 References247
10.Nanotechnologyinmicrobial foodsafety253
AbhinandanPalandKanishkaBhunia
1Introduction254
2Interactionbetweennanoparticlesand microbes256
3Antimicrobialnanocoating266
4Anti-foulingsurface268
5Antimicrobialnanomaterialsforbiofilm270
6Nanoencapsulation272
7Nanophotosensitizer274
8Applicationofnanotechnologyinmicrobial foodsafety277
9Riskassessment288
10Regulatoryandlegislativeaspects289
11Finalremarks290 References291
11.Electroconductivenanofibrillar biocompositeplatformsforcardiactissue engineering305
TarunAgarwal,Sheri-AnnTan,LeiNie,EnsiehZahmatkesh, AafreenAnsari,NiloofarKhoshdelRad,IbrahimZarkesh, TapasKumarMaiti,andMassoudVosough
1Introduction307
2Nanotopologiesandelectricalstimulation— Intrinsicbiophysicaldeterminant ofCMs308
3Strategiesforfabricatingelectroactivenanofibrous platforms309
4Recentdevelopmentsinelectroconductive nanofibrillarplatformsforCTE310
5Conclusionandoutlook325
Acknowledgment325
Conflictofinterest325 References325
12.Impactsofnanotechnologyintissue engineering331
MhBusraFauzi,JiaXianLaw,MinHweiNg,YogeswaranLokanathan, NadiahSulaiman,andAtiqahSalleh
1Nanomaterialsforskinrepairand regeneration332
2Nanomaterialtechnologyforeye regeneration335
3Nanostructuredbiomaterialusedinbone regeneration337
4Nanomaterialsinmanagementofchronic respiratorydiseasesandmucosalinjury340
5Biomaterialsincardiovasculartissueengineering andregenerativemedicine343
References346
13.Piezoelectricnanomaterialsfor biomedicalapplications355
AkashRoy,DipanjanDwari,MukeshKumarRam, andPallabDatta
1Introductionandoriginofpiezoelectricity356
2Preparationofpiezoelectricmaterials358
3Biomedicalapplicationsofpiezoelectric nanomaterials362
4Conclusions373
References374
14.Nanotechnology-basedinterventions forinteractionswiththeimmune system379
SayandeepSaha,ShaliniDasgupta,andAnanyaBarui
1Introduction380
2Emergingclinicalneedsofhumanimmune physiology380
3Nanotechnologyandnanoparticlesfor vaccination387
4Treatmentofimmunosuppressivediseaseswith nanoparticles395
5Cancertreatmentwithnanotechnologybyimmune modulation397
6Conclusion407
Acknowledgment407
References408
15.Polycaprolactone-basedshapememory polymericnanocompositesforbiomedical applications413
VaishnaviHada,S.A.R.Hashmi,MedhaMili,NikhilGorhe, SaiSateeshSagiri,KunalPal,RashmiChawdhary,ManalKhan, AjayNaik,N.Prashant,A.K.Srivastava,andSarikaVerma
1Introduction414
2Aninsightofshape-memorypolymersandshape memoryeffect415
3SignificanceofSMPsinbiomedical applications417
4SynthesisandpropertiesofPCL419
5PCL-basedshapememorypolymeric nanocomposites422
6Scopeandfutureperspective426
7Conclusion428
Acknowledgment428
Conflictsofinterest429
References429
16.Nanoemulsionsforantitumor activity435
SomaMukherjee,DarrylL.Holliday,NabarajBanjara,and NavamHettiarachchy
1Introduction435
2NanoemulsionandMDR440
3Applicationanddifferenttypesofcancer therapy441
4Theragonosticapplicationofnanoemulsion449
5Futureprospects449
6Conclusion450
References450
17.Nanomaterialsforagingand cosmeceuticalapplications455
MhBusraFauzi,AliSmandri,IbrahimN.Amirrah, NurkhuzaiahKamaruzaman,AtiqahSalleh,ZawaniMazlan, NusaibahSallehuddin,IzzatZulkiflee,LawXiaJian,and FatimahMohdNor
1Introduction456
2Classificationsofnanocosmeceuticals457
3Nanocosmeceuticalsmechanismsofaction462
4Toxicityofnanoparticlesforcosmeceuticals465
5Safetyassessmentofnanomaterialsincosmetic industry467
6Futureperspectiveandrecommendations468 References470
18.Nano-formulationsindrug delivery473
MelissaGarcia-Carrasco,ItzelF.Parra-Aguilar, ErickP.Gutierrez-Grijalva,AngelLicea-Claverie,and J.BasilioHeredia
1Nanotechnologyinnano-formulationsindrug delivery474
2Morphologiesandtheirpropertiesindrug delivery476
3Preparationofnano-formulations479
4Differentapplicationsofnano-formulations484
5Biocompatibilityandmechanismofsomesystem drugdelivery484
6Perspectives486 References487
19.Nano-materialsasbiosensorforheavy metaldetection493
SampritBose,SouravMaity,andAnganaSarkar
1Introduction493
2Biosensor495
3Advancementonnanomaterial-based biosensor516
4Prosandcons520
5Futureprospects520 References521
20.Smartnano-biosensorsinsustainable agricultureandenvironmental applications527
RaniPuthukulangaraRamachandran,ChelladuraiVellaichamy,and ChyngyzErkinbaev
1Introduction528
2Principleofnano-biosensors528
3Typesofnano-biosensors529
4Nanostructuresusedinsensors532
5Nano-biosensorsforenvironmentalandagricultural application533
6Conclusion538 References538
Index543
Contributors TarunAgarwal DepartmentofBiotechnology, IndianInstituteofTechnology,Kharagpur, WestBengal,India
IbrahimN.Amirrah CentreforTissue EngineeringandRegenerativeMedicine, FacultyofMedicine,NationalUniversityof Malaysia,KualaLumpur,Malaysia
C.Anandharamakrishnan Computational ModelingandNanoscaleProcessingUnit, NationalInstituteofFoodTechnology, EntrepreneurshipandManagement— Thanjavur,MinistryofFoodProcessing Industries,Govt.ofIndia,Thanjavur,Tamil Nadu,India
AafreenAnsari DepartmentofBiotechnology andMedicalEngineering,NationalInstituteof TechnologyRourkela,Rourkela,Orissa,India
MahreenArooj DepartmentofChemistry, CollegeofSciences,UniversityofSharjah, Sharjah,UnitedArabEmirates
NandikaBandara DepartmentofFoodand HumanNutritionalSciences,Richardson CentreforFoodTechnologyandResearch, UniversityofManitoba,Winnipeg,MB, Canada
NabarajBanjara DepartmentofBiologicaland PhysicalScience,UniversityofHolyCross, NewOrleans,LA,UnitedStates
AnanyaBarui CentreforHealthcareScience andTechnology,IndianInstituteof EngineeringScienceandTechnology,Shibpur, Howrah,WestBengal,India
J.BasilioHeredia ResearchCenterforFoodand Development(CIAD),Nutraceuticalsand FunctionalFoodsLaboratory,Culiaca ´ n, Sinaloa,Mexico
KanishkaBhunia AgriculturalandFood EngineeringDepartment,IndianInstituteof TechnologyKharagpur,Kharagpur,WB,India
SampritBose DepartmentofBiotechnologyand MedicalEngineering,NationalInstituteof Technology,Rourkela,Odisha,India
RashmiChawdhary AllIndiaInstituteof MedicalSciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,Madhya Pradesh,India
RahulChetri DepartmentofFoodProcess Engineering,NationalInstituteofTechnology Rourkela,Rourkela,India
NanditaDasgupta Departmentof Biotechnology,InstituteofEngineeringand Technology,Dr.A.P.J.AbdulKalamTechnical University,Lucknow,UttarPradesh,India
ShaliniDasgupta CentreforHealthcareScience andTechnology,IndianInstituteof EngineeringScienceandTechnology,Shibpur, Howrah,WestBengal,India
PallabDatta DepartmentofPharmaceutics, NationalInstituteofPharmaceuticalEducation andResearch(NIPER),Kolkata,WestBengal, India
SangeethaDharmalingam Departmentof MechanicalEngineering,AnnaUniversity, Chennai,TamilNadu,India
DipanjanDwari CentreforHealthcareScience andTechnology,IndianInstituteof EngineeringScienceandTechnology(IIEST), Howrah,WestBengal,India
ChyngyzErkinbaev DepartmentofBiosystems Engineering,UniversityofManitoba, Winnipeg,MB,Canada
MhBusraFauzi CentreforTissueEngineering andRegenerativeMedicine,Facultyof Medicine,NationalUniversityofMalaysia, KualaLumpur,Malaysia
MelissaGarcia-Carrasco ResearchCenterfor FoodandDevelopment(CIAD),Nutraceuticals andFunctionalFoodsLaboratory,Culiaca ´ n, Sinaloa,Mexico
AnujitGhosal DepartmentofFoodandHuman NutritionalSciences,FacultyofAgricultural andFoodSciences,UniversityofManitoba; RichardsonCentreforFunctionalFoods& Nutraceuticals,Winnipeg,MB,Canada
NikhilGorhe CouncilofScientificand IndustrialResearch—AdvancedMaterialsand ProcessesResearchInstitute;Academyof CouncilScientificandIndustrialResearch (AcSIR)—AdvancedMaterialsandProcesses ResearchInstitute(AMPRI),Hoshangabad Road,Bhopal,MadhyaPradesh,India
ErickP.Gutierrez-Grijalva CATEDRAS CONACYT-ResearchCenterforFoodand Development(CIAD),Nutraceuticalsand FunctionalFoodsLaboratory,Culiaca ´ n, Sinaloa,Mexico
VaishnaviHada CouncilofScientificand IndustrialResearch—AdvancedMaterialsand ProcessesResearchInstitute,Bhopal,Madhya Pradesh,India
HushnaaraHadem CentreforNanoSciences andTechnology,PondicherryUniversity, ChinnaKalapet,Kalapet,Puducherry, India
MehaveshHameed DepartmentofChemistry, CollegeofSciences,UniversityofSharjah, Sharjah,UnitedArabEmirates
S.A.R.Hashmi CouncilofScientificand IndustrialResearch—AdvancedMaterialsand ProcessesResearchInstitute;Academyof CouncilScientificandIndustrialResearch (AcSIR)—AdvancedMaterialsandProcesses ResearchInstitute(AMPRI),Hoshangabad Road,Bhopal,MadhyaPradesh,India
NavamHettiarachchy DepartmentofFood Science,UniversityofArkansas,Fayetteville, AR,UnitedStates
DarrylL.Holliday DepartmentofBiological andPhysicalScience,UniversityofHolyCross, NewOrleans,LA,UnitedStates
NishantRachayyaSwamiHulle Departmentof FoodEngineeringandTechnology,Tezpur University,Tezpur,Assam,India
K.JagajjananiRao Departmentof Biotechnology,VelTechRangarajan Dr.SagunthalaR&DInstituteofScienceand Technology,Chennai,India
LilyJaiswal DepartmentofFoodandNutrition, BioNanocompositeResearchInstitute,Kyung HeeUniversity,Seoul,RepublicofKorea
LawXiaJian CentreforTissueEngineeringand RegenerativeMedicine,FacultyofMedicine, NationalUniversityofMalaysia,Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia
NurkhuzaiahKamaruzaman CentreforTissue EngineeringandRegenerativeMedicine, FacultyofMedicine,NationalUniversityof Malaysia,KualaLumpur,Malaysia
ManalKhan AllIndiaInstituteofMedical Sciences(AIIMS),Bhopal,MadhyaPradesh, India
TaranginiKorumilli Departmentof Biotechnology,VelTechRangarajan
Dr.SagunthalaR&DInstituteofScienceand Technology,Chennai,India
VaidhegiKugarajah DepartmentofMechanical Engineering,AnnaUniversity,Chennai,Tamil Nadu,India
JiaXianLaw CentreforTissueEngineeringand RegenerativeMedicine,FacultyofMedicine, NationalUniversityofMalaysia,Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia
AngelLicea-Claverie TNM,Tijuana TechnologicalInstitute,GraduateStudiesand ChemistryResearchCenter,Tijuana,Baja California,Mexico
AlyaLimayem ResearchDepartmentof PharmaceuticalSciences,Collegeof Pharmacy,UniversityofSouthFloridaCentre forResearch&Educationin
Nanobioengineering,USFHealth,Tampa,FL, UnitedStates
YogeswaranLokanathan CentreforTissue EngineeringandRegenerativeMedicine, FacultyofMedicine,NationalUniversityof Malaysia,KualaLumpur,Malaysia
L.Mahalakshmi ComputationalModelingand NanoscaleProcessingUnit,NationalInstitute ofFoodTechnology,Entrepreneurshipand Management—Thanjavur,MinistryofFood ProcessingIndustries,Govt.ofIndia, Thanjavur,TamilNadu,India
TapasKumarMaiti Departmentof Biotechnology,IndianInstituteofTechnology, Kharagpur,WestBengal,India
SouravMaity DepartmentofBiotechnology andMedicalEngineering,NationalInstituteof Technology,Rourkela,Odisha,India
ZawaniMazlan CentreforTissueEngineering andRegenerativeMedicine,Facultyof Medicine,NationalUniversityofMalaysia, KualaLumpur,Malaysia
MedhaMili CouncilofScientificandIndustrial Research—AdvancedMaterialsandProcesses ResearchInstitute;AcademyofCouncil ScientificandIndustrialResearch (AcSIR)—AdvancedMaterialsandProcesses ResearchInstitute(AMPRI),Hoshangabad Road,Bhopal,MadhyaPradesh,India
BhartenduNathMishra Departmentof Biotechnology,InstituteofEngineeringand Technology,Dr.A.P.J.AbdulKalamTechnical University,Lucknow,UttarPradesh,India
AhmedA.Mohamed Departmentof Chemistry,CollegeofSciences,Universityof Sharjah,Sharjah,UnitedArabEmirates
J.A.Moses ComputationalModelingand NanoscaleProcessingUnit,NationalInstitute ofFoodTechnology,Entrepreneurshipand Management—Thanjavur,MinistryofFood ProcessingIndustries,Govt.ofIndia, Thanjavur,TamilNadu,India
SomaMukherjee DepartmentofBiologicaland PhysicalScience,UniversityofHolyCross, NewOrleans,LA,UnitedStates
AjayNaik CouncilofScientificandIndustrial Research—AdvancedMaterialsandProcesses ResearchInstitute;AcademyofCouncil ScientificandIndustrialResearch (AcSIR)—AdvancedMaterialsandProcesses ResearchInstitute(AMPRI),Hoshangabad Road,Bhopal,MadhyaPradesh,India
DebarshiNath DepartmentofFoodProcess Engineering,NationalInstituteofTechnology Rourkela,Rourkela,India
MinHweiNg CentreforTissueEngineering andRegenerativeMedicine,Facultyof Medicine,NationalUniversityofMalaysia, KualaLumpur,Malaysia
LeiNie CollegeofLifeSciences,Xinyang NormalUniversity,Xinyang,China
SophiaDeviNongmaithem Departmentof FoodEngineeringandTechnology,Tezpur University,Tezpur,Assam,India
FatimahMohdNor KPJAmpangPuteri SpecialistHospital,Ampang,Selangor, Malaysia
AtulKumarOjha CentreforNanoSciencesand Technology,PondicherryUniversity,Chinna Kalapet,Kalapet,Puducherry,India
AbhinandanPal AgriculturalandFood EngineeringDepartment,IndianInstituteof TechnologyKharagpur,Kharagpur,WB,India
KunalPal DepartmentofBiotechnologyand MedicalEngineering,NationalInstituteof Technology,Rourkela,Odisha,India
SeemaPanicker DepartmentofChemistry, CollegeofSciences,UniversityofSharjah, Sharjah,UnitedArabEmirates
ItzelF.Parra-Aguilar ResearchCenterforFood andDevelopment(CIAD),Nutraceuticalsand FunctionalFoodsLaboratory,Culiaca ´ n, Sinaloa,Mexico
N.Prashant CouncilofScientificandIndustrial Research—AdvancedMaterialsandProcesses ResearchInstitute;AcademyofCouncil ScientificandIndustrialResearch(AcSIR)— AdvancedMaterialsandProcessesResearch Institute(AMPRI),HoshangabadRoad, Bhopal,MadhyaPradesh,India
NiloofarKhoshdelRad DepartmentofStem CellsandDevelopmentalBiology,CellScience ResearchCenter,RoyanInstituteforStemCell BiologyandTechnology,ACECR,Tehran,Iran
MukeshKumarRam CentreforHealthcare ScienceandTechnology,IndianInstituteof EngineeringScienceandTechnology(IIEST), Howrah,WestBengal,India
RaniPuthukulangaraRamachandran DepartmentofBiosystemsEngineering, UniversityofManitoba,Winnipeg,MB, Canada
ShivenduRanjan FacultyofEngineeringand theBuiltEnvironment,Universityof Johannesburg,Johannesburg,SouthAfrica; AnimalCellandTissueCultureLab,Gujarat BiotechnologyResearchCentre,Departmentof ScienceandTechnology,Governmentof Gujarat,Gandhinagar,Gujarat,India
AkashRoy CentreforHealthcareScienceand Technology,IndianInstituteofEngineering ScienceandTechnology(IIEST),Howrah,West Bengal,India
SaiSateeshSagiri Agro-Nanotechnologyand AdvancedMaterialsResearchCenter,Institute ofPostharvestandFoodSciences,Agricultural ResearchOrganization,TheVolcaniCenter, RishonLeZion,Israel
SayandeepSaha CentreforHealthcareScience andTechnology,IndianInstituteof EngineeringScienceandTechnology,Shibpur, Howrah,WestBengal,India
AtiqahSalleh CentreforTissueEngineering andRegenerativeMedicine,Facultyof Medicine,NationalUniversityofMalaysia, KualaLumpur,Malaysia
NusaibahSallehuddin CentreforTissue EngineeringandRegenerativeMedicine, FacultyofMedicine,NationalUniversityof Malaysia,KualaLumpur,Malaysia
R.Santhosh DepartmentofFoodProcess Engineering,NationalInstituteofTechnology Rourkela,Rourkela,India
AnganaSarkar DepartmentofBiotechnology andMedicalEngineering,NationalInstituteof Technology,Rourkela,Odisha,India
PreetamSarkar DepartmentofFoodProcess Engineering,NationalInstituteofTechnology Rourkela,Rourkela,India
ShivShankar DepartmentofFoodand Nutrition,BioNanocompositeResearch Institute,KyungHeeUniversity,Seoul, RepublicofKorea;ResearchLaboratoriesin SciencesAppliedtoFood,INRS-Institute Armand-Frappier,Laval,QC,Canada
IhsanShehadi DepartmentofChemistry, CollegeofSciences,UniversityofSharjah, Sharjah,UnitedArabEmirates
AliSmandri CentreforTissueEngineeringand RegenerativeMedicine,FacultyofMedicine, NationalUniversityofMalaysia,Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia
A.K.Srivastava CouncilofScientificand IndustrialResearch—AdvancedMaterials andProcessesResearchInstitute;Academyof CouncilScientificandIndustrialResearch (AcSIR)—AdvancedMaterialsand ProcessesResearchInstitute(AMPRI), HoshangabadRoad,Bhopal,Madhya Pradesh,India
NadiahSulaiman CentreforTissue EngineeringandRegenerativeMedicine, FacultyofMedicine,NationalUniversityof Malaysia,KualaLumpur,Malaysia
Sheri-AnnTan DepartmentofBioscience, FacultyofAppliedSciences,TunkuAbdul RahmanUniversityCollege,KualaLumpur, Malaysia
ChelladuraiVellaichamy Departmentof AgriculturalEngineering,Bannariamman InstituteofTechnology,Sathyamangalam, TamilNadu,India
SarikaVerma CouncilofScientificand IndustrialResearch—AdvancedMaterialsand ProcessesResearchInstitute;Academyof CouncilScientificandIndustrialResearch (AcSIR)—AdvancedMaterialsand ProcessesResearchInstitute(AMPRI), HoshangabadRoad,Bhopal, MadhyaPradesh,India
MassoudVosough DepartmentofStemCells andDevelopmentalBiology;Departmentof RegenerativeMedicine,CellScience ResearchCentre,RoyanInstituteforStem CellBiologyandTechnology,ACECR, Tehran,Iran
K.S.Yoha ComputationalModelingand NanoscaleProcessingUnit,NationalInstitute ofFoodTechnology,Entrepreneurshipand Management—Thanjavur,MinistryofFood ProcessingIndustries,Govt.ofIndia, Thanjavur,TamilNadu,India
EnsiehZahmatkesh DepartmentofStemCells andDevelopmentalBiology,CellScience ResearchCenter,RoyanInstituteforStemCell BiologyandTechnology,ACECR,Tehran,Iran
IbrahimZarkesh DepartmentofStemCellsand DevelopmentalBiology,CellScienceResearch Center,RoyanInstituteforStemCellBiology andTechnology,ACECR,Tehran,Iran
IzzatZulkiflee CentreforTissueEngineering andRegenerativeMedicine,Facultyof Medicine,NationalUniversityofMalaysia, KualaLumpur,Malaysia
Fabricationofnanomaterials VaidhegiKugarajah a,∗,HushnaaraHademb,∗,AtulKumar Ojhab,ShivenduRanjanc,d,NanditaDasguptae,BhartenduNath
Mishrae,andSangeethaDharmalingam a
aDepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,AnnaUniversity,Chennai,TamilNadu,India bCentre forNanoSciencesandTechnology,PondicherryUniversity,ChinnaKalapet,Kalapet, Puducherry,India cFacultyofEngineeringandtheBuiltEnvironment,UniversityofJohannesburg, Johannesburg,SouthAfrica dAnimalCellandTissueCultureLab,GujaratBiotechnology ResearchCentre,DepartmentofScienceandTechnology,GovernmentofGujarat,Gandhinagar, Gujarat,India eDepartmentofBiotechnology,InstituteofEngineeringandTechnology,Dr.A.P.J. AbdulKalamTechnicalUniversity,Lucknow,UttarPradesh,India
1Introduction Nanotechnologydealswithmaterialswith1–100nmdimensioninsize.Theconceptof nanotechnologywasintroducedbyRichardP.Feynman(NobelLaureateinPhysics,1965) in“There’sPlentyofRoomattheBottom.”Heintroducedtheconceptofthepossibilityto arrangetheatomsinthenanoscale(Feynman,1960).Nowadays,mostelectronics,optical communications,andbiologicalsystemsarebasedonnanotechnology(Enescuetal.,2019; Mathewetal.,2019; Shangetal.,2019; Kumaretal.,2020).Thisisduetotheuniquephysical, chemical,andthermalpropertiesandhighsurfaceareatovolumeratio.Itwasfoundthat usingnanotechnology,billionsoftransistorscanbepackedincomputerchips(Srivastava andKotov,2008).Inbiomedical,nanotechnologyhasbeenusedtoachievetargeteddrugdelivery(Oroojalianetal.,2020; Saxenaetal.,2020),genereplacement(Pandeyetal.,2019; Chengetal.,2020),tissueregeneration(Yangetal.,2019),etc.Opticallithographyisanother bestapplicationofnanotechnology(CruchoandBarros,2017; Karaballietal.,2020),which hasbeenusedforprintingsmallobjects(Albisettietal.,2016; Boseetal.,2018).Also,nanotechnologyhasvariousapplicationssuchasinflatdisplaydevices(Lim,2019),medicalimaging(R € othlisbergeretal.,2017; Tibbals,2017),paint(Lutz,2019),additives,automobile components(Werneretal.,2018),satellitecomponents(Pourzahedietal.,2017),high-energy storagesystem,fuelcells(ElumalaiandSangeetha,2018; KugarajahandDharmalingam, 2020),opticaldevices(Wangetal.,2019),electromagneticinterferenceshielding,foodand beveragepackaging(Enescuetal.,2019),sensors(Farzinetal.,2020),aircraftcomponents,etc.
Variousmethodsarebeingusedtofabricatenanomaterial-basedproductssuchassol-gel synthesis,plasmasynthesis,chemicalsynthesis,hydrothermalsynthesis,alloying,blending, mechanical,andmechanochemicalsynthesis,etc.(CruchoandBarros,2017; Dastan,2017; Jamkhandeetal.,2019; Karaballietal.,2020).Inordertoexplainthefabrication,design, andapplicationofnanomaterials,nanoscienceusesthebasicconceptsofpropertiesand mechanismsofnanomaterialsused(Zhong,2009).Thehistoricalaspectofnanotechnology ismentionedin Table1
Crystallizationprocess(nucleationandgrowth)hasagreatimpactonthecrystalstructure andshapeduringnanoparticlesynthesis.TheLaMertheoryandSugimotomodelcanbeused tostudythekineticsofnucleationandgrowthmechanismofnanomaterials(Sugimoto,2007; Mehranpouretal.,2010).AccordingtoLaMertheory,whenthesoluteconcentrationreaches thecriticalconcentration(whichistheminimumconcentrationfornucleation),itstartsnucleating.Then,thesoluteconcentrationreachesitsmaximum,whichdecidestheconsumptionrateforthenucleationandthegrowthofthegeneratednuclei.However,afurther increaseinthesoluteconcentrationforthegrowthofthegeneratednucleiresultsinthedeclinationofthecurve.Itindicatestheendofnucleation(asshownin Fig.1)oftheconcentration vstimecurve.Thistheorywasonlyproposedformonodisperseparticleformation.Thebasic assumptionsofthistheorywere
(1) Massbalancebetweenthesupplyrateofsoluteanditsconsumptionratefornucleation andgrowthofthegeneratednuclei;
(2) Thesupplyrateofsoluteisindependentofthesubsequentprecipitationevents;
(3) Thenucleationrateiscontrolledonlybythegrowthofthepreformednucleiatafixedsupply rateofsolutewhenprecursorsoluteistransferredbyslowirreversiblegenerationinaclosed systemorbyacontinuousfeedfromoutsideinanopensystem(LaMerandDinegar,1950).
TABLE1 Historicalaspectsofnanotechnology(HorikoshiandSerpone,2013).
YearRemarksCountry/people
1200–1300 BC DiscoveryofsolublegoldEgyptandChina
290–325 AD LycurguscupAlexandriaorRome
1618ThefirstbookoncolloidalgoldF.Antonii
1676Bookpublishedondrinkablegoldthatcontains metallicgoldinneutralmedia
1718Publicationofacompletetreatiseoncolloidal gold
J.vonLowenstern-Kunckel(Germany)
HansHeinrichHelcher
1857SynthesisofcolloidalgoldM.Faraday(TheRoyalInstitutionofGreat Britain)
1902Surfaceplasmonresonance(SPR)R.W.Wood(JohnsHopkinsUniversity,United States)
1908Scatteringandabsorptionofelectromagnetic fieldsbyananosphere
G.Mie(UniversityofGottingen,Germany)
1931Transmissionelectronmicroscope(TEM)M.KnollandE.Ruska(TechnicalUniversityof Berlin,Germany)
1937Scanningelectronmicroscope(SEM)M.vonArdenne(Forschungslaboratoriumf € ur Elektronenphysik,Germany)
1959Feynman’sLectureon“There’sPlentyofRoom attheBottom”
R.P.Feynman(CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology, Pasadena,CA,UnitedStates)
1960Microelectromechanicalsystems(MEMS)I.Igarashi(ToyotaCentralR&DLabs,Japan)
1960SuccessfuloscillationofalaserT.H.Maiman(HughesResearchLaboratories, UnitedStates)
1962TheKuboeffectR.Kubo(UniversityofTokyo,Japan)
1965Moore’sLawG.Moore(FairchildSemiconductorInc.,United States)
1969TheHonda–FujishimaeffectA.FujishimaandK.Honda(UniversityofTokyo, Japan)
1972Amorphousheterostructurephotodiodecreated withbottom-upprocess
E.Maruyama(HitachiCo.Ltd.,Japan)
1974ConceptofnanotechnologyproposedN.Taniguchi(TokyoUniversityofScience,Japan)
1976CarbonnanofiberM.Endo(ShinshuUniversity,Japan)
1976AmorphoussiliconsolarcellsD.E.CarlsonandC.R.Wronski(RCA,United States)
1980Quantumhalleffect(NobelPrize)K.vonKlitzing(UniversityofW € urzburg, Germany) Continued
TABLE1 Historicalaspectsofnanotechnology(HorikoshiandSerpone,2013)—cont’d
YearRemarksCountry/people
1982Scanningtunnelingmicroscope(STM)(Nobel Prize)
G.BinnigandH.Rohrer(IBMZurichResearch Lab.,Switzerland)
1986Atomicforcemicroscope(AFM)G.Binnig(IBMZurichResearchLab., Switzerland)
1986Three-dimensionalspacemanipulationofatoms demonstrated(NobelPrize)
S.Chu(BellLab.,UnitedStates)
1987GoldnanoparticlecatalysisM.Haruta(IndustrialResearchInstituteofOsaka, Japan)
1990Atomscontrolledwithscanningtunneling microscope(STM)
D.M.Eigler(IBM,UnitedStates)
1991CarbonnanotubesdiscoveredS.Iijima(NECCo.,Japan)
1992Japan’sNationalProjectonUltimateManipulationofAtomsandMoleculesbegins
1995NanoimprintingS.Y.Chou(UniversityofMinnesota,United States)
1996NanosheetsT.Sasaki(NationalInstituteforResearchin InorganicMaterials,Japan)
2000NationalNanotechnologyInitiative(NNI),UnitedStates
200321stCenturyNanotechnologyResearchandDevelopmentAct,UnitedStates
2005NanosciencesandNanotechnologies:Anactionplan,Europe
FIG.1 LaMerdiagramasaschematicexplanationfortheformationprocessofmonodisperseparticles,where C∞ and Ccrit aretheequilibriumconcentrationofsolutewiththebulksolidandthecriticalconcentrationastheminimum concentrationfornucleation,respectively.TheregionsI,II,andIIIrepresenttheprenucleation,nucleation,andgrowth stages,respectively. ReproducedfromSugimoto,T.,2007.Underlyingmechanismsinsizecontrolofuniformnanoparticles.J. ColloidInterfaceSci.309,106–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2007.01.036
Thesizeandtheuniformityofthefinalnanoparticlescanbecontrolledbyreducingthe growthrateofnuclei,whichispossiblebydetailedknowledgeaboutfactorssuchastemperature,pH,adsorptionofadditives,andaffinityofsolvents( Sugimoto,2007 ).Further, fluorescentbiosensorlight-emittingdiodescanbefabricatedusingthesequantumdots ornanoparticles( Linetal.,2017 ; Muetal.,2020).Sharpandsymmetricalemissionspectra, highquantumyield,goodphotochemicalstability,andsize-dependentemissionwavelengthtenabilityarethemainpropertiesofquantumdotsornanoparticles,owing totheirquantumconfinementeffect(Raphae letal.,2011).Therefore,semiconductorquantumdotsnanomaterialsplayasignificantroleinmodernelectronicslight-emittingdiode (Caoetal.,2017 ; Dongetal.,2019 ),digitalandanalogintegratedcircuits,transistors,solar cells(Ahmadetal.,2018 ),solarphotovoltaicpanels,wastewatertreatmentbyadsorptionof pollutants( Mustaphaetal.,2020),etc.Functionalizationofnanomaterialsofferstoachieve betterperformanceandproperties(PalitandHussain,2020 ).Thefunctionalizationof nanomaterialsiscarriedoutbasedontheint eractionbetweenmainnanostructuredmaterialsandneighboringmaterialsystems(Iordacheetal.,2011).AccordingtotheHall-Petch equation,thenanomaterial-basedcomposites systemalsoshowsbettermechanicalproperties,accordingtowhichthestrengthofmaterialsisinverselyproportionaltotherootdiameterofgrain.Nanomaterialsofferexcellentba rrierpropertiesduetotheincreaseddiffusion lengthofthesolventgas.Themainobjectiveofthischapteristoexplainthefabricationof nanomaterials.
2Fabricationofnanomaterials Materialscanbeclassifiedaccordingtotheirmechanical,electrical,magnetic/dielectric propertiesandtheirdimensions,includingbulkmaterials,0Dnanomaterials(allthreedimensionsinnano-range),1D(twodimensionsinnano-range)(Weietal.,2017),2D(onedimension innano-range)(Wangetal.,2017a),and3D(polycrystallinenanomaterials)(Zhuetal.,2017). Inthischapter,wewillfocusonthefabricationmethodsofnanomaterials.Thetechniqueto fabricateandprocessthenanomaterialsisthemainissueinnanotechnology.Probingtheir uniquephysicalpropertiesandunderstandingtheirpossiblefabricationtechniquesprovide advantagesforusingthenanomaterialsfortheirfinaluse.Generally,physicalmethodsor chemicalmethodsareemployedtofabricatenanomaterials.Thephysicalmethodsinclude top-downandbottom-upapproaches.
Top-downsuchassolid-stateroute,ballmillingandbottom-upsuchassol-geland coprecipitationarethetwomethodsthathavebeenadoptedtosynthesizethenanomaterials. Insomecases,thebottom-upandtop-downmethodsareappliedtogethertofabricate nanomaterialssuchasinLithographyprocess(GregorczykandKnez,2016).Suchanapproachiscalledahybridmethod.Aflowchartforsomemethodsofnanomaterialsfabrication ismentionedin Fig.2.Thereareseveralmethodstocharacterizethenanomaterialsprepared. SomemajorcharacterizationtechniquesincludeX-raydiffraction,scanningelectronmicroscopy,transmissionelectronmicroscopy,energydissipativeanalysis,ultraviolet-visiblespectroscopy,dynamiclightscattering,andFouriertransformationinfraredspectroscopy (Thomasetal.,2017).Morphology,physical,chemical,andthermalpropertiesof
nanomaterialsdependonthefabricationtechniquesandprecursorsofthenanomaterialsthat wereusedtofabricatethem.Thepropertiesofnanomaterialsdecidetheapplicationsof nanomaterialsinvariousareassuchascatalysis,foodindustry,medicine,andelectronics. Hydrothermalsynthesis,combustionsynthesis,gas-phasemethods,microwavesynthesis, andsol-gelprocessinghavebeenusedtosynthesizenanometaloxides(Chengetal.,1995; Gopaletal.,1997; Kimetal.,1999; WangandYing,1999; Watsonetal.,2004; Wolf,2008). Othertechnologiessuchasself-assembly,nontraditionallithography,templategrowth, andbiomimeticshavealsobeenusedtoproducenanomaterial-basedproducts,quantum dots,nanorods,nanotubes,etc.(Wolf,2008).Nanomaterialshaveatleastonedimensionin thenanometerrange.Thenanomaterialsshowdifferentphysicalandchemicalproperties fromtheirbulkcounterparts.Nanotechnologyallowsustounderstandthesizeeffectpropertiesofnanostructuredmaterialsandtheirpossibleapplications.Nowadays,nanotechnologyisbeingusedasaninterdisciplinaryscienceandtechnology,whichincludes nanochemistry,nanoelectronics,nanomaterialsscience,nanophysics,nanorobotics, nanobiotechnology,nanometrology,etc.
Inadditiontotheabove,thereareseveralmethods,includingcoprecipitation,hydrothermal,microwave,microemulsion,ultrasound,templatesynthesis,biologicalsynthesis,electrochemicalsynthesis,etc.whicharediscussedinthefollowingsections.
FIG.2 Aflowchartfornanomaterialsfabrication.
3Top-downfabricationmethods Thetop-downapproachisawell-developedtechnologycommonlyusedtodivideamassivesolidintosmallerparticlesuptothenanometersizerange(SuandChang,2018).Dry etching,ballmilling,andlithographyaremainlyemployedforfabricatingthenanoparticles throughatop-downapproach.Therearecertaincharacteristicsofnanomaterials,whichcan beachievedbythesefabricationtechniques:
(a) Mono(uniform)sizedistribution,i.e.,alltheparticleswillhavethesamesizeinnanorange,
(b) Similarshapeand(microstructure)morphology,
(c) Similarchemicalcomposition,and
(d) Loweragglomeration(bysurfaceareaandvarioustypesofinteraction).
However,therearealsomanydrawbacksinthesemethods,includingcrystallographicdefects,roughness,andtheintroductionofimpurities(SuandChang,2018).Theseimpurities anddefectsalterthesurfacepropertiesoftheresultingnanomaterials.Forexample,theconductivityofnanomaterialsisalteredbythesurfaceimperfections,andexcessivegenerationof heatisanotherproblemofthesedefects.Top-downapproachhasanotherdrawback,suchas smallerflakesorparticleswithawidesizedistribution(Habibaetal.,2014).Thetop-down approachfornanomaterialsismentionedin Fig.3.Top-downapproachisalsocalledassolidphasefabricationmethod.
3.1Mechanicalmethods Mechanicalmillinghasbeenwidelyadoptedforfabricatingvariouskindsofmaterialsso far.Mechanicalmillingisperformedusingtheballshaking,rotatingdisk,androtatingcylinder.Themainaimofmechanicalmillingistoreducetheparticlesize,mechanicalmixing,or alloyingbyapplyingmechanicalenergyandmechanicalshearforcesonthepowdersampleof themixture(BoldyrevandTkacova,2000).Mechanicalmillinghasbeenusedtofabricate nanomaterialsandnanocomposites.Theprincipleofmechanicalmillingisbasedonthe
FIG.3 Aschematicrepresentationof thetop-downapproachfor nanomaterials.
ball-powder-ballcollisioninthecaseofshakermills,frictionalandimpactforcesinthecaseof planetaryballmills(PrasadYadavetal.,2012),andveryhighshearandimpactforcesinthe caseofAttritionmills(Rajput,2015).Thesemechanicalandshearforcescausethepowderparticlestoundergodeformationand/orfracturetoachievethedesiredmicrostructureofthe powder.Themechanicalcharacteristicsofpowdercomponentorpowdermixtureisacrucial factorinmechanicalballmilling;therearevarioustypesofpowdermixturesuchasductileductile,brittle-brittle,ductile-brittlesystem(BenjaminandVolin,1974; Davisetal.,1988; LeeandKoch,1988).However,thetemperatureandthenonuniformityofparticlesizeduring millingprofoundlyaffectthestructural,microstructuralchanges(SuandChang,2018).The speedoftheball,thematerialpropertiesofthepowder,andmillingenvironmentcaninfluence thetemperatureofpowderduringmilling.Phasetransfercanbeinducedbytheballmilling, whichdependsonthediffusivityanddefectconcentrationinthepowder,while,diffusivity anddefectconcentrationinthepowderareinfluencedbythetemperatureofthepowder (Sunetal.,2002; PrasadYadavetal.,2012).Aschemefortheballmillingprocessisshown in Fig.4.Themechanicalmillingcanbeperformedinvariouswayssuchasattritionballmill, planetaryballmill,vibratingballmill,low-energytumblingmill,andhigh-energyballmill. Nanoparticle-basedpowderscanbeeasilyproducedbyhigh-energyballmilling ( Jamkhandeetal.,2019).Inhigh-energyballmilling,powdersandheavysteelortungsten carbideareloadedtogetherinacontainer,andshakingorhigh-speedrotationisapplied totransferthehighenergyontheloadedpowder;thecollisionbetweenballsgeneratesthe energy.However,high-energyballmillinghascertaindrawbackssuchascontamination problems,lowsurface,highlypolydispersesizedistribution,andpartiallyamorphousstate ofthepowder.Toresolvethisissue,inertatmosphereand/orhighvacuumprocessesareapplied.Themillingduration,characteristicsofmaterials,andsizeofballarethemainparameters(PrasadYadavetal.,2012).Low-energytumblingmillisemployedtofabricate nanoparticles-basedalloymaterialsinasimplewayandatlowcost.Vibratingballmills areusedtoproduceamorphousalloys.Avibratingballsuppliesahighamountofenergy totheparticles.Thevibratingcontainerisusedtoacceleratethemillingprocess.Thevibrating frequencyandamplitudeofoscillationarefoundtobearound1500
3000oscillation/minand 2–3mm,respectively.Thegrindingballismadeofsteelorcarbideballandisheavierthanthe
FIG.4 Ballmillingprocess.
powderparticlesand10–20mmindiameter.Planetaryballmillingisperformedinasmall container,thesesmallcontainersarefixedontoarotatingdrum,andthecontainersrotate inoppositedirectiontotherotatingdrum.Centrifugalforcesareimpartedbytherotation ofthesupportingdiskandautonomousturningofthecontainers.Theballandpowderroll ontheinnerwallofthecontainersandarethrownoffacrossthecontainersataround360rpm. Asattritionindicates,thefinerparticlesareobtainedbythewearorrubbing.Attritionmilling (StirredBallMills)isperformedviaaverticalshaftwithhorizontalarmssuchasflatdisks, diskswithvariousgeometricopenings,andconcentricrings.Theshaftiskeptinmedia, whichcontainstheballandpowderslurry.Whentheshaftrotates,stirreractionofthehorizontalarmonthepowderslurryreducesthesizeofparticles.Theshakermillreducesthesize ofpowderbytheshakingprocess.Thepowderandtheballarekeptinthecontainer;during theshakingprocess,ballscollidewitheachotherandthecontainerwall,whichproduceshigh shearandimpactforcesonthepowder.Thishighimpactandshearforcereducethepowder size(Ullahetal.,2014).Inoneofthestudies,researcherspreparedMg-dopedZnO nanoparticlesbyplanetaryballmillingataspeedof400rpmandmilledfor20h.Thespherical nanoparticleswereagglomeratedintoaclusterinordertoreducethesurface-freeenergy,as shownin Fig.5 (SuwanboonandAmornpitoksuk,2012).Arecentstudyby Abu-Oqailetal. (2019) showedthattheincreaseinmillingtimeto20himprovedthemicrostructureofthe
Cu-ZrO2 nanocompositesupto10%higherthanthatofpurecopper,whichenabledbetter mechanicalpropertiesofthenanocomposites.Anotherstudyshowedtheinfluenceofball millinginstarchnanoparticleproductionforitsapplicationindrugandfoodformulations. Itwasobservedthattherelativecrystallinesizedecreasedafterballmillingwithanaverage nanoparticlesizeintherangeof9–12nm(Ahmadetal.,2020).
3.2Mechanochemicalsynthesis Mechanochemicalsynthesisisthecombinationofmechanicalandchemicalmethodstoget nanomaterials(Dutkova ´ etal.,2018; Galaburdaetal.,2019).Mechanochemicalsynthesisisan entirelydifferentprocessfromtheballmillingprocess(HaiNguyenetal.,2020).Itis performedbysolid-statedisplacementreactionduringtheballmillingprocesstoobtain nanoparticlesembeddedinby-productfinally.Millingtemperature,millingcollisionenergy, volumeandparticlesize,millingtime,molarratioofprecursor,powdermixturetoballratio arethemainfactorsthatinfluencetheparticlessizeandparticlessizedistribution.Themain drawbacksofthissystemare(1)contamination,(2)longprocessingtime,(3)uncontrollable particlemicrostructure,and(4)agglomeration. Fig.6 showstheflowchartofmechanochemicalsynthesismethodfornanoparticles.Inonestudy,researchersfabricatedZnO nanoparticlesbymechanochemicalmethodusingZnCl2,NaCl,andNa2CO3 asrawmaterials. TEMimageshowsthatcalcinationhasaprofoundeffectontheparticlesize.Itwasfoundthat theparticlesizeincreaseswithanincreaseinthecalcinationtemperature.As Fig.7 shows,the averagesizeofparticleswasapproximately20–30nm(Moballeghetal.,2007).Itshouldbe pointedoutthatthemechanochemicalsynthesisisaresultofmillingandchemicalinteraction betweenprecursors.ResearchershavefabricatedSiO2/TDIandSiO2/TDI/(PDMS-OH) hybridparticlesbythemechanochemicalmethodinthepresenceofTDI(2,4diisocyanatotoluene)andhydroxylsiliconeoil(PDMS-OH),asshownin Fig.8.TEMmicrostructureindicatesthathybridparticles(SiO2/TDIandSiO2/TDI/(PDMS-OH))preparedby ballmillingmethodexhibitmuchbettermiscibilityanddispersioninPDMSmatrixwhen
FIG.6 Mechanochemicalprocess.
comparedwiththoseparticlespreparedbyacommonmixingdevice(Linetal.,2010). ArecentreportshowsthepreparationofInP/TiO2-Cnanocompositessynthesizedthrough themechanochemicalprocessasananodeforitsapplicationinLi-ionbatteriestoimprove efficiencyandstability(HaiNguyenetal.,2020).
3.3Lithographicprocesses Nanolithographyhasbeenconsideredasthebranchofnanotechnology,whichisusedtofabricatenanometer-scalestructures.Recently,variousnano-electromechanicalsystems,nanotransistors,nanodiodes,nanoswitches,nanologicgates,semiconductingintegratedcircuits (ICs),etc.havebeenfabricatedthroughthenanolithographytechnology(Chouetal.,1996). NanolithographyisderivedfromtheGreekword“nanos,lithos,grapho,”whichmeansdwarf (nano),rock,orstone(litho)andwrites(grapho),respectively.Itisexplainedastinywriting onstoneasnanotermssuggestthepatterningwithatleastonedimensioninnanoscale. Nanolithographyhasseveraladvantagessuchasahigherdegreeofsafety,improvedstability, androbustness,ahigherdegreeofefficiencyandcapability,predictablepropertiesof nanocompositesandmaterials,environmentalcompetitiveness,andflexibility.Nanolithography consistsofmaskedormask-less,top-downorbottom-up,beam-ortip-based,resist-basedor resist-less,andserialorparallelmethods.Therefore,manynanolithographytechnologieshave beenusedtofabricatethemicro/nanopattern;thosetechnologiesarephotolithography,ionbeam lithography,X-raylithography,electronbeamlithography,microcontactprinting,nanoimprint lithography,scanningprobelithography.
Thephotolithographysystemisperformedusingalightsource,amask,andanopticalprojectionsystem(Wangetal.,2017b).Inphotolithographyapproach,initially,awaferorsubstratewithanoxidelayerisprepared;afterthatphotoresistmaterials(light-sensitive materialsorchemical)arecoatedonthesubstrate,aphotomaskofthedesiredpatternisfixed ontothecoatedsubstrate,whichisdevelopedontoaglasssubstrate.TheUVlightisexposed throughthephotomask,thenthephotoresistundergoesachemicalreactionduringthelight exposure,anddependingonthecharacteristicsofphotoresist,apatterniscreated,andetchingwasperformedtogetanoxidelayerpattern.Thephotoresistisclassifiedasanegativeor
FIG.7 TEMmicrographsofZnOnanoparticlesofheattreatedat300°C(Moballeghetal.,2007).
