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When making gur the juice is first freed from floating particles of cane by straining. It is then run into a large earthen vessel sunk in the ground. From there it is ladled into smaller pans placed above a furnace, which is a very primitive affair, generally with three pans and having side walls of tiles or brick. Cane trash and bagasse are used as fuel. When the juice in the first pan begins to boil, a thick scum forms on the top and is skimmed off, and this operation is kept up until the liquor becomes clear. It is then taken to the third pan for further boiling and finally concentrated in the second. In many instances purification is limited to skimming, but sometimes this is supplemented by adding milk of lime or crude soda ash to the liquor. The scum is set aside to be fed to cattle or very poor people.
When the yellowish-brown mass is boiled to a certain density it is constantly kept in motion by stirring and its consistency is tested at frequent intervals. As soon as it is found that it can be rolled into a
ball that upon cooling will remain fairly soft, it is considered sufficiently cooked and the boiling operation comes to an end. Sometimes the hot gur is put into earthen moulds to cool and harden, sometimes it is worked with batons in an earthen vessel and after cooling is made into balls by hand, or flattened out and cut into triangles. The balls and triangles are placed in baskets to dry, after which they are supposed to be ready for consumption. Gur that is soft and of good grain lends itself admirably to the process of refining. Gur that has become solid and hard has to be eaten without further treatment and burnt gur is totally unfit for refining.
Rab is made in nearly the same manner, but with more attention paid to cleanliness. There are five iron pans, which are thoroughly cleansed daily; the skimming and clarifying operations are conducted with more care and the clear juice is filtered through cloth before being concentrated. When the mass of crystals and liquor is found to be of the proper consistency, it is poured into earthen pots to cool and well stirred to help crystallization. This process being finally complete, the moist and somewhat soft sugar can only be removed by breaking the pots containing it. Owing to its almost liquid condition, rab cannot conveniently be transported any distance, so that it is generally used near the place where it is made, chiefly for refining purposes. Gur, on the other hand, being harder, can readily be carried any distance.
for making rab which is now widely adopted. Under his plan the furnace heat can be readily controlled, so that the danger of burning the juices during boiling is considerably lessened; neither is there so much risk of decomposition (souring). Besides, the cooled rab is purged of its syrup in a centrifugal machine worked by hand instead of by drainage from wet vegetation. At best, however, the production of sugar by the natives of Hindustan is still at a very elementary stage, and in that country new ideas gain ground very slowly, so that it will be some time before modern machinery and equipment are generally in use.
It would seem that in view of the small production of sugar per acre and the enormous losses in manufacture, a modern plant, with machinery of the latest and best type and large financial resources, should be remarkably successful, but such is not the case. It appears to be impossible to get a steady supply of cane. In India, plantations like those found in other countries do not exist. Instead, there are a great number of extremely small pieces of land all under different ownership. The cane has to be brought to the mill from considerable distances in small quantities, and owing to lack of intelligence or initiative on the part of the farmer it is of indifferent quality. Transportation facilities are far from good and the manufacturers have to make up the shortage in the supply of cane by using rab and gur. If the latter should contain an excessive amount of glucose or be caramelized, it does not lose its value as an article for direct consumption; on the other hand, either of these conditions unfit it for the purposes of refining, and as there is but a slight difference in price between gur and the white sugar into which it is made, the disadvantage to the refiner is readily apparent. Another drawback is that the Hindus do not take kindly to sugar manufactured by the European process, consequently chini, or sugar made from rab by the native method, commands a better price than, sugar made in a modern refinery. Religious and caste prejudices exert a strong influence also. In modern sugar refining, animal charcoal is the principal purifying and decolorizing agent, and this, together with the fact that ox-blood has been used for clarification, causes the
Hindus to reject sugar prepared by such means. Finally, there is the apprehension on the part of the high-caste natives that the sugar may have been produced by low-caste labor and that to eat it would bring defilement.
The refiners of India have begun to recognize the advantage to them in using raw European beet-root sugars and raw cane from Java and Mauritius instead of the more costly preparations of rab and gur. As a result, there is a considerable quantity of foreign sugar imported into India which is consumed ultimately by the high-caste native without his being aware of its origin.
The imports during the period from 1908 to 1916 were as follows:
1908-09 535,664 tons of 2240 lbs.
1909-10 556,840
1910-11 608,785
1911-12 508,591
1912-13 675,017
1913-14 802,978
1914-15 428,595
1915-16 515,909
Of this tonnage, Austria supplied the greater amount of the beet, Germany the remainder, while the cane came from Java and Mauritius. In 1913 and 1914 the raw beet from Austria and Germany was almost entirely displaced by washed Java raws, the trade name for which is “Java white.” Some sugar is exported, but the quantity is insignificant.
The sugar crops of the world for the year 1915-16 aggregated 16,558,863 long tons, of which 10,571,079 tons were cane. The following table shows the production of the various countries:
United States Hawaii
British West Indies
French West Indies
Danish West Indies
British Guiana
AMERICA
Argentina
Brazil
British India 2,636,875
Java 1,264,000
Queensland }
New South Wales }
Fiji
TOTAL IN AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA
Egypt
EUROPE
Spain
Europe 5,190,387
Canada 17,641 TOTAL BEET SUGAR 5,987,784 GRAND TOTAL CANE AND BEET SUGAR 16,558,863
From the time when the soldiers of Alexander of Macedon found sugar cane in India, over three hundred years before the Christian
[1] This and seventeen illustrations immediately following are reproduced by permission of Truman G. Palmer, Esq., Secretary of the UnitedStates BeetSugar Industry, Washington, D. C.
[2] This and the three illustrations immediately following are afterphotographs by A. Moscioni, Esq.
[3] This and the five illustrations immediately following are afterphotographs by the American Photo Co., Habana.
[4] Spain.
[5] Ed. Yule, II, 208-212.
[6] Geschichte des Zuckers, p. 89.
[7] Kazwini, I, 262.
[8] 610-641 A. D.
[9] See Greece under the Romans, by George Finlay, LL.D., page 338; “The sixth campaign opened with the Roman army in the plains of Assyria, and after laying waste some of the largest provinces of the Persian empire, Heraclius marched through the country to the east of the Tigris and captured the palace of Dastargerd, where the Persian monarchs had accumulated the greater part of their enormous treasure in a position always regarded as secure from any foreign enemy.”
[10] In Morocco.
[11] Important village of the province of Kūzistān.
[12] Latāif, page 107.
[13] B. 571-D. 632 A. D.
[14] Amr-ibn-el-Ass.
[15] Marchpane, a sweetmeat made of sweet almonds and pounded sugar.
[16] Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. XII, p. 826, gives 1506 as date of introduction of sugar in Santo Domingo. Encyclopædia
Britannica, Vol. XXVI, p. 44, says sugar carried to Santo Domingo in 1494.
[17] Encyclopædia Britannica, XXII, p. 658.
[18] O. S.
[19] Quar. Jour. ofEconomics, Vol. XVII, p. 1.
[20] The excess of import duty over the domestic revenue tax.
[21] When exported, of course.
[22] Roy G. Blakey, Ph. D. The United States Beet Sugar Industry andthe Tariff, Columbia University, 1912.
[23] Actual production in sugar.
[24] Mark = 23.8 cents U. S. coin.
[25] Ruble = 51 cents.
[26] Pood = 36.07 pounds.
[27] Six francs and five and one-half francs, respectively, per 100 kilograms.
[28] Surface, G. T., Story ofSugar, p. 115.
[29] Hardwick Committee Hearings, 62nd Congress, 1st Session, p. 767.
[30] Truman G. Palmer.
[31] Blakey.
[32] Professor George W. Shaw says, 1877: The California Industry, Sacramento, 1903, page 11.
[33] Secretary of Agriculture, 61st Congress, 1st Session, Sen. Doc. 22, p. 8.
[34] Closed.
[35] Height of these mountains taken from U. S. Geodetic Survey, March, 1915.
[36] Geerligs, World’s Cane Sugar Industry, p. 345.
[37] Cleveland, Richard J., Narrative of Voyages and CommercialEnterprises, Cambridge, 1843.
[38] Anderson, Rufus, The Hawaiian Islands, Boston, 1864.
[39] Jarves, James Jackson, History of the Sandwich Islands, Honolulu, 1872.
[40] OverlandMonthly, June, 1895, p. 620.
[41] From what Mr. Noël Deerr, the sugar technologist at the Honolulu experiment station, writes on the subject, it would appear that Yellow Caledonia cane is identical with White Tanna. The three varieties of Tanna cane, the Striped, the White and the Black, are called after the island of that name, one of the Loyalty group, of which the most important is New Caledonia. All of the Tanna canes are cultivated extensively in Australia, and the White Tanna or Yellow Caledonia was brought to Hawaii from Queensland.
Mr. W. P. Naquin, agriculturist of the H. S. P. A. experiment station, Honolulu, says: “Yellow Caledonia cane was first grown in the Kau district by manager George C. Hewitt of the Hutchinson Sugar company. The cane first came into prominence in the early nineties when Rose Bamboo, which had replaced Lahaina cane, began to show signs of deterioration. Yellow Caledonia, being a hardier cane than any of the varieties then grown, and therefore less susceptible to attack of leaf-hoppers and to prevalent diseases, soon gained favor in Kau, from which district it spread to Olaa and the Honokaa district. The introduction of Yellow Caledonia cane was, no doubt, a great help, if not the salvation of the Onomea Sugar company and the rest of the plantations in the island of Hawaii, which suffered so severely from leaf-hoppers and the deterioration of the Lahaina cane.”
[42] Written in 1851.
[43] Elected emperor of the Roman empire as Charles V.
[44] U. S. War Department. Bureau of Insular Affairs, Washington, 12-16-14.
[45] A survey under the Cadastral survey act, passed by the Philippine legislature in 1913, i. e., a survey of the land and assessment of its value as a basis for taxation would support a Torrens title.
[46] Harold M. Pitt in his treatise, Reciprocity and the Philippine Islands, Manila, 1911, says that it is estimated that from 40,000 to 50,000 tons of sugar are consumed in the islands.
[47] Walker, H. S. The Sugar Industry in the Island of Negros. Manila, 1910.
[48] Prescott, in his Conquest of Mexico, (Vol. I, pp. 220 et seq.), gives the following in connection with the discovery of the
[75] These figures based upon Brazilian milreis, paper, being worth 1s. 4d. stg.
[76] A sugar solution of 31 degrees Baumé contains 56.2 per cent sucrose.
[77] Trashing is the stripping of dried leaves from the cane.
[78] Estimated.
[79] Century Atlas A recent private report (1915) gives 1,856,254 sq. miles.
[80] All figures given in dollars and cents are United States money.
[81] 16 centavos, paper, per kilogram, or 7¼ cents per pound.
[82] Estimated.
[83] Since the foregoing was written Formosa’s production has passed the 300,000-ton mark, as will be seen by the table on page 281.
[84] Asiatic trade wind.
[85] Geerligs.
[86] Formed by France out of the Netherlands in 1795. It existed until 1806.
[87] Estimated.
[88] Estimated.
[89] Estimated.
[90] Estimated.
[91] Estimated.
[92] From 10 to 15 pounds in weight.
[93] Willett & Gray, January 13, 1916.
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