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PREFACExvii

Althoughnewtechnologiesemerge,andexistingtechnologiescontinuetomature andevolve,manyoftheethicalissuesassociatedwiththemarebasicallyvariationsof existingethicalproblems.Atbottom,theseissuesreducetotraditionalethicalconcerns havingtodowithdignity,respect,fairness,obligationstoassistothersinneed,andso forth.So,weshouldnotinferthatthemorallandscapeitselfhasbeenalteredbecauseof behaviorsmadepossiblebythesetechnologies.Wewillseethat,forthemostpart,the newissuesexaminedinthiseditionof EthicsandTechnology aresimilarinrelevant respectstothekindsofethicalissuesweexaminedinthebook’spreviouseditions. However,manyemergingtechnologiespresentuswithchallengesthat,initiallyatleast, donotseemto ﬁteasilyintoourconventionalethicalcategories.So,amajorobjectiveof thistextbookistoshowhowthosecontroversiescanbeanalyzedfromtheperspectiveof standardethicalconceptsandtheories.

Thepurposeof EthicsandTechnology,asstatedintheprefacestothethreeprevious editionsofthisbook,istointroducestudentstoissuesandcontroversiesthatcomprise therelativelynew ﬁeldofcyberethics.Theterm “cyberethics” isusedinthistextbookto refertothe ﬁeldofstudythatexaminesmoral,legal,andsocialissuesinvolving cybertechnology. Cybertechnology,inturn,referstoabroadspectrumofcomputing/ informationandcommunicationtechnologiesthatrangefromstand-alonecomputersto thecurrentclusterofnetworkeddevicesandtechnologies.Manyofthesetechnologies includedevicesandapplicationsthatareconnectedtoprivatelyownedcomputer networksaswellastotheInternetitself.

Thistextbookexaminesawiderangeofcyberethicsissues fromspeciﬁcissuesof moralresponsibilitythatdirectlyaffectcomputerandinformationtechnology(IT) professionalstobroadersocialandethicalconcernsthataffecteachofusinourdayto-daylives.Questionsabouttherolesandresponsibilitiesofcomputer/ITprofessionals indevelopingsafeandreliablecomputersystemsareexaminedunderthecategoryof professionalethics.Broadersocialandethicalconcernsassociatedwithcybertechnology areexaminedundertopicssuchasprivacy,security,crime,intellectualproperty,Internet regulation,andsoforth.

c NEWTOTHE FOURTHEDITION

Newpedagogicalmaterial includes anewlydesignedsetofend-of-chapterexercisescalled “ScenariosforAnalysis,” whichcanbeusedforeitherin-classanalysisorgroupprojects; newand/orupdated(in-chapter) scenarios,illustratingbothactualcasesand hypotheticalsituations,whichenablestudentstoapplymethodologicalconcepts/ frameworksandethicaltheoriescoveredinChapters1and2; new samplearguments insomechapters,whichenablestudentstoapplythetools forargumentanalysiscoveredinChapter3; updated “reviewquestions,”“discussionquestions,” and “essay/presentation questions” attheendofchapters;

ORGANIZATIONANDSTRUCTUREOFTHEBOOK

EthicsandTechnology isorganizedinto12chapters.Chapter1, “Introductionto Cyberethics:Concepts,Perspectives,andMethodologicalFrameworks,” deﬁneskey conceptsandtermsthatwillappearthroughoutthebook.Forexample,de ﬁnitionsof termssuchas cyberethics and cybertechnology areintroducedinthischapter.Wethen examinewhetheranyethicalissuesinvolvingcybertechnologyareuniqueethicalissues. Wealsoconsiderhowwecanapproachcyberethicsissuesfromthreedifferentperspectives:professionalethics,philosophicalethics,andsociological/descriptiveethics,eachof whichrepresentstheapproachgenerallytakenbyacomputerscientist,aphilosopher, andasocial/behavioralscientist.Chapter1concludeswithaproposalforacomprehensiveandinterdisciplinarymethodologicalschemeforanalyzingcyberethicsissuesfrom theseperspectives.

InChapter2, “EthicalConceptsandEthicalTheories:EstablishingandJustifyinga MoralSystem,” weexaminesomeofthebasicconceptsthatmakeupamoralsystem.We drawadistinctionbetween “ethics” and “morality” byde finingethicsas “thestudy ofmorality.”“Morality,” oramoralsystem,isdefinedasaninformal,publicsystem comprisingrulesofconductandprinciplesforevaluatingthoserules.Wethenexamine consequence-based,duty-based,character-based,andcontract-basedethicaltheories. Chapter2concludeswithamodelthatintegrateselementsofcompetingethicaltheories intoonecomprehensiveandunifiedtheory.

Chapter3, “CriticalReasoningSkillsforEvaluatingDisputesinCyberethics,” includesabriefoverviewofbasicconceptsandstrategiesthatareessentialfordebating moralissuesinastructuredandrationalmanner.Webeginbydescribingthestructureof alogicalargumentandshowhowargumentscanbeconstructedandanalyzed.Next, weexamineatechniquefordistinguishingbetweenargumentsthatarevalidandinvalid, soundandunsound,andinductiveandfallacious.Weillustrateexamplesofeachtype withtopicsaffectingcybertechnologyandcyberethics.Finally,weidentifysomestrategiesforspottingandlabeling “informal” logicalfallaciesthatfrequentlyoccurin everydaydiscourse.

Chapter4, “ProfessionalEthics,CodesofConduct,andMoralResponsibility, ” examinesissuesrelatedtoprofessionalresponsibilityforcomputer/ITprofessionals. Weconsiderwhetherthereareanyspecialmoralresponsibilitiesthatcomputer/IT professionalshave as professionals.Wethenexaminesomeprofessionalcodesof conductedthathavebeenadoptedbycomputerorganizations.Wealsoask:Towhat extentaresoftwareengineersresponsibleforthereliabilityofthecomputersystemsthey designanddevelop,especiallyapplicationsthatinclude “life-critical” and “safetycritical” software?Arecomputer/ITprofessionalseverpermitted,orperhapseven required,to “blowthewhistle” whentheyhavereasonableevidencetosuggestthata computersystemisunreliable?Finally,weexaminesomeschemesforanalyzingrisks associatedwiththedevelopmentofsafety-criticalsoftware.

WediscussprivacyissuesinvolvingcybertechnologyinChapter5.First,weexamine theconceptofprivacyaswellassomeargumentsforwhyprivacyisconsideredan importanthumanvalue.Wethenlookathowpersonalprivacyisthreatenedbythekinds ofsurveillancetechniquesanddata-collectionschemesmadepossiblebycybertechnology.Speciﬁcdata-gatheringanddata-exchangingtechniquesareexaminedindetail. WenextconsidersomechallengesthatdataminingandWebminingposeforprotecting

personalprivacyinpublicspace.InChapter5,wealsoconsiderwhethertechnologyitself, intheformofprivacy-enhancingtechnologies(orPETs),canprovideanadequate solutiontosomeprivacyissuesgeneratedbycybertechnology.

Chapter6, “SecurityinCyberspace,” examinessecuritythreatsinthecontextof computersandcybertechnology.Initially,wedifferentiatethreedistinctsensesof “security”:datasecurity,systemsecurity,andnetworksecurity.Wethenexaminethe conceptsof “hacker” and “hackerethic,” andweaskwhethercomputerbreak-inscan everbemorallyjustiﬁed.Next,wedifferentiateactsof “hacktivism,” cyberterrorism,and informationwarfare.Chapter6concludeswithabriefexaminationofriskanalysisinthe contextofcybersecurity.

Webeginouranalysisofcybercrime,inChapter7,byconsideringwhetherwe canconstructaprofileofa “typical” cybercriminal.Wethenproposeadefinition ofcybercrimethatenablesustodistinguishbetween “cyberspecific” and “cyber-related” crimestoseewhethersuchadistinctionwouldaidintheformulationofmorecoherent cybercrimelaws.Wealsoconsiderthenotionoflegaljurisdictionincyberspace, especiallywithrespecttotheprosecutionofcybercrimesthatinvolveinterstateand internationalvenues.Inaddition,weexaminetechnologicaleffortstocombatcybercrime,suchascontroversialusesofbiometrictechnologies.

Chapters8and9examinelegalissuesinvolvingintellectualpropertyandfreespeech, respectively,astheyrelatetocyberspace.OneobjectiveofChapter8, “Intellectual PropertyDisputesinCyberspace,” istoshowwhyanunderstandingoftheconceptof intellectualpropertyisimportantinaneraofdigitalinformation.Weconsiderthree theoriesofpropertyrightsandmakeimportantdistinctionsamonglegalconceptssuchas copyrightlaw,patentprotection,andtrademarks.Additionally,weconsiderspeciﬁc scenariosinvolvingintellectualpropertydisputes,includingtheoriginalNapstercontroversyaswellassomerecentpeer-to-peer(P2P)networksthathavebeenusedfor ﬁle sharing.WealsoexaminetheFreeSoftwareandtheOpenSourceSoftwareinitiatives. Finally,weconsideracompromisesolutionthatsupportsandencouragesthesharingof digitalinformationinanerawhenstrongcopyrightlegislationseemstodiscourage thatpractice.

Chapter9, “RegulatingCommerceandSpeechinCyberspace,” looksatadditional legalissues,especiallyastheyinvolveregulatoryconcernsincyberspace.Wedraw distinctionsbetweentwodifferentsensesof “regulation” asitappliestocyberspace,and wealsoconsiderwhethertheInternetshouldbeunderstoodasamediumorasa “place.” Wealsoexaminecontroversiessurroundinge-mailspam,whichsomebelievecanbe viewedasaformof “speech” incyberspace.Wethenaskwhetherallformsofonlinespeech shouldbegrantedlegalprotection;forexample,shouldchildpornography,hatespeech, andspeechthatcancausephysicalharmtoothersbetoleratedinonlineforums?

Chapter10examinesawiderangeofequity-and-accessissuesfromtheperspective ofcybertechnology’simpactforsociodemographicgroups(affectingclass,race,and gender).Thechapterbeginswithananalysisofglobalaspectsofthe “digitaldivide.” We thenexaminespeci ﬁcequity-and-accessissuesaffectingdisabledpersons,racialminorities,andwomen.Next,weexploretherelationshipbetweencybertechnologyand democracy,andweconsiderwhethertheInternetfacilitatesdemocracyorthreatens it.Wethenexaminesomesocialandethicalissuesaffectingemploymentinthe contemporaryworkplace,andweaskwhethertheuseofcybertechnologyhastransformed workandhasaffectedtheoverallqualityofworklife.

Controversies” isincludedonthebook’sWebsite.Iinviteyourfeedbackastohowthis sitecanbecontinuallyimproved.

c ANOTETOSTUDENTS

Ifyouaretakinganethicscourseforthe ﬁrsttime,youmightfeeluncomfortablewiththe prospectofembarkingonastudyofmoralissuesandcontroversialtopicsthatmight initiallycauseyoudiscomfortbecauseethicsissometimesperceivedtobepreachy,andits subjectmatterissometimesviewedasessentiallypersonalandprivateinnature.Because thesearecommonconcerns,Iaddressthemearlyinthetextbook.Idrawadistinction betweenanethicist,whostudiesmoralityora “moralsystem,” andamoralistwhomay assumetohavethecorrectanswerstoallofthequestions;notethataprimaryobjectiveof thisbookistoexamineandanalyzeethicalissues,nottopresumethatanyofusalready has the correctanswertoanyofthequestionsIconsider.

Toaccomplishthisobjective,Iintroducethreetypesofconceptualframeworksearly inthetextbook.InChapter1,Iprovideamethodologicalschemethatenablesyouto identifycontroversialproblemsandissuesinvolvingcybertechnology as ethicalissues. TheconceptualschemeincludedinChapter2,basedonethicaltheory,providessome generalprinciplesthatguideyouranalysisofspeci ﬁccasesaswellasyourdeliberations aboutwhichkindsofsolutionstoproblemsshouldbeproposed.Athird,and ﬁ nal, conceptualframeworkisintroducedinChapter3intheformofcriticalreasoning techniques,whichprovidesrulesandstandardsthatyoucanuseforevaluatingthe strengthsofcompetingargumentsandfordefendingaparticularpositionthatyoureach onacertainissue.

Thistextbookwasdesignedandwrittenforyou,thestudent!Whetherornotit succeedsinhelpingyoutomeettheobjectivesofacourseincyberethicsisveryimportant tome,soIwelcomeyourfeedbackonthistextbook;andIwouldsincerelyappreciate hearingyourideasonhowthistextbookcouldbeimproved.Pleasefeelfreetowriteto mewithyoursuggestions,comments,andsoforth.Myemailaddressishtavani@rivier .edu.Ilookforwardtohearingfromyou!

c NOTETOINSTRUCTORS:AROADMAPFORUSINGTHISBOOK

Thechaptersthatmakeup EthicsandTechnology aresequencedsothatreadersare exposedtofoundationalissuesandconceptualframeworksbeforetheyexaminespeciﬁc problemsincyberethics.Insomecases,itmaynotbepossibleforinstructorstocoverall ofthematerialinChapters1–3.Itisstronglyrecommended,however,thatbefore studentsareassignedmaterialinChapter4,theyatleastreadSections1.1,1.4–1.5,2.4–2.8,and3.1.Instructorsusingthistextbookcandeterminewhichchaptersbestaccommodatetheirspeciﬁ ccourseobjectives.Computerscienceinstructors,forexample,will likelywanttoassignChapter4,onprofessionalethicsandresponsibility,earlyinthe term.Socialscienceinstructors,ontheotherhand,willlikelyexamineissuesdiscussedin Chapters10and11earlyintheircourse.Philosophyinstructorsmaywishtostructure theircoursesbeginningwithathoroughexaminationofthematerialonethicalconcepts

c

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Inrevising EthicsandTechnology forafourthedition,Ihaveonceagaindrawnfrom severalofmypreviouslypublishedworks.Chapters1–4,onfoundationalandprofessionalissuesincyberethics,incorporatematerialfromfourarticles: “TheStateof ComputerEthicsasaPhilosophicalFieldofInquiry,” EthicsandInformationTechnology 3,no.2(2001); “ApplyinganInterdisciplinaryApproachtoTeachingComputerEthics,” IEEETechnologyandSocietyMagazine 21,no.3(2002); “TheUniquenessDebatein ComputerEthics,” EthicsandInformationTechnology 4,no.1(2002);and “Search EnginesandEthics,” StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy (2012).

Chapter5,onprivacyincyberspace,alsodrawsfrommaterialinfourworks: “ComputerMatchingandPersonalPrivacy,” ProceedingsoftheSymposiumonComputersandtheQualityofLife (ACMPress,1996); “InformationalPrivacy,DataMining, andtheInternet,” EthicsandInformationTechnology 1,no.2(1999); “PrivacyEnhancingTechnologiesasaPanaceaforOnlinePrivacyConcerns:SomeEthicalConsiderations,” JournalofInformationEthics 9,no.2(2000);and “Applyingthe ‘Contextual Integrity’ ModelofPrivacytoPersonalBlogsintheBlogosphere” (coauthored withFrancesGrodzinsky), InternationalJournalofInternetResearchEthics 3(2010). Chapters6and7,onsecurityandcrimeincyberspace,drawfrommaterialin threesources: “PrivacyandSecurity” inDuncanLangford’sbook InternetEthics (Macmillan/St.Martins,2000); “DeﬁningtheBoundariesofComputerCrime:Piracy, Trespass,andVandalisminCyberspace” in ReadingsinCyberEthics 2nded.(Jonesand Bartlett,2004);and “Privacyin ‘theCloud’” (coauthoredwithFrancesGrodzinsky), ComputersandSociety 41,no.1(2011).

InChapters8and9,onintellectualpropertyandInternetregulation,Idrewfrom materialin “InformationWantstobeShared:AnAlternativeApproachforAnalyzing IntellectualPropertyDisputesintheInformationAge,” CatholicLibraryWorld 73,no.2 (2002);andtwopaperscoauthoredwithFrancesGrodzinsky: “P2PNetworksandthe Verizonv.RIAA Case,” Ethics andInformationTechnology 7, no.4(2005)and “Online FileSharing:ResolvingtheTensionsbetweenPrivacyandProperty” Computersand Society 38,no.4(2008).Chapters10and11,onthedigitaldivide,democracy,andonline communities,drawfrommaterialfromtwopapers: “EthicalReﬂectionsontheDigital Divide,” JournalofInformation,CommunicationandEthicsinSociety 1,no.2(2003)and “OnlineCommunities,DemocraticIdeals,andtheDigitalDivide” (coauthoredwith FrancesGrodzinsky)inSorajHongladaromandCharlesEss’sbook InformationTechnologyEthics:CulturalPerspectives (IGIGlobal,2007).

Chapter12,onemergingandconvergingtechnologies,incorporatesmaterialfrom mybook Ethics,Computing,andGenomics (JonesandBartlett,2006),andfromthree recentlypublishedpapers: “CanWeDevelopArti ﬁcialAgentsCapableofMakingGood

MoralDecisions?” MindsandMachines 21,no.3(2011); “TrustandMulti-Agent Systems” (coauthoredwithJeffBuechner), EthicsandInformationTechnology 13, no.1(2011);and “EthicalAspectsofAutonomousSystems” inMichaelDeckerand MathiasGutmann’sbook Robo-andInformation-Ethics (Berlin:VerlagLIT,2012).

Thefourtheditionof EthicsandTechnology hasbeneﬁ tedfromsuggestionsand commentsIreceivedfrommanyanonymousreviewers,aswellasfromthefollowing colleagues:JeffBuechner,LloydCarr,JerryDolan,FrancesGrodzinsky,Kenneth Himma,JamesMoor,MartinMenke,WaynePauley,MarkRosenbaum,ReginaTavani, andJohnWeckert.IamespeciallygratefultoFranGrodzinsky(SacredHeartUniversity),withwhomIhavecoauthoredseveralpapers,forpermittingmetoincorporate elementsofourjointresearchintorelevantsectionsofthisbook.AndIammostgrateful toLloydCarr(RivierUniversity)forhisinvaluablefeedbackonseveralchaptersand sectionsofthiseditionofthebook,whichhewaswillingtoreviewmultipletimes;his astutecommentsandsuggestionshavehelpedmetoreﬁnemanyofthepositionsIdefend inthisbook.

Theneweditionofthebookhasalsobeneﬁ tedfromsomehelpfulcommentsthatI receivedfrommanystudentswhohaveusedpreviouseditionsofthetext.Iamalso gratefultothenumerousreviewersandcolleagueswhocommentedontheprevious editionsofthisbook;manyoftheirhelpfulsuggestionshavebeencarriedovertothe presentedition.

IalsowishtothanktheeditorialandproductionstaffsatWileyandThomsonDigital, especiallyBethGolub,ElizabethMills,KatherineWillis,JoleneLing,andSanchariSil, fortheirsupportduringthevariousstagesoftherevisionprocessforthefourtheditionof EthicsandTechnology.

Finally,Imustonceagainthankthetwomostimportantpeopleinmylife:mywife Joanne,andourdaughterRegina.Withouttheircontinuedsupportandextraordinary patience,thefourtheditionofthisbookcouldnothavebeencompleted.

Thiseditionof EthicsandTechnology isdedicatedtothememoryofmygrandparents:LeonandMarian(Roberts)Hutton,andAntonioandClelia(Giamberardino) Tavani.

Nashua,NH

HermanT.Tavani

Ethics and technology: controversies, questions, strategies for ethical - The full ebook version is

TABLEOFCONTENTS

c CHAPTER6 SECURITYINCYBERSPACE174

c NEWTOTHE FOURTHEDITION

ORGANIZATIONANDSTRUCTUREOFTHEBOOK

c ANOTETOSTUDENTS

c NOTETOINSTRUCTORS:AROADMAPFORUSINGTHISBOOK

c

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS