ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY OFBIOFUELS
ProspectsandChallenges
Editedby
KHALIDREHMANHAKEEM
DepartmentofBiologicalSciences,FacultyofScience,KingAbdulaziz University,Jeddah,SaudiArabia
SUHAIBA.BANDH
DepartmentofHigherEducation,GovernmentofJammuandKashmir, Srinagar,India
FAYAZA.MALLA
DepartmentofEnvironmentalScience,GovernmentDegreeCollege, Tral,JammuandKashmir,India
MOHAMMADANEESULMEHMOOD
GovernmentDegreeCollege,Pulwama,JammuandKashmir,India
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TypesetbySTRAIVE,India
1.Biofuelsinenvironmentalsecurity1
SubramaniamYogeeswari,NanthakumarLoganathan,andAsanAliGolamHassan 1.Introduction
2.Biofuelsandsustainabledevelopmentgoals13
FayazAhmadMallaandSuhaibA.Bandh
.Opportunitiesandchallengesofthebiofuelsustainabilitytransition22
3.Biofuelsanoptionforagro-wastemanagement27
AnhTuanHoang,AshokPandey,ZuohuaHuang,SandroNižetic,AnhTuanLe,and XuanPhuongNguyen 1.Introduction
.Conclusions
4.Biofuelsandlanduse/landcoverchangenexus49
SushilKumarKharia,LalChandMalav,AbhishekJangir,SandeepKumar, GopalTiwari,JairamChoudhary,andAmritaDaripa
1.Introduction 49
2.LULC,biofuel,itstypes,anditsrelationtoLULC51
3.MajordriversofLULC52
4.BiofuelandLULCchangesinIndia53
5.ImpactofbiofuelproductiononLULCchangesandviceversa56
6.Challengesandfutureperspectives62
7.Conclusions 64 References 64
5.Worldbiofuelcontinuum:Issuesandchallenges69
TatsujiKoizumi
1.Introduction 69
2.Globalbiofuelsituationandoutlook69
3.Challengesfortheissuesandproblemsofbiofuels72
4.ImpactoftheEVshiftonglobalbiofuelandagriculturalmarkets77
5.Discussionandconclusions83
References 84
6.Impactsofthebiofuelindustryontheenvironment87
NafeesaFarooqKhanandIshfaqUlRehman
1.Introduction 87
2.Biofuelindustry 88
3.Causeofconcerninbiofuelproductionandconsumption89
4.Methodologicalinterventionsforenvironmentalconcerns90
5.Impacts 91
6.Conclusionsandrecommendations96 References 96
7.Biofuelproduction:Aninitiativeofenvironmentallysoundtechnologies (EST’s)orGreentechnologies99
M.Edwin,J.NihalNila,andM.SaranyaNair
1.Introduction 99
2.Biofuelsasaviablealternativesourceofenergy100
3.Processofbiofuelproduction104
4.Greenrawmaterialselectionforbiofuelproduction108
5.Greenadditivesusedinbiofuelproduction113
6.Biofuels,thecarboncycle,andnetenergybalances114
7.Biofuelsasapartofenhancingairquality117
8.Costbenefitsgreentechnologiesforbiofuelproduction120
9.Theenvironmentalimpactofbiofuelanditssensitivity121
10.Biofuelsandthesustainabilitychallenge125
.Conclusions
8.Impactassessmentofglobalbiofuelregulationsandpolicies onbiodiversity137
EmmaSualiandLatifahSuali
1.Introduction 137
2.Majorfactorsofbiofuelregulationsandpolicies138
3.Globalmajorbiofuelproducerandconsumer143
4.Biofuelregulationandpolicyofmajorbiofuelproducer144
5.Implicationonlandrequirementandecosystem148
6.Conclusions
9.ProspectsofR&Dinthebiofuelsector/industry163
HiraNaveed,Ala’aH.Al-Muhtaseb,FarrukhJamil,SuhaibAl-Maawali,andRashidAl-Hajri 1.Introduction
2.Biofuels Overview164 3.Typesofbiofuels166 4.Biofuelsindustry(R&D)168 5.Feedstock 171 6.Issuesindevelopment174 7.R&Dforfeedstockdevelopment175 8.Conclusions
10.Biofuelconsumptionandglobalclimatechange:Solutionsand challenges183
RahilAkhtarUsmani
1.Introduction 183 2.Transportsectoremissions185
3.Biofuelsinmajoreconomies186
4.Scaleofbiofuelspotential187
5.Plausiblerangeofbiofueldeployment190
6.Sustainabilityconcernswithbiofuels192
7.Biofuelsandsustainabletransportsystem195
8.Conclusions 196 References 197
11.Algaeasafeedstockforbiofuelproduction201
RathinasamyKarpagam
1.Introduction 201
2.Biofuelfeedstockresourcesandtheirgenerations202
3.Algaeandbiofuelproduction203
4.Algalbiorefineryforcombinedbiofuelproduction208
5.Futureprospectsinalgalbiofuelproduction209 References 212
12.Biofuel:Auniquesolutionforthefutureenergycrisis219
FarhatUnNisa
1.Introduction 219
2.Biofuelandtheirtypes221
3.Biofuelsourcesandgenerations224
4.Globaltrendofinvestmentinbiofuels224
5.Significantenvironmentalissuesassociatedwithbiofuelproduction225
6.Biofuels Improvesrenewableenergycrisis234
7.Conclusions 234
13.Geneticengineeringandfifth-generationbiofuels237
ZainabMushtaq,RoufMaqbool,andKaisarAhmadBhat
1.Introduction237
2.Technicaloverviewofbiofuelproduction239
3.Emergenceofnext-generationbiofuel240
4.Geneticmanipulationoflignocellulosicbiomass241
5.Geneticengineeringofalgae242
6.Geneticengineeringoflipidmetabolism243
7.Geneticmodificationofcarbohydratemetabolism244
8.Microalgaecultivation246
9.Algaloilextractionpathways246
10.Geneticengineeringinprokaryotes247
11.Approachestoengineeringnext-generationbiofuel247
12.Lignocellulolyticorganisms248 13.Outlookandconclusions248 References 250
14.Applicationofwastebiomassintoautomotivefuels253
S.Padmanabhan,C.Joel,M.Parthasarathy,P.V.Elumalai,andN.Murgunachiappan
1.Introduction
2.Plasticsenergy254 3.Experimentalresultanalysis255
4.Fullfactorialdesign Optimizationonblendratio260 5.Conclusions 264 References 265
15.Biofuel:Aprimeeco-innovationforsustainability267
V.Karthik,SelvakumarPeriyasamy,V.Varalakshmi,J.MercyNishaPauline, andR.Suganya
1.Introduction 267
2.Typesofbiofuel269
3.Sourcesofbiofuel271
4.Techniquesforbiofuelgeneration272
5.Nanotechnologyinbiofuelproduction273
6.Sustainabilityanalysis274
7.Challengesandfutureperspectives278
.Conclusion
16.Lifecyclesustainabilityofbiofuels285
MarianyCostaDeprá,RosangelaRodriguesDias,RafaelaBassoSartori, ÁlissonSantosOliveira,LeilaQueirozZepka,andEduardoJacob-Lopes
1.Introduction
2.Currentportfolioofpotentialfeedstocksforcleanbiofuelgeneration286
3.Sustainabilityperformanceindicatorsforbiofuels289
4.Economicscenarioandsociopoliticalacceptanceofbiofuels292
5.Conclusionsandfutureperspectives294
17.Arealgalbiofuelsananswertothepetrochemicalcrisis?299
ShaonRayChaudhuri
1.Thegrowingenergydemand299
2.Theuncertainty302
3.Thealternativefuelanditslimitations302
4.Possiblesolutionsformakingthird-generationbiofueleconomicallyviable305
5.Aretheyreallysafealways?309
6.Conclusions 310
18.Impactsofprogressivebiofuelsonenvironmentalsustainability313
PouryaBazyar
1.Introduction 313
2.Administrationenvironment316
3.Definingbioenergy'senvironmentalsustainability318
4.Biofuelsenvironmentalsustainabilityindicators319
5.Industrialprocessingimpactedbyenvironmentalsustainability:Thedownstream dimension 323
6.Environmentalsustainabilityfromaglobalviewpoint323
7.Resultsanddiscussion325 References 325
19.Roleofnanoadditivesinbiofuelproduction329
V.Karthik,B.Karuna,andSelvakumarPeriyasamy
1.Introduction 329
2.Biofueltypesandtheirproduction330
3.Roleofnanoadditivesinbiofuelproduction335
4.Nanoadditivetypes338
5.Futureprospects342
6.Conclusions 344
20.Achemicalapproachtowardsthesustainabilityofbiofuels: Environmentalandeconomicaspects349
TanmayDuttaandAnanyaYasmin
1.Introduction
.Biofuel
3.Biofuelssources:Constituentsofbiomass352
4.Conversionofsuchcomponentstobiofuels355 5.Economicaspect358
ZinnabuTassewRedda,DestaGetachewGizaw,SelvakumarPeriyasamy, J.BeulaIsabel,andV.Karthik
1.Introduction
2.Renewablefeedstocksforaviationbiofuels365
3.Sustainableaviationfuels368
4.Productiontechnologiesforbioaviationfuels370 5.Sustainabilityandchallenges377
.Conclusions
Contributors
RashidAl-Hajri
DepartmentofPetroleumandChemicalEngineering,CollegeofEngineering,SultanQaboos University,Muscat,Oman
SuhaibAl-Maawali
DepartmentofPetroleumandChemicalEngineering,CollegeofEngineering,SultanQaboos University,Muscat,Oman
Ala’aH.Al-Muhtaseb
DepartmentofPetroleumandChemicalEngineering,CollegeofEngineering,SultanQaboos University,Muscat,Oman
SuhaibA.Bandh
DepartmentofHigherEducation,GovernmentofJammuandKashmir,Kulgam,India
PouryaBazyar
HamburgUniversityofAppliedSciences,MechanicalEngineeringandProduction,Hamburg, Germany
KaisarAhmadBhat
DepartmentofBiotechnology,BabaGhulamShahBadshahUniversity,Rajouri,Jammuand Kashmir,India
JairamChoudhary
ICAR-IIFSR,Modipuram,Meerut,India
AmritaDaripa
ICAR-NationalBureauofSoilSurvey&LandUsePlanning,Nagpur,Maharashtra,India
MarianyCostaDepra ´
BioprocessIntensificationGroup,FederalUniversityofSantaMaria,UFSM,SantaMaria,Rio GrandedoSul,Brazil
RosangelaRodriguesDias
BioprocessIntensificationGroup,FederalUniversityofSantaMaria,UFSM,SantaMaria,Rio GrandedoSul,Brazil
TanmayDutta
DepartmentofChemistry,IndianInstituteofScienceEducationandResearchBhopal,Bhopal, MadhyaPradesh,India
M.Edwin
DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,UniversityCollegeofEngineering,Nagercoil,Anna UniversityConstituentCollege,Nagercoil,India
P.V.Elumalai
DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,AdityaEngineeringCollege,Surampalem,India
DestaGetachewGizaw
DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,SchoolofMechanical,ChemicalandMaterials Engineering,AdamaScienceandTechnologyUniversity,Adama,Ethiopia
AsanAliGolamHassan
AzmanHashimInternationalBusinessSchool,UniversitiTeknologiMalaysia,Skudai,Malaysia
AnhTuanHoang
InstituteofEngineering,HUTECHUniversity,HoChiMinhCity,Vietnam
ZuohuaHuang
StateKeyLaboratoryofMultiphaseFlowinPowerEngineering,Xi’anJiaotongUniversity, Xi’an,China
J.BeulaIsabel
DepartmentofEnergyandEnvironment,CentreforEnergyandEnvironmentalScienceand Technology,NationalInstituteofTechnology,Tiruchirappalli,TamilNadu,India
EduardoJacob-Lopes
BioprocessIntensificationGroup,FederalUniversityofSantaMaria,UFSM,SantaMaria,Rio GrandedoSul,Brazil
FarrukhJamil
DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,COMSATSUniversityIslamabad,Lahore,Pakistan
AbhishekJangir
ICAR-NationalBureauofSoilSurvey&LandUsePlanning,Nagpur,Maharashtra,India
C.Joel
DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,EaswariEngineeringCollege,Chennai,India
RathinasamyKarpagam
DepartmentofPlantBiotechnology,CentreforPlantMolecularBiologyandBiotechnology (CPMB&B),TamilNaduAgriculturalUniversity,Coimbatore,TamilNadu,India
V.Karthik
DepartmentofIndustrialBiotechnology,GovernmentCollegeofTechnology,Coimbatore, TamilNadu,India
B.Karuna
DepartmentofIndustrialBiotechnology,GovernmentCollegeofTechnology,Coimbatore, TamilNadu,India
NafeesaFarooqKhan DepartmentofBotany,UniversityofKashmirSrinagarJ&K,Srinagar,India
SushilKumarKharia CollegeofAgriculture,SKRAU,Bikaner,Rajasthan,India
TatsujiKoizumi
PolicyResearchInstitute,MinistryofAgriculture,ForestryandFisheries,Japan
SandeepKumar CentreforEnvironmentalScienceandClimateResilientAgriculture,NewDelhi,India
AnhTuanLe
SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,HanoiUniversityofScienceandTechnology,Hanoi, Vietnam
NanthakumarLoganathan FacultyofManagement,UniversitiTeknologiMalaysia,Skudai,Malaysia
LalChandMalav
ICAR-NationalBureauofSoilSurvey&LandUsePlanning,Nagpur,Maharashtra,India
FayazAhmadMalla
DepartmentofEnvironmentalScience,GovernmentDegreeCollegeTral(HigherEducation DepartmentGovt.ofJammuandKashmir),Pulwama,India
RoufMaqbool
DepartmentofBiochemistry,UniversityofKashmir,Srinagar,JammuandKashmir,India
N.Murgunachiappan
SchoolofMechanicalandConstruction,VelTechRangarajanDr.SagunthalaR&DInstituteof ScienceandTechnology,Chennai,India
ZainabMushtaq
DepartmentofBiochemistry,UniversityofKashmir,Srinagar,JammuandKashmir,India
M.SaranyaNair
SchoolofElectronicsEngineering,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Chennai,India
HiraNaveed DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,COMSATSUniversityIslamabad,Lahore,Pakistan
XuanPhuongNguyen
PATETResearchGroup,HoChiMinhCityUniversityofTransport,HoChiMinhCity, Vietnam
J.NihalNila
DepartmentofZoology,ScottChristianCollege,Nagercoil,India
FarhatUnNisa
DepartmentofCivilEngineering,NationalInstituteofTechnology,Srinagar,India
SandroNiz ˇ etic UniversityofSplit,FESB,RudjeraBoskovica,Split,Croatia
A ´ lissonSantosOliveira
BioprocessIntensificationGroup,FederalUniversityofSantaMaria,UFSM,SantaMaria,Rio GrandedoSul,Brazil
S.Padmanabhan
SchoolofMechanicalandConstruction,VelTechRangarajanDr.SagunthalaR&DInstituteof ScienceandTechnology,Chennai,India
AshokPandey
CentreforInnovationandTranslationalResearch,CSIR-IndianInstituteofToxicology Research;CentreforEnergyandEnvironmentalSustainability,Lucknow,UttarPradesh; SustainabilityCluster,SchoolofEngineering,UniversityofPetroleumandEnergyStudies, Dehradun,India
M.Parthasarathy
SchoolofMechanicalandConstruction,VelTechRangarajanDr.SagunthalaR&DInstituteof ScienceandTechnology,Chennai,India
J.MercyNishaPauline
DepartmentofIndustrialBiotechnology,GovernmentCollegeofTechnology,Coimbatore, TamilNadu,India
SelvakumarPeriyasamy
DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,SchoolofMechanical,ChemicalandMaterials Engineering,AdamaScienceandTechnologyUniversity,Adama,Ethiopia
ShaonRayChaudhuri
DepartmentofMicrobiology,TripuraUniversity,SuryamaniNagar,TripuraWest,India
IshfaqUlRehman
DepartmentofBotany,UniversityofKashmirSrinagarJ&K,Srinagar,India
RafaelaBassoSartori
BioprocessIntensificationGroup,FederalUniversityofSantaMaria,UFSM,SantaMaria,Rio GrandedoSul,Brazil
EmmaSuali
FacultyofEngineering,JalanUMS,UniversitiMalaysiaSabah,KotaKinabalu,Sabah,Malaysia
LatifahSuali
FacultyofMedicineandHealthSciences,JalanUMS,UniversitiMalaysiaSabah,KotaKinabalu, Sabah,Malaysia
R.Suganya
DepartmentofBiotechnology,P.S.R.EngineeringCollege,Sivakasi,India
ZinnabuTassewRedda
SchoolofChemicalandBioEngineering,AddisAbabaInstituteofTechnology,AddisAbaba University,AddisAbaba,Ethiopia;Department1,UniversityofAppliedSciences(HTW)Berlin, Wilhelminenhofstraße,Berlin,Germany
GopalTiwari
ICAR-NationalBureauofSoilSurvey&LandUsePlanning,Nagpur,Maharashtra,India
RahilAkhtarUsmani
DepartmentofAgriculture,IntegralInstituteofAgriculturalScienceandTechnology,Integral University,Lucknow,India
V.Varalakshmi
DepartmentofBiotechnology,P.S.R.EngineeringCollege,Sivakasi,India
AnanyaYasmin
DepartmentofChemistry,KalipadaGhoshTaraiMahavidyalaya,Bagdogra,Darjeeling,West Bengal,India
SubramaniamYogeeswari
FacultyofManagement,UniversitiTeknologiMalaysia,Skudai,Malaysia
LeilaQueirozZepka
BioprocessIntensificationGroup,FederalUniversityofSantaMaria,UFSM,SantaMaria,Rio GrandedoSul,Brazil
Biofuelsinenvironmentalsecurity
SubramaniamYogeeswaria,NanthakumarLoganathana, andAsanAliGolamHassanb
aFacultyofManagement,UniversitiTeknologiMalaysia,Skudai,Malaysia
bAzmanHashimInternationalBusinessSchool,UniversitiTeknologiMalaysia,Skudai,Malaysia
1.Introduction
The UnitedNations(2017) indicatethattoday’sgreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsaremore than50%higherthanin1990,causinglong-lastingchangesintheweatherandclimatesystemonourplanets.GHGemissionsarelikelytocausetheearthtowarmupandmeltglaciers andotherice,therebyincreasingsealevels.Forexample,theOECDenvironmentaloutlook(OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,2017)estimatesthat globalGHGtrendsareprojectedtogrowbyaround37%in1997to52%by2050.This couldresultinanincreaseinglobaltemperatureintherangeof1.7–2.4°Cby2050over preindustriallevels,leadingtoincreasedheatwaves,droughtsandfloods.Additionally,if thetemperaturerisesunfavorablybeyondtheoptimumrangeformanycrops,itwill adverselyaffectplantgrowthandpollination,alongwithcropyield(Sacks&Kucharik, 2011).Forexample,usingastatisticalapproach, Lobelletal.(2011) suggestthateachdegree Celsiusincreaseintemperaturemaycausecropyieldstodeclinefrom36%to40%across severalcropssuchaswheat,maize,andcotton.Theresultingreductioninyieldsmay threatenthedependentpopulation’sfoodsupply.
Accordingto Fischer,Hizsnyik,Prielder,Shah,andvanVelthuizen(2009),biofuelis knownasafuelforvehicleswiththeaimofmitigatingclimatechange,strengthening ruraldevelopmentanddealingwithenergysecurity.Biofuel’senvironmentalbenefit isthenetreductionofGHGfromfossilfuelsby60%–94%(Escobaretal.,2009).Because ofthesebenefits,developingcountries,likedevelopedcountries,havealsoexploredthe potentialforbiofueloptionstomeettheirenergyneeds.Basedon Capuano(2018),biofuelproductionindevelopingcountriesgrewgraduallyin2017,andcurrently1343metrictonsaregreaterthanin2016.Brazil,Argentina,China,ThailandandIndonesiaare amongthemajorbiofuelproducingcountriesindevelopingcountries.Besides, Doku andDiFalco(2012) provethatbiofuelindustriesareessentialtocreatingemployment anddevelopmentinruralareas. DokuandDiFalco(2012) havealsoshownthatbiofuel developmentemploysabout100timesmoreworkersperunitofenergyproducedthan thefossilfuelindustryandthuscansignificantlyincreaseincomeforfarmersandrural communities.Withmorebiofuelbeingproduced,socialwelfarecontinuestoimprove
duetoanumberofperceivedbenefitsthatachieveeconomicandsocialgoals.Thus, encouragingbiofueldevelopmentisonepossiblestrategyforachievinggreatersustainableeconomicwelfare.
However,thedevelopmentofbiofuelhasraisedmanyconcerns,particularlyconcerning thethreattofoodsecurity.Thisisbecausethemainfeedstockofbiofuelcomesfromagriculturalproductssuchassugarcane,corn,rapeseedoil,soybeanoil,palmoil,sugarbeet, cassava,wheatandothers.Argentina,China,Bulgaria,IndiaandKenya,forexample,producebioethanolfrommaize,whileBolivia,Uruguay,MexicoandBrazilproducebioethanolfromsugarcane.Inthecaseofbiodiesel,Brazil,Argentina,UruguayandIndonesiaare producingitfrompalmandsoybeanoil.Asaresult,the Valentineetal.(2012) supportsthe assumptionthatbiofuelhasthepotentialtocreatecompetitionwithfoodproduction.
Consideringtheabovementionedissues,weassumethatbiofuelcanbepartofthesolutionstofoodinsecurityindevelopingcountriesbyanalyzingthelifecycleassessment(LCA) ofnetGHGemissions(Kazamia&Smith,2014;Kumar,Singh,Nanoti,&Garg,2012;Von Blottnitz&Curran,2007).Referringto Fig.1,itshouldbenotedthatmeetingthereduction inGHGemissionsduringtheproductionofbiofuelhasthepotentialtobringanincreasein foodproductiontopopulations.Oneofthemainfactsisthatareductioningreenhouseemissionsislikelytorecoverthecurrentfoodsecuritythreats.Inthiscase,LCAisusedtoshowthe channelthroughwhichthebenefitofbiofuelintermsofGHGemissionisrealized.Biofuel hasseveralprocesses,namely,theproductionofbiofuel,transportationoffeedstock,processing,transportationofbiofuel,conversionofbiofuelanddistributionofenergy.
Eachoftheprocesseslistedcanreleaseacertainamountofemissionsthroughoutthe entirefuelchain,suchasmethane(CH4),nitrousoxide(N2O)andfluorinatedgases (FGAS),rangingfromfeedstockproductiontoenergydistribution.Butthedifference
Biofuel,environmentandagriculturalcrops. (Source:Authors’ illustration.)
Fig.1
betweenGHGemissionsfrombiofuelandfossilfuelisexpectedtobeareductioninnet emissionsiftheexpansionofbiofuelisaccompaniedbyenvironmentallyfriendlyagriculturaltechniques.Forinstance,ethanolfromsugarcaneshowsthelargestemissionreduction intherangeof70%–90%,biodieselfrompalmoilprovidesareductionof50%–75%,followedbysugarbeet(40%–55%),rapeseed(40%–60%),maize(25%–35%)andothers (Hanaki&Portugal-Pereira,2018).Besides,biofuelisatbestcarbon-neutralfuels,because theydonotleadtoanetincreaseofhumancontributionstocarbondioxidelevelsinthe atmosphere,whichreduceshumancontributiontowardglobalwarming.Here,themain factsarethatincreaseinbiofuelsisexpectedtocausedecreasedcarbonemissionandislikely toaffectglobaltemperatureispredominantinfoodsupplies.Inthiscase,itissuggestedthata reductioninglobaltemperaturecanpotentiallyincreasecropyield,causebetterqualityand morequantityofcrops.Accordingto Cline(2008),beyondacertainrangeoftemperatures, warmingtendstoreduceyields.Thisisbecausehighertemperaturesarelikelytoimpedethe abilityofplantstousethemoisture.Therefore,thischapteraimstoexaminetheimpactof biofuelproductiononfoodsecurity,ifbiofuelsufficiently,oratleastplaythegreatestroleto promoteenvironmentalqualitylevelsindevelopingcountries.
2.Biofuelandenvironmentalqualityonfoodsecurity
Empirically,anumberofstudiesinvestigatetherelationshipbetweenenvironmental qualityandfoodsecurityindevelopedanddevelopingcountries Appendiniand Liverman(1994),Matsuietal.(1997),LalandBruce(1999),Watsonetal.(1996), Cline(2008),Bruceetal.(1996),FaisalandParveen(2004),Droogers(2004), Gregoryetal.(2005),Alcamoetal.(2007),TubielloandFischer(2007),Hanjraand Qureshi(2010),CodjoeandOwusu(2011),Sarr(2012),RasulandSharma(2016), Connolly-BoutinandSmit(2016),Halletal.(2017),DithmerandAbdulai(2017), andWossenetal.(2018).Someofthepreviousstudiessuchas Appendiniand Liverman(1994),Matsuietal.(1997),LalandBruce(1999),Watsonetal.(1996), Cline(2008),Bruceetal.(1996),FaisalandParveen(2004),Droogers(2004), Gregoryetal.(2005),Alcamoetal.(2007),TubielloandFischer(2007),Hanjraand Qureshi(2010),CodjoeandOwusu(2011),Sarr(2012),RasulandSharma(2016), Connolly-BoutinandSmit(2016),Halletal.(2017),DithmerandAbdulai(2017), andWossenetal.(2018) reportthatenvironmentaldegradationhasanegativesignificant impactonfoodproduction.Climatechangeisexpectedtocauseincreasedtemperature, therebyreducingcropyieldandproductionintheshortandlongterm(Davidsonetal., 2003;Thomas,Twyman,Osbahr,&Hewitson,2007). CodjoeandOwusu(2011)and Sarr(2012) alsoassertthatfloodingisdestroyinggrowingseasons,leadingtocroploss, lowyieldsandreducedfoodavailability.
Besides, Dawsonetal.(2016) predictacriticalviewthatby2050,anadditional1.7 billionpeoplewillbeatriskofundernourishmentduetohighemissions.Thiswill
exacerbatethefoodchain,cropyieldandabilitytofeedpeople,especiallyin2050.The findingsshowthatenvironmentalqualityposesasignificantthreattofoodproduction duetochangesinthedistributionofrainfall,availabilityofwaterandbiodiversity, therebyexacerbatingfoodsupplies,cropyieldsandabilitytofeedpeople.Thereisafairly largeamountofliteratureinvestigatingthelinkbetweenfoodsecurityandenvironmental degradationinAfricancountries,forinstance, RasulandSharma(2016) inNorthAfrica andsouthernAfrica;and Watsonetal.(1996) insouthernAfrica.Overall,itsuggeststhat environmentaldegradationposessignificantthreatstofoodsecurityduetochangesin cropproductivityandfoodsupply.
Oneofthebiggestchallengesfacedbytheworldishowtomanagethegrowing demandforfood,whichisfurthercompoundedbyenvironmentaldegradation. TubielloandFischer(2007),HanjraandQureshi(2010),CodjoeandOwusu(2011), Sarr(2012),RasulandSharma(2016),Connolly-BoutinandSmit(2016),Dawson etal.(2016),Halletal.(2017),DithmerandAbdulai(2017)andWossenetal.(2018) proposethatglobalwarmingreducestherainfallrequiredbycerealcrops.Specifically, NorthAfricaandSouthernAfricaregionsareaffectedbypollutionthatislikelytoreduce agriculturalproductiontomeettheirfoodconsumption(Rasul&Sharma,2016).However,tomybestknowledge,thereislittledirectempiricalevidencetoconfirmthatthere isalinkbetweenenvironmentalqualityandfoodsecurity,especiallyindeveloping countries.
Besidesthat,thisstudyalsopredictsthattheemergenceofthebiofuelindustrymay haveasignificanteffectonfoodsecurity.Whilethereisnospecifictheoryavailablecapableoflinkingbiofuel,environmentandfoodsecurity, Msangi’s(2016) recentstatement counterarguesthat“producingbioenergydoesnothavetoconflictwithfoodsecurity.” Msangi (2016) viewsbioenergyasawaytoimproveenergysecurityandfoodproductivityaswell astoensurehouseholdfoodsupplies.Similarly, Nayloretal.(2007) alsoraisethequestion ofwhetherthesustainabledevelopmentgoalsofalleviatingglobalhungercanbe achievedwiththeexpansionofbiofuelproduction.Itissuggestedthatreductionsin GHGemissionsduringbiofuelproductionhavethepotentialtobringanincreaseinfood productiontopopulations.Thesehighlightsthatariseinagriculturaloutputmayplaya vitalroleinincreasingfourdimensionsoffoodsecurity,namely,foodavailability(e.g., production),thestabilityoffoodssupplies,accesstofoodandfoodutilization.Asaresult, biofuelproductioncanplayavitalroleinreducinggreenhouseemissions,therebypromotingbetterenvironmentalqualitypromotingasignificantincreaseinthefoodsupply.
Overall,mostpreviousstudieshavefailedtoevaluatetheeffectofbiofuelproduction onfoodsecurityifbiofuelsufficientlyhelpsimprovethelevelofenvironmentalquality. Accordingtothisview,themaincontributionofthisstudyistwofold.First,thisstudy wantstoexamineifthebiofuelindustryhasbeensufficientlylargeandcapabletomitigate environmentalissuessuchasminimizing(orevencompletelypreventing)GHGemission,betterenvironmentalqualitymayhelpinsecuringfoodproduction.Hence,the outcomeofthisstudymaybeusefulinprovidingaframeworkforfuturedevelopment
notonlyinfoodsecuritybutalsoinbiofueldevelopment.Second,thisstudycontributes totheliteraturebyintroducinganewframeworkofanalysis,namely,thenexusofbiofuel,environmentalqualityandfoodsecurity.Constructinganewframeworkcontributestowardimprovingtheunderstandingofthemechanismbywhichtheproductionof biofuelaffectsenvironmentalqualitywherebybetterenvironmentalqualitypromotesan increaseinfoodsecurity.
3.Empiricalmodel
Toexaminetheobjectiveofthischapter,whichstatesthatenvironmentalqualitycanbea potentialdeterminingfactorofthedifferenceinthebiofuel-foodsuppliesrelationacross countries,thisstudypresentsthefollowingempiricalequation:
where FS isthefoodsecurity, EQ istheenvironmentalqualityand BP isthebiofuel production.
Thelistsofvariablesandtheirsourcesarepresentedin Table1.
Besides,weadoptpaneldatawhichisdefinedasacombinationoftimeseriesand cross-sectiondata.Paneldatamodelexamineindividual-specificeffects,timeeffects orbothtodealwithheterogeneityorindividualeffect(cross-sectionalortime-specific effect)thatmayormaynotbeobserved.Incidentally,thepaneldatastructureinourstudy isabalancedpanelwhereeachcountryhasthesamenumberofobservations.Thereare threepossibilities,namely,pooledordinaryleastsquare(OLS)model,fixed-effectmode andrandom-effectmodel.
4.Findingsanddiscussion
Basedonstaticpanelestimation,therandom-effectmodelisperformingbetterthan pooledwheretheBreusch-Pagantestrejectsthenullhypothesisthatpooledtechniques areappropriate.Then,aprobabilitytestisconductedtochoosebetweenpooledand
Table1 Listofvariables,definitionandsources.
VariablesDefinition/measurementSources
FS Globalfoodsecurityindex TheEconomist IntelligenceUnit (2021)
EQ FluorinatedgasesinktofCO2 equivalentnitrousoxide emissionsinthousandmetrictonsofCO2 equivalent methaneemissionsinktofCO2 equivalent WorldBank(2021)
BP Totalbiofuelproductioninthousandbarrelsperday UNDATA(2021)
Note:WeskiptheuseofCO2 asaproxyforEQasthisvariablehasbeenusedfrequentlyinpaststudies. Nopermissionrequired.
fixed-effectmodelandthe P-valueconfirmsthatfixed-effectispreferabletopooled regressions.Asafinalpoint,theresultoftheHausmantestindicatesthattherandomeffectmodelisbetterthanthefixed-effectmodel.Thus,fromtheentirethreepanels, therandom-effectmodelissuperiortopooledandfixed-effectmodel.
Accordingtotheempiricalanalysisindicatedin Table2,theresulthighlightsthatthe coefficientof BP*EQ hasapositiveandsignificantimpactonfoodsecurityindeveloping countries.Thepositiveimpactsoftheinteractiontermsin Table2 bringhugereliefand hopeabouttherelationshipbetweenbiofuelandfoodsecurity.Theresultsshowthat environmentalqualitycanbetransformed,particularlyviatheenlargementofthesize ofbiofuelproduction;thenegativeimpactofbiofuelcanbeturnedintoapositiveimpact orimprovethefoodsupply.Simply,biofuelisbeneficialforfoodsecurityimprovement indevelopingcountriesiftheproductionofbiofuelisaccompaniedbybetterenvironmentalquality.Thisisaninterestingresultasitprovidesevidencethatbiofuelisnot necessarilyalwaysaggravatedtheproblemoffoodinsecurity.
Movingtothresholds,theoutcomeshighlightthataminimumlevelofenvironmental qualityisrequiredbeforeitcanmitigatetheadverseeffectofbiofuelproductiononfood security.Withrespecttomarginaleffect,theresultsdemonstratethebiofuelcursewhen environmentalqualityispoor.Thus,environmentalqualityplaysanessentialroleinbiofuelproductionandfoodsecurity,withcountrieshavingbetterenvironmentalquality.
5.Conclusions
Theempiricalresultsdemonstratethattheinteractiontermbetweenbiofuelandenvironmentalquality(lnBP*lnEQ)isfoundtobesignificantinallmodels,justifyingthe validityofthisstudyintuitionthatthereisawin-winsituationbetweenbiofuelandfood security.Theanalysisprovidesasupportivesignalthatalthoughbiofuelproductionmay threatenfoodsuppliesduetothegrowinguseoffoodcropstoproducebiofuelinthe earlystageofdevelopment,biofuelproductiontendstocontributetoemissionreduction andtherebyhavesignificantpositiveeffectsonagriculturalproductivityandfoodsupplies.Asaresult,itisimportanttopromotebiofueldevelopmentthatwillleadtobetter environmentalqualityandgreaterproductionoffoods.
Tothebestofthisstudyknowledge,thefindingsofthestudymayserveasaguideand referencetopolicymakers.Itisimportanttoencourageimplementingpoliciesandguidelinesfortheproductionofbiofuelandfoodinaccordancewiththenationaldevelopment’saimofensuringfoodsecurity.AlthoughSDGoutlines17goals,inpractice, thesegoalsareinterrelatedandsometimesmaynegativelyinfluenceonegoaloranother. Therefore,insteadofdesigningasinglepolicyforcertaingoalswhileexpectingother goalswillfollow,thisstudysuggeststhegovernmenthave,apartfromthepolicyforeach goalbutalsoacomplementarypolicytoensurethatnogoal(environment)willvanish duetoimprovementinanothergoal(foodsecurity).Morespecifically,itwillprovide
Table2 Regressionanalysisofdimensional[DV ¼ lnFS].
Modelcriteria
Marginaleffect
Note:Asterisks * , **,and*** denotethe10percent,5percent,and1percentlevelsofsignificance,respectively.Figuresin[]standfort-statistics. Nopermissionrequired.
