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ENHANCING DISASTER PREPAREDNESS FROMHUMANITARIAN ARCHITECTURETOCOMMUNITY RESILIENCE Editedby
A.NUNO MARTINS
CIAUD,ResearchCentreforArchitecture,UrbanismandDesign, FacultyofArchitecture,UniversityofLisbon,Lisbon,Portugal
MAHMOOD FAYAZI TheInstituteforDisasterManagementandReconstruction, SichuanUniversityandtheHongKongPolytechnicUniversity,Chengdu,Sichuan,China
FATEN KIKANO Facultédel’Aménagement,UniversitédeMontréal,Montreal,Quebec,Canada
LILIANE HOBEICA RISKam(ResearchgrouponEnvironmentalHazardandRiskAssessmentandManagement), CentreforGeographicalStudies,UniversityofLisbon,Lisbon,Portugal
Elsevier
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Contributors KristjanaAdalgeirsdottir
AaltoUniversity,Helsinki,Finland
LaraAlshawawreh
FacultyofEngineering,MutahUniversity,Karak, Jordan
AnouckAndriessen
KULeuven,Leuven,Belgium
AdityaBarve
MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,Urban RiskLab,Cambridge,MA,UnitedStates
PabloBenetti
Post-GraduationPrograminUrbanism,Facultyof ArchitectureandUrbanism,FederalUniversityof RiodeJaneiro,RiodeJaneiro,Brazil
LisaBornstein
SchoolofUrbanPlanning,McGillUniversity, Montreal,Quebec,Canada
LizBrogden
QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,Brisbane, Queensland,Australia
GeorgiaCardosi
Facultédel’Aménagement,UniversitédeMontréal,Montreal,Quebec,Canada
SandraCarrasco
FacultyofArchitecture,Building,andPlanning, UniversityofMelbourne,Melbourne,Victoria, Australia
SolangeCarvalho
Post-GraduationPrograminUrbanism,Facultyof ArchitectureandUrbanism,FederalUniversityof RiodeJaneiro,RiodeJaneiro,Brazil
RaquelColacios
SchoolofArchitecture,UniversitatInternacional deCatalunya,Barcelona,Spain
MauroCossu
Facultédel’Aménagement,UniversitédeMontréal,Montreal,Quebec,Canada
DianeE.Davis
HarvardUniversityGraduateSchoolofDesign, Cambridge,MA,UnitedStates
MahmoodFayazi
TheInstituteforDisasterManagementand Reconstruction,SichuanUniversityandtheHong KongPolytechnicUniversity,Chengdu,Sichuan, China
EefjeHendriks
DepartmentofArchitecture,EindhovenUniversity ofTechnology,Eindhoven,TheNetherlands
AdibHobeica
Independentconsultant,Coimbra,Portugal
LilianeHobeica
RISKam(ResearchgrouponEnvironmental HazardandRiskAssessmentandManagement), CentreforGeographicalStudies,Universityof Lisbon,Lisbon,Portugal
RosemaryKennedy
SubTropicalCitiesConsultancy,Brisbane, Queensland,Australia
SusanN.Kibue
DepartmentofArchitecture,JomoKenyattaUniversityofAgricultureandTechnology,Juja,Nairobi,Kenya
FatenKikano
Facultédel’Aménagement,UniversitédeMontréal,Montreal,Quebec,Canada
ChetanKrishna
MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,Urban RiskLab,Cambridge,MA,UnitedStates
JiaLu
UniversityofToronto,CentreforLandscape Research,Toronto,Ontario,Canada
KellyLeilaniMain
MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,Urban RiskLab,Cambridge,MA,UnitedStates
A.NunoMartins
CIAUD,ResearchCentreforArchitecture, UrbanismandDesign,FacultyofArchitecture, UniversityofLisbon,Lisbon,Portugal
FadiMasoud
UniversityofToronto,CentreforLandscape Research,Toronto,Ontario,Canada
MihoMazereeuw
MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,Urban RiskLab,Cambridge,MA,UnitedStates
DavidO’Brien
FacultyofArchitecture,Building,andPlanning, UniversityofMelbourne,Melbourne,Victoria, Australia
MayankOjha
MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,Urban RiskLab,Cambridge,MA,UnitedStates
AngelikiPaidakaki KULeuven,Leuven,Belgium
JudithI.RodríguezPortieles DepartmentofArchitecture,HarvardUniversity GraduateSchoolofDesign,Cambridge,MA, UnitedStates
HelenaSandman AaltoUniversity,Helsinki,Finland
BenjaminSchep
BuildtoImpact,Group5ConsultingEngineers B.V.,TheHague,TheNetherlands
MiiaSuomela AaltoUniversity,Helsinki,Finland
CynthiaSusilo KULeuven,Leuven,Belgium
PietervandenBroeck KULeuven,Leuven,Belgium
AlexandervanLeersum
BuildtoImpact,Group5ConsultingEngineers B.V.,TheHague,TheNetherlands
Foreword DianeE.Davis HarvardUniversityGraduateSchoolofDesign,Cambridge,MA,UnitedStates
Themultiplyingdisastersofthe21stcenturyremindusthatweliveinaworldatrisk. Vulnerabilitiesassociatedwithenvironmentaldegradation,climatechangeandextreme weatherevents,earthquakes,healthepidemics,andcivilwarsorotherviolentconflictshave destabilizedfragileecosystems,intensifiedsocialinequalities,fueledmigration,andthrown themostdisadvantagedamongusintoadownwardspiralofprecarity.TheglobalCOVID-19 pandemicismerelythelatestdisastertodrivethispointhome.The “risksociety” thatUlrich Beckwarnedaboutinthe1990sisourreality.Recurringdisasterisnownormalized.Tothe extentthatnopartoftheworldcanescapethisfuture,riskmayendupbeingthegreatglobal equalizer evenifsocialclasses,neighborhoods,cities,andnationswillcontinuetounevenly experiencetheeffectsandtraumaofanygivendisaster.Althoughthetraumaticimpactsofa singledisastereventmaybehardtopredictinform,timing,andintensity,thestarkrealityis thattherewillalwaysbeanother.Thisisexactlywhydisasterpreparednessmustbethenew modusoperandiofourtimes,andwhythisvolumearrivesattherightmoment.
Thecontributionsinthesepagescanbeseenaspartofanessentialtoolkitfortherisk society,asoriginallyconceptualizedby Beck(1992,p.21),becausetheydooffera “wayof dealingwithhazardsandinsecuritiesinducedandintroducedbymodernisationitself.” Focusingonnaturallytriggeredandhuman-madedisastercontexts,andwith anunderstandingofthespatialandsocialcomplexitiesthatmediateanygivendisaster ’ s overallimpacts,theauthorsinthiscollectivevolumereviewbothsuccessfulandfailedstrategiestorecoverfromdisastrousevents,aswellasinitiativesrelatedtodisasterriskreduction. Drawingoncasestudiesfromaroundtheworld,theyexaminetheroleofdesignthinking, communityinvolvement,governmentpolicies,andexpertinterventionsinenablingor constrainingeffectivedisasterpreparednessandresponse.Thelargeraimofanycloseanalysis ofwhatworksandwhatdoesnotistobeabletolearnfrommistakes,soastobepreparedto confrontthenextdisasterdowntheroad.Thisvolumetakesamuch-neededstepinthat direction.
Yet,becausethearrayofdisastersexaminedhereisrelativelybroad rangingfrom housingissuesinthecontextofforceddisplacement,hurricanes,andearthquakestovolcano eruptions ,noone-size-fits-allstrategyfordisasterpreparednessemergesfromthesepages. Rather,bysharingawiderangeofresponses,thisvolumechallengesthereadertothink criticallyaboutdisastermitigation,includingcertainstrategiesthathavebecomemore popularinrecentyears,aswellastheirshort-andlong-termimpacts.Amongthemostnovel contributionsinthisregardarethechaptersthatfocusondesigncompetitionsaswellason theshiftingterminologydeployedbyhumanitarian-shelterspecialists.
Onethreadthatdoesrunthroughallthechaptersisthefocusondesign,albeitdeployed onavarietyofscales.Giventheurgencyofhousinginmanydisastercontexts,the
contributingauthorspaidconsiderableattentiontoinnovationsinsheltertypologiesandthe largerhumanitariandiscourseofarchitects.Yet,becausedisastersfrequentlyrequirethe reconstructionofsocialrelationshipsthatunfoldontheneighborhoodscale,andnotmerely thebuildingscale,urban-designthinkingisnecessarytoreconfigurecommercialactivitiesor community-basedcollectivespaces.Equallyimportant,thesensitivitytobothbuildingand urban-designthinkingthatpermeatesthisvolumeisnestledwithinanappreciationfor variationsintheterritorialscalesofdisasterresponse,fromthelocaltotheregionaltothe global.
Inadditiontowhatthisvolumeoffers,itisalsoworthnotingwhatitastutelyavoids.With afocusondisasterpreparednessinitstitle,theeditorsdonotcatertotheobsessionwith resilience(althoughthewordresiliencedoesmanagetoappearinsomeofthechaptertitles andsectionheadings).Somemightseethisasanill-consideredmove,ifonlybecausethe notionofresiliencehastakenthedisaster-relatedpolicy,design,andurban-planningworlds bystorm.However,resilienceisatrickyword,readilyveeringintotheideological.Defined astheabilitytocopeandadaptsothatindividualsorcommunitiessurviveandthrive, resilienceisallabout bouncingbacktonormal afteradisaster.Someauthorsuseresilienceto refertothereestablishmentofsystemequilibriumafterashock.Othersuseitastherationale foranewandexpandingrepertoireoftools fromnoveltechnologiestorecon figured mappingandbuildingproducts thatguideustoasecureurbanandglobalfuture.Whateveritsapplication,thosewhoemphasizeresiliencehavefaiththatwithenoughattention andeffort,thefuturecanbebetter.
Yet,inadditiontoundervaluingifnotignoringthestarkrealityofacceleratingrisks,noted intheoutsetofthisessay,manyofthosewhoembracetheconceptofresiliencetendto overlooktheinter-relationalitiesofrisk.Therearetrade-offsamongformsandpatternsof resilience,notjustamongdifferentresidentsorbetweenlocationsinthesamecity,butalsoin termsofimmediateversuslong-termgainsinlivability.Indeed,copingstrategiesinsome domains(sayenvironment)mayactuallyreinforcestructuralproblemsthatcreaterisksin otherdomains(sayinequality).Urban,social,economic,andenvironmentalecologiesare connectedlocallyandacrossscalesthatlinkcitiestoregionsandbeyond.Therefore,any resiliencestrategymustbegroundedinanappreciationoftheentirelandscapeofacityand itspropertiesasasystemembeddedinalargerregionalorevenglobalecology.
Totheeditors ’ credit,itispreciselytheselatterinsightsthatthreadthroughthechaptersof thisbookandmakeitsuchawelcomeadditiontothedisasterliterature.Thesesensibilities are,forinstance,wellrepresentedinthechapterthatlaysoutaclusteringmethodologyfor land-useplanningbuiltaroundanuancedunderstandingofecology.Beyondindividual contributions,aconcernwithinter-relationalityacrossscalesisalsoseeninthevolume’ s overallorganization,whichmovesfromafocusonshelterinthe firstsectiontoanexaminationofhousing’sembeddednessincommunitycontextsinthesecondsection.Thethird sectioncarriesforwardthethreadofhousingandcommunities,butexaminesthemthrough thelensoftheglobaldynamicsthatkeepmanydisaster-responseagenciesfocusedonshelter. Thewholeexerciselandswithoneofthevolume’smostsyntheticpieces,builtarounda purposefulexplorationoflinksbetweenvulnerabilities,poverty,anddisaster.
Giventheirprofessionalbackgrounds,thisvolume’seditorsknowquitewellthatdesign thinkingcanbeatoolforunpackinginter-relationalcomplexities.Thankstotheirpractical experience,theyareawarethatadequatedisasterpreparednessisbuiltaroundanunderstandingthatanysingledesignprojectorinterventionwillhaveimplicationsfarbeyondits
targetedscope,bothinscalarandsectorialterms.Yet,toenableconstructiveactionina contextofmultiplyingandinterconnectedvulnerabilities,itisalsoimportanttoreturntothe ideaofrisk,andtodesign,build,andplanforaworldofprevalentriskasmuchasfor resilience.Wemustalwaysstaypreparedforthenextdisaster.Thiswillrequiremorethanan ongoingengagementwithnewbuildinganddesigntechniques.Disasterexpertswillalso needanewwayofthinkingabouttheconnectivityofpeople,places,andspacesthatallows communitiestorecoverfromonedisasterwhilepreparingforthenext.Doingsosuccessfully mustinvolveinterdisciplinaryinteractionanddialogamongthevariousdesign,planning, andarchitectureprofessionalsrepresentedhere,whowillinevitablyneedalliesinthesocial sciences,biological,engineering,technology,andpublic-healthprofessionstopreparefora futureofpermanentrisk.Thereisstillmuchtobedone,yetthepathwayforwardisalready beingcharted,incrementally,throughthegroundedeffortsandscholarlyreflectionscontainedinthistimelyvolume.
Reference Beck,U.(1992). Risksociety:Towardsanewmodernity.BeverlyHills,CA:Sage.
Introduction A.NunoMartins1,MahmoodFayazi2, FatenKikano3,LilianeHobeica4 1CIAUD,ResearchCentreforArchitecture,UrbanismandDesign,FacultyofArchitecture, UniversityofLisbon,Lisbon,Portugal; 2TheInstituteforDisasterManagementand Reconstruction,SichuanUniversityandtheHongKongPolytechnicUniversity,Chengdu, Sichuan,China; 3Facultédel’Aménagement,UniversitédeMontréal,Montreal,Quebec, Canada; 4RISKam(ResearchgrouponEnvironmentalHazardandRiskAssessmentand Management),CentreforGeographicalStudies,UniversityofLisbon,Lisbon,Portugal
Inmid-August2020,whenwewritethesewords,theworldisgoingthroughanunprecedentedemergencysanitarycrisis.Inabouteightmonthsafterthe firstcasewasreported inChina,thenewCoronaviruscontaminatedmorethan21millionpeople,tookmorethan 760thousandlives,andcausedthecollapseofhealthcaresystems(WHO,2020a).Ithas imposedtheclosureofbordersandthelockdownofcities,aswellashomequarantineand social-distancingpracticesonascaleneverseenbefore.Further,theCOVID-19pandemichas severelyaffectednationaleconomies,decreasedGDPs,andcausedthelossofmorethan300 millionjobsworldwide.Giventheabsenceofeffectivedrugs,epidemiologistspredictthatthe pandemicwouldcontinueforseveralmonths,ifnotyears,untilthedevelopmentand implementationofavaccine.
Likeinotherdisastersituations,thepandemichasexacerbatedregionalandinternational inequalities.Althoughthesanitarycrisishasaffectedindividualsfromallsocialgroups,the WorldHealthOrganizationconsidersthatthemostvulnerablepopulationsinurbansettings includedwellersofinformalsettlements,homelesspersons,familieslivingininadequate housingconditions,forciblydisplacedpeople,andmigrants(WHO,2020b).Atthispoint,itis possibletoanticipatetheconvergenceofthispandemicwithclimate-relatedandhumaninducedcrisesinmanygeographies,whichwilleventuallycallforadequatecrossanalyses.Whenvulnerabilityandpovertyincreasinglygohandinhand,andhazardsshift frompredictedpatterns,extremeeventsshouldbetakenasthenewnormal(UNDRR,2019). Thepresentcontextindeedhighlightsthatpreparednessshouldbedulyentrenchedinboth regulardevelopmenteffortsandpost-disastersettings,makingthepublicationofthisbook evenmorepertinent.
TogetherwiththreeotherElsevierbookseachrelatedtooneofthefourprioritiesofthe SendaiFrameworkforDisasterRiskReduction(UNISDR,2015),thispublicationisanoutput oftheeightheditionoftheInternationalConferenceonBuildingResilience,heldinLisbonin November2018.Itgathersoriginalcontributionsbyauthorsfromaroundtheglobe,mostof themwithabackgroundinarchitectureandresearch.Nearlyhalfofthechaptersfocuson humanitariandesignwhereastheothersdiscusscommunityresilience.Together,theypresent
awideunderstandingofthefourthSendaipriority: “Enhancingdisasterpreparednessfor effectiveresponseandto ‘BuildBackBetter’ inrecovery,rehabilitationandreconstruction” (UNISDR,2015,p.14).
Mostlybasedon fieldresearchconductedintheGlobalSouth,thisbookdealswithresilient responsesandbuildingcapacitiesinrelationtohazardousevents,bringingsometimely practicalexperiencesandtheoreticalinsightsinthisregard.Itisorganizedinthreeparts.PartI, devotedtohumanitarianarchitecture,putstogethersixcontributionsthataddressemergency shelteringandhousing,disasterriskreduction(DRR),andpost-disasterinterventions (rebuildingandrecovery).Thesecontributionsanalyzecommunicationandeducationalstrategieswiththeaimofconsolidatingthis fieldofknowledge.Asawhole,theydisclosethe meaninganddefinethescopeofhumanitarian-architecturepractice.Theriskandresilience pair,aswellasthenotionofcommunitydesign,permeatestheassignmentofarchitects engagedinboththedisasteranddevelopmentarenas.Thechangingroleofarchitectsand urbandesignersintimesofclimatechangeandtheincreasingnumberofvulnerablecommunitiesworldwidearetherebyabottomlinetorethinkarchitecturaleducationandtraining.
Exploringhumanitariandesignandunderstandingresilienceasasocioecologicalcapacity thatcanbefosteredthroughandwithincommunity-basedDRRprocesses,PartIIconcentratesonhumanitariandesignandresiliencebuildingasameanstoenhancecommunity preparedness.Inthisregard,architecture,urbandesign,andcommunitypreparednessare addressedtofacenotonlystandalonedisastrouseventsbutalsomoreregularurbanthreats andrisks,suchaseviction,gentrification,precarioushousing,andhealthinequality.Thefour contributionsinthispartemphasizearchitects ’ diverserolesinsupportingsuchcapacitybuildingprocessesintheGlobalSouth,ineitherDRR,post-disaster,ordevelopmentcontexts. Theseroleseventuallypromotethefullexerciseofthe “righttothecity” (Lefebvre,1968/ 1995),asstatedinthecomprehensivevisionofthe NewUrbanAgenda (UN-Habitat,2017).As such,theauthorscallforarchitectsandotherbuilt-environmentprofessionalstonotonly fostertheactiveparticipationofcommunitiesinDRRbutalsoengage,withaspiritof consensusandcompromise,in(aided)self-helpdesignandconstructionprocesses.The chaptersofPartIIIrevealthattheseprocessescanbene fitfromtakingplaceinaframework thatalsoacknowledgestheresponsibilitiesofgovernmentalactors.
PartIIIbringsnewinsightsand finenuancesforconceptssuchasinclusivegovernance andcommunityresilience.Forinstance,theauthorshereemphasizethelinkbetweenglobal dynamics,whethereconomicorpolitical,andnationalandlocalsystems,withthevulnerabilityofcommunities.Thisawarenesspositivelyaffectstheadoptedpoliciesandresponsesin themanagementofcrisesatdifferentlevelsofgovernance.Moreover,throughanumberof casestudies,thefourcontributionsinthispartrevealnovelaspectsofcommunityresilience. Strategiessuchasstakeholders’ participationandtheempowermentofcommunitiesaffected bydisasters,oftendepictedaskeyelementsforDRR,arereassessed.Themainmessagesof PartIIIimplythattheseapproachesprovetobelessbene ficialiftheyarenotconcomitant withsupervisionbystateof ficials,andguidancefromexperts.
InChapter1,LizBrogdenandRosemaryKennedydelveintotheinconsistenciesand contradictionsfoundinthehumanitarian-shelterterminology.Theauthorsconsiderthatthe plethoraofterms,someofwhichbeingappliedonlyinparticularorganizationsor geographicalcontexts,inhibitstheengagementofnewpractitionersandresearchersinthe humanitariansphere.Thus,basedonthereviewof65keydocuments,theauthorsdevelopeda comprehensiveshelter-terminologyframework.The8categoriesand25subcategoriesgather 347shelterterms,whichconcernbothmaterialandtechnical-supportelements.Sucha
frameworkisatimelycontributiontopromoteclearerunderstandingamongstakeholdersand thesteadydevelopmentofhumanitarianarchitecture,planning,andengineering.
JudithI.RodríguezPortieles’sChapter2presentsatypicalhumanitarian-architecture experience.Theauthorfocusesonthejointrecoveryeffortsofvolunteersandcommunity membersinPuertoRicointheaftermathofhurricanesIrmaandMariain2017.Sheportrays theshelteringinitiativeundertakenbytheTechoNGO,which,basedonaparticipatory approach,supportedaffectedcommunitiesby fillingthegapofadeficientgovernmental response.RodríguezPortieleshighlightstheroleplayedbylocalarchitectureprofessionalsto adaptatimbermoduletoresisthurricanesandtomeettheneedsandpreferencesofbeneficiaryfamilies.Herchapterpinpointssomebestpracticesandareasofpotentialimprovementindisasterrecovery.
EefjeHendriks,BenjaminSchep,andAlexandervanLeersum,inChapter4,alsocovera post-disasterreconstructionprocess,focusedonthe2015earthquakesinNepal.Basedon extensive fieldworkandresortingtosocialnetworkanalysis,theirstudyshedslighton favorableconditionsfortheassimilationbylocalconstructionactorsofknowledgeonstructuralresistancetoearthquakes.Comparingtwodistrictsthatreceiveddissimilarreconstruction technicalassistance,theauthorsidentifythatcommunitiesinwhichexternalengineershada majorroledisplayedlowerlevelsofunderstandingthanthoseinwhichassistanceprovision involvedastrongernetworkoflocalactors.Thishumanitarian-engineeringstudyalsoemphasizestheneedofincreasingthedialogamongthestakeholdersinreconstructionprocesses.
InChapter3,KristjanaAdalgeirsdottirhighlightslessonslearnedfromthesuccessfulshelter responsetoavolcanoeruptioninIcelandinthe1970s.Anationalbodythenimported479 prefabricatedhousesdonatedbytheNordiccountriestofulfillthetemporaryhousingneeds. Theauthor’sdetailedaccountdemonstrateshowtheresilienceofthesetemporarystructures enabledthemtoremaininresidentialuseevenaftertheiroriginalusersresettledback,in contrastwithmanyotherrecoverycasesworldwide(Lizarralde,Johnson, & Davidson,2010). Throughthenewinhabitants’ adaptations,extensions,andtechnicalupgrading,thesetransitionalhousessucceededtoultimatelybecomepermanenthomes.Thelocalmanagementofthe reliefoperations,theinvolvementofevacueesindecision-makingprocesses,andthe flexibility inherenttothestructureswereallfactorsthatcontributedtotheenduranceofthehouses.
Thethemeofcommunityinvolvementwithinhumanitarianarchitectureisalsorecurrentin Chapter5,whichcarefullydetailsanexperimentofparticipatorydesignledbyLaraAlshawawrehintheSyrianrefugeecampsofZaatariandAzrakinJordan.Theexperimentaimedat identifyingtherefugees’ shelterneedsintermsofspace,functions,andcirculation.Refugees weresolicitedtodesigntheir “ideal” sheltersbyhandling3Dmockups.Alshawawreh’ s findingsrevealdifferencesintheproposeddesignsaccordingtotheparticipants’ gender,an oftenoverlookedissueinshelter-provisionoperations.Shealsohighlightsthepositiveimpacts ofadaptedbuiltenvironmentsonrefugees’ wellbeing,especiallythoseinprotractedsituations.
InChapter6,basedontheirpedagogicalexperiencesandparticipationintheorganization ofdesigncontests,A.NunoMartins,LilianeHobeica,AdibHobeica,andRaquelColacios analyzethe2018and2019editionsofaninternationalhumanitarian-architecture competition theBuilding4HumanityDesignCompetition(B4H-DC).Toidentifydesign patternsandexploreprevioussuccessfulexperiencesinbridgingthegapbetweenarchitectural educationanddisaster-recoveryandreconstructiontraining,theauthorsalsoreviewtheDRIA (DesigningResilienceinAsia)andi-Rec(InformationandResearchforReconstruction)internationalcontests.Throughanin-depthanalysisoftheB4H-DCwinningprojects,their researchdelvesintothedesigntoolsemployedbythecompetitionparticipantstoapproachthe
involveddesignchallenges,whetherinDRRscenarios,post-disasterrebuildingandrecovery, orforcedlydisplacedpopulations’ settings.
AnouckAndriessen,AngelikiPaidakaki,CynthiaSusilo,andPietervandenBroeck addressinChapter7themultiplerolesplayedbyarchitectsinpost-disastersettingstofoster resilience,understoodasasociallytransformativecapacitythatsupportsbouncingforward intheaftermathofashock.Afterconceptualizingtheseroles,theauthorsexplorethemin threereconstructionprogramscarriedoutfollowingthe2010eruptionoftheMerapiVolcano inIndonesia.Theyidentifythegovernancestructureanditsinstitutionalandprogramming rigiditiesasthemajorconditioningfactorsforarchitects’ performanceinreconstructioninterventions.Toovercomesuchlimitations,theauthorsadvocatethatarchitectsbecomemore politicizedtobeabletoexercisethefullarrayoftheircompetencesinresilience-building processes.
Incontrast,resilienceistackledinChapter8fromaprismotherthanthatofdisastersand conflicts.HelenaSandmanandMiiaSuomelaexploredesignprobingasamethodtofoster empathicengagementbetweencommunitiesandarchitectsinprocessesofrapidand extensivespatialtransformationsintheGlobalSouth.Acknowledgingthechallengesthat architectsfacewhenworkingwithinformalneighborhoodsandthekeyrolesofcommunities’ activeparticipationinsupportingthemtowithstandshocksandalsothrive,theauthors presenttwoexamplesoftheirownpracticeinZanzibar,Tanzania.Theircarefuldescription andanalysisofthetwoexperimentsshowhowdesignstrategiescanenhancecommunities’ preparednessandenablethemtodealwiththeirdailystruggles.
InChapter9,GeorgiaCardosi,SusanKibue,andMauroCossualsodiscussthevalueof designinbuildingresilience,thistimeconsideringtheeffortsofnonprofessionalsinasetting characterizedbythelackoftenureandurbanfacilities.Theauthorstakeanoriginalstandpointtoqualifyasdesignactionsthespatialtransformationscarriedoutbythetradersofthe ToiMarket,oneofthelargestinformalmarketsinNairobi,Kenya.Theyarguethatdesign thinkingandensuingpracticeshaveallowedthetraderstoadapttoandthrivebetween disturbingevents,andillustratehowconsolidationdesignhashelpedtheseslumdwellersto dealwithrisks,whilestrengtheningtheirlivelihoodmeans.
SlumsarelikewisethefocusofChapter10,inwhichPabloBenettiandSolangeCarvalho dealwiththelimitsofgovernment-ledslum-upgradingprocessesandtheirDRRmeasures. PresentingseveralBraziliancasesofurbandesigninfavelas,theauthorsclaimthatthelackof effectivecommunityparticipationandownership,andtheshortageinadequatemaintenance bythemunicipalauthoritieshavepreventedthecollectivespacesensuingfromthese initiativesfromsustainingtheirstatusandconditions.Fortheseprojectstoeffectivelymeet DRRobjectives,theauthorsproposetheadoptionofmechanismsthatrecognizethelogicin favelas’ expansion,givingvoiceandempoweringlocalactors,andentrustingthemwiththeir roleastheactualdriversoftheurbandevelopmentintheirneighborhoods.
Participatoryapproachesdonotcompriseonlypositiveoutcomes.Drawbacksmayoccur whencommunitiesareleftoutwithoutdueinformationaboutdisasterrisksandproper designguidanceregardingincremental-housingissues,eveninformalsettlements.These shortcomingsarepresentedbyDavidO’BrienandSandraCarrascoinChapter12.TheauthorsexaminethecaseoftheVillaVerdesettlementinChile designedbyElemental whosedevelopmentcoincidedwiththe2010earthquakeandtsunamithatdevastatedthecity ofConstitucion.Withoutdenyingthebene fitsoftheempowermentofresidentswhowere
encouragedtoincrementallydeveloptheirhousesaccordingtotheirneeds,theauthorsreveal thatcertaintypesofhousingextensionsadverselyaffectedthesettlement’slivabilityand possiblyincreasedwildfirerisk.Toavoidthesedownsides,theyrecommendabalancebetweenparticipatoryapproachandcollectivegovernanceinincremental-housingstrategies.
InChapter13,KellyLeilaniMain,MihoMazereeuw,FadiMassoud,JiaLu,AdityaBarve, MayankOjha,andChetanKrishnaproposeaninnovativeresponseforadaptationtoclimate changeconsistinginbuildingresiliencethroughland-useplanningrootedinecomorphologicalattributes.Basedongeospatialand flood-riskdata,aswellasclustering analysis,theirexperimentalmethodentailsthedelineationofclimaticactionzones.Theseare thengroupedintothreecategories high-risk,low-risk,anduncertainty-orientedzones eachrequiringparticularmanagementstrategieswhosegovernanceextrapolatessimple institutionalboundaries.Theclusters’ environmentalspeci ficitiesareintendedtoguidefuture land-useplanningandurbandesign,keepinginpacewithrapidlychangingecological conditions,oneofthemostpressingdilemmasofourcentury.
InChapter11,FatenKikanoexploreshowglobalandlocaldynamicsintertwineand impactoncommunityresilience,focusingparticularlyonthecaseofrefugees.Considering theprotractedsituationofSyrianrefugeesinLebanonandbasedonextensive fieldwork,the authorportraysthelivingconditionsoftheseincomersanddiscussessomeoftherelated drawbackstothehostcountry.Kikanoclaimsthatthepolicyofexclusionadoptedbythe LebaneseGovernmentcannonethelessbealteredinsuchawayastobene fitbothrefugees andlocalcommunities.Shepresentstwokeyrecommendationsinthisregard:areorientation intheuseofhumanitarianfundsandthetemporaryregularizationofrefugees’ situation.
TheinterrelationshipbetweenlocalandglobaldynamicsisfurtherexploredbyMahmood FayaziandLisaBornsteininChapter14.Basedonthereviewofanumberofcasestudies,the authors firstdemonstratethelinkbetweenglobaltrendsandtheeconomicvulnerabilityof societies.Thentheyskillfullyidentifythecorrelationbetweenvulnerabilitytonaturalhazards andeconomicvulnerabilityandpoverty.Fromatheoreticalperspective,their findingshighlightthelinkbetweendifferentformsofvulnerability.Theirconceptualapproachcanhelp practitionersanddecision-makers,throughtheirunderstandingofthemultipleoriginsof vulnerability,indevelopingadaptedsolutionstomitigatetheimpactsofdisastersonfragile communities.
Overall,thechaptersinthisbookpinpointtomultipleinterlinkagesbetweenhumanitarian design,communityresilience,andgovernancemechanismsregardingdisasterpreparedness, post-disasterrebuilding,andurbandevelopment.Despitetheirspecificities,theyshareafew importanttake-homemessages.Oneoftheseisthatthemostsuccessfulhumanitarian-architectureandurban-designinterventionsarealwayscapacity-buildingprocessesinvolving localcommunitiesandeffectivegovernancestructures.Anotherlessonisthattheseprocesses bene fitfrombalancingurban,architectural,social,andculturaldimensions.Theserecognitionsshedlightontheprominenceofintrinsichumancomponentsindisastersandon growingvulnerabilitiestopovertyaswellastoclimatechangeinourincreasinglyunequal andunfairsocieties.Concomitantly,theselessonscallforadditionalcollectiveendeavors towardsmoreequitable,safe,resilient,andclimate-changeadaptedresponsesinourrapidly urbanizingworld.
Acknowledgments
TheeditorswouldliketothankAdibHobeicaforhisinvaluablecontributionstothereviewprocess.
References Lefebvre,H.(1995/1968).Righttothecity.InE.Kofman,&E.Lebas(Eds.), Writingsoncities (pp.61 181).London: Blackwell.
Lizarralde,G.,Johnson,C.,&Davidson,C.(Eds.).(2010). Rebuildingafterdisasters:Fromemergencytosustainability Oxford:SponPress.
UNDRR(UnitedNationsOfficeforDisasterRiskReduction).(2019). GlobalAssessmentReportonDisasterRisk Reduction.Retrievedfrom https://gar.unisdr.org
UN-Habitat.(2017). NewUrbanAgenda.Retrievedfrom http://habitat3.org
UNISDR(UnitedNationsInternationalStrategyforDisasterReduction).(2015). SendaiFrameworkforDisasterRisk Reduction2015 2030.Retrievedfrom https://www.preventionweb.net/files/43291_sendaiframeworkfordrren. pdf
WHO(WorldHealthOrganization).(2020a). Coronavirusdisease(COVID-19).Weeklyepidemiologicalupdate1 Retrievedfrom https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200817-weeklyepi-update-1.pdf?sfvrsn¼b6d49a76_4
WHO(WorldHealthOrganization).(2020b). StrengtheningpreparednessforCOVID-19incitiesandotherurbansettings: Interimguidanceforlocalauthorities.Geneva:WHO.Retrievedfrom https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/ 331896
1 Ahumanitarianshelterterminology framework LizBrogden1,RosemaryKennedy2 1QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,Brisbane,Queensland,Australia; 2SubTropicalCities Consultancy,Brisbane,Queensland,Australia OUTLINE
1.Introduction3
2.Literaturereview4
2.1Along-standingproblem7
2.2Termsdescribingphasesofashelter process7
3.Researchmethodsandmaterials8
4.Theshelterterminologyframework13
4.1Immediateshelter14
4.2Intermediateshelter14
4.3Permanentshelter15
4.4Preemptiveshelter15
4.5Nonspecificshelterterms17
4.6Shelteritems17
4.7Alternativestrategies17
4.8Multiphaseshelter18
5.Discussion19
6.Conclusions21 References21
1.Introduction
Organizationswithinanoverwhelmedhumanitariansystemareincreasinglyturningto theprivatesectorinsearchofcollaborativepartnershipstodevelopsheltersolutionsfor displacedpopulations.However,theproliferationofshelterterminologyanditsinconsistent useinthesheltersectorimpedesdevelopmentandobstructnewactors.Terminologyin fluencestheimplementationofcoherentsectorprinciplesandinconsistentuseisabarrierto
meaningfulengagementfromnewpartnersseekingtoaccessshelter-sectorknowledge. Further,misunderstoodterminologylimitsthedevelopmentofnewstrategicapproaches andinnovation. ZyckandKent(2014,p.18) highlightedthat “exclusionaryvocabularies” areevidentacrossthehumanitariansectorasanobstacletocollaboration. Bennett,Foley, andPantuliano(2016) arguedthatcertaintermsandconceptsrepresentabodyoflanguage thatisonlyavailabletoasmallhandfulofWesternuniversitieswhohavearesearchfocuson humanitarianaffairs.This “retinueofanecdotes” (Bennettetal.,2016,p.64)excludesandobscuresaccesstoknowledgeandunderstandingofhumanitarianshelterfromthosesituated beyondthesheltersectoritself.
Therearecallstomoveawayfromacentralizedandbureaucraticconceptionofthehumanitariansystemtoonethatismoreopen, flexible,andexpansive.Anopennetworkofactorscouldaccommodatenewinterpretationsofwhatconstituteshumanitarianaction,aswell astherecognitionofnewtypesofhumanitarianactors. Bennettetal.(2016) describedthehumanitariansystemasonethatlacksasingle,easilyaccessibleentrypointfornewactors.This researchexplorespatternsofshelterterminology,meaning,anduse,whichimpedeaccessto sectorknowledge.
A GoogleImages searchfor “emergencyshelter” returnsanarrayofshelterprototypes,most ofwhichareconceptualexperimentsdevelopedinresponsetoahumanitariancrisisthatis rarelydescribed.Theimagesincludeexpandingaccordion-stylestructures,cocoons, teardrops,pods,tessellatinghexagonalforms,andglowing “beaconsofhope” showninpostapocalypticlandscapes(Google,2018).Itisuncommontosee who thesesheltersareintended tohouse, where theyaretobelocated,for howlong theywillbeoccupied,orfor whattype of crisis.Well-meaningbutmisinformeddesignproposalsarerarelygroundedintherealityofa crisisortheneedsofacommunity.Further,thesheervolumeofinformationabouthumanitarianshelterthatisdispersedacrosswebsitesanddatabasesworldwideisdifficulttonavigate,creatingopportunitiesfor “duplication,disagreementandinef ficiency” (KnoxClarke & Campbell,2015,p.10).
Thisresearchexploresaparticulardomainofhumanitariandiscourseemergingfrom44 partnersthatmakeupthe GlobalShelterCluster(2018a),aswellastheSphereProject (Sphere,2018).Theaimistoprovideanoverviewofpublicationsinthe field,summarizing thearrayofshelterterminologyinuseacrossthesheltersector.Ashelterterminologyframeworkwasdevelopedusingtheseterms,facilitatingacommon,systematic,andcomprehensiveunderstandingofshelter-speci fictermsandactivities.Significantly,thisresearch providesaninterpretivetooltoaidinaccuratelyconceptualizingtheproblemoftheshelter itself.Thistoolisintendedtoenabletargetedengagementfrompractitionersandtofacilitate research,practice,andeducationinthisarea.Additionally,theshelterterminologyframeworkaimstocontributetotheprogressionofthespecialized fieldsofhumanitarianarchitecture,planning,andengineering.
2.Literaturereview Itisoftenassumedthattermsforshelterareimplicitlyunderstandabletacitknowledge. Further,publicationsrelatingtohumanitarianshelterarisefromacademicinstitutions,privateindustry,andavastnumberoforganizationsacrossthehumanitariansector.This bodyofknowledgerevealsawiderangeoftermsthatdescribeacomparablysmallvariety
ofsheltertypesandapproaches.Evenwheneffortsaremadetoexplainashelterterm,definitionsarerarelyinterpretablebeyondthecontextofaparticularprojectororganization.For example,theglossaryoftermsin Shelterafterdisaster:Strategiesfortransitionalsettlementand reconstruction providesdefinitionsforshelterandsettlements,butthesearetheonlyterms thatincludethecaveat: “Forthepurposesoftheseguidelines” (DFID & ShelterCentre, 2010,pp.305 324).
Sector-wide,acacophonyoftermscontinuestomultiplyinanever-growingnumberofreports.The2011 SphereHandbook outlinedcorehumanitarianstandardsas “apracticalexpressionofthesharedbeliefsandcommitmentsofhumanitarianagenciesandthecommon principles,rightsanddutiesgoverninghumanitarianaction” (Sphere,2011a).Yet,thepublication ’ s “Minimumstandardsinshelter,settlementsandnon-fooditems ” sectionreadsasfollowsintheintroductionchapter:
Non-displaceddisaster-affectedpopulationsshouldbeassistedonthesiteoftheiroriginalhomeswith temporaryortransitionalhouseholdshelter,orwithresourcesfortherepairorconstructionofappropriate shelter.Individualhouseholdshelterforsuchpopulationscanbetemporaryorpermanent,subjecttofactors includingtheextentoftheassistanceprovided,land-userightsorownership,theavailabilityofessential servicesandtheopportunitiesforupgradingandexpandingtheshelter[.]Whensuchdispersedsettlementis notpossible,temporarycommunalsettlementcanbeprovidedinplannedorself-settledcamps,alongwith temporaryortransitionalhouseholdshelter,orinsuitablelargepublicbuildingsusedascollectivecenters (Sphere,2011a,p.249).
Inoneparagraph,sixdifferenttermsareusedtodescribeformsofshelter(originalhome, temporaryshelter,transitionalshelter,individualhouseholdshelter,transitionalhousehold shelter,andpermanentshelter);twodescriptors(upgradableandexpandable);aswellas fivetermsforsettlement(dispersedsettlement,temporarycommunalsettlement,planned camp,self-settledcamp,andcollectivecenter).Throughoutthe SphereHandbook, additional sheltertermsareintroducedwithoutdefinition,whereastransitionalshelteristheonly typedefinedinthehandbook’stext.
Furthermore,theaccompanyingonlineglossaryforthe SphereHandbook omitsanyreferencetoshelteranditstypologiesaltogether(Sphere,2011b).Afterthisresearchcommenced, the2018versionofthe SphereHandbook wasreleased,whichhasamoreconsolidated approachinitsuseofshelterterminology.Definitionsforshelterkits,sheltertoolkits,tents, temporaryshelters,transitionalshelters,andcorehousingareprovidedinAppendix4ofthe document(Sphere,2018,pp.282 283).
TheInternationalFederationofRedCrossandRedCrescentSocieties(IFRC),aleadpartnerintheGlobalShelterCluster,describedthe “overlappingdefinitions ” shownin Fig.1.1. Thediagramisintendedtoidentifyandstructuredifferingshelterterminologies(IFRC,2013, p.9),whilealsoillustratingtheassociatedqualitiesofeachdwellingtype(tent,module,simplehouse,establishedhouse).
AccordingtotheIFRC,sheltertermsfrequentlyrelatetoan “ approachratherthana phaseofresponse” ( IFRC,2013 ,p.8).TermsforshelterintheIFRC’ sdocumentsdescribe anoverallprocessinwhichaffectedpopulationsmaybuild,upgrade,ormaintainshelter inawaythatchangesitsoriginallyde fi nedtypology.Theterms “ progressive” and “incremental” haveemergedtocapturethisphenomenon,yettheoverlapsdepictedin Fig.1.1 arguablyincreaseconfusionratherthanprovidingclarityforthoseunfamiliarwith
FIGURE1.1 Overlappingdefinitionsforshelter. ReproducedwithpermissionfromIFRC.(2013). Post-disaster shelter:Tendesigns.Retrievedfrom http://www.sheltercasestudies.org/files/tshelter-8designs/10designs2013/2013-10-28Post-disaster-shelter-ten-designs-IFRC-lores.pdf.Geneva:IFRC,p.9.
shelter-sectoractivities.TheIFRCdoesde fi nesheltertypes,asrevealedinthereviewcarriedoutin Shelterafterdisaster,butthede finitionsprovidedarestatedonly “ forthe purposesofthisbook ” (IFRC & UN-OCHA,2015,p.8).Thisisalsothecasefortermsoutlinedinthe2018 SphereHandbook,inwhichde fi nitionscannotbeappliedcon fi dently beyondthecontextofthedocument.
Theintendedmeaningofsheltertermsmaybeapparenttothoseembeddedwithinthe sheltersector,butcaveatsaroundshelterdefinitionsrevealhowcomplexthedecipheringprocesscanbeforthosewhoarelessfamiliar.Forexample,todevelopaprojectbrief,an
architect,engineer,orplannermustfullyunderstandthenatureoftheproblem.A firmgrasp ofcrucialterminologyacrossasectororindustryisessentialtoaneffectivedesignorplanningprocessandoutcome.Further,inresearch,anunderstandingofkeytermsisalsoa fundamentalcomponentofarigorouslydesignedproject.
2.1Along-standingproblem DavisandAlexander(2016) statedthatshelterhasnotbeensummarizedadequatelyasthe effortsof Davis(1978) in Shelterafterdisaster.Overtwodecadesago, Quarantelli(1995,p.44) highlightedtheproblemof “multipleandambiguous” meaningssurroundingshelterterms, resultingin “contradictorybaggages[sic]ofconnotationsanddenotationswhichdonot allowforknowledgeandunderstandingofthephenomenainvolved.” Quarantelli(1995) observedthattermsforthesheltercamewiththeimplicitassumptionthattheywereselfexplanatory.Assuch,hesoughttodefinesheltertermsaccordingtofour “idealtypes” :emergencysheltering,temporarysheltering,temporaryhousing,andpermanenthousing.Inthe yearssince,thenumberofshelterdescriptorshascontinuedtogrow,oftenpermutated witharbitraryinterchangesbetween “shelter” and “housing.”
Almostadecadelater,duringareviewofthe SphereHumanitarianCharter,theissueofshelterterminologybecamemorewidelyrecognizedinsectorpeerreviewsandwasidentifiedas asigni ficantobstacletosectordevelopment(ShelterCentre,2017).Saunderselaborated furtherobservingthattheabsenceofacommonandcoherentlanguageforshelterandsettlementweakenedthesheltersectorandwasresultingin “majordifferencesofopinion ” (Saunders,2004,p.163).Saunders’sdiscussionextendedtoquestionthenameofthesectoritself: “Isitshelter?Isithousing?Isithumansettlements?” (Saunders,2004,p.161).
Morerecently, BoanoandHunter(2012,p.3) referredtoshelterandreconstructionpracticesinemergenciesasre flectinga “profoundlysemanticconfusion,” arguingthat,whenit comestoterms, “decipheringtheirnuancesshouldbeanecessity,astheconsequencesofconceptualconfusionmaycreateunwelcomeresults.” Theproblemofunwelcomeorinappropriateshelterhasbeenobservedbyexpertsworldwideandiswidelydocumented (Charlesworth,2014; Davis,2011; DuyneBarenstein,2011; Fitrianto,2011; Lizarralde, Johnson, & Davidson,2010; Shaw,2015). BoanoandHunter(2012) arguedthatconceptual confusionmust firstberemovedtoavoidpoorshelteroutcomesthatareinappropriateto localconditions.Theystatethatthisdecipheringismorethananacademicexercise.
2.2Termsdescribingphasesofashelterprocess Mostcommonly,sheltertermsareintendedtobeinterpretedaspartofa “three-stage recovery ” model(Davis & Alexander,2016).Thesestagesbeginwith first-responseemergencyshelter,followedbymedium-termtemporaryortransitionalsolutions,and finally permanenthousing.Someexpertshaveadvocatedforatwo-stagemodel,removingthe needfortransitionalshelterasabridgingphasebetweenemergencyshelterandpermanent reconstruction,asseenin Fig.1.2.The figureillustratesthethree-stageversustwo-stage conceptualizationofshelterresponse,whichisgenerallyacceptedinthesheltersector.
Noteveryoneagreesonastagedapproachtoreconstruction,thoughthetermsemployed todescribealternativeapproachesremainsimilar.The ShelterCentre’s(2012) interpretation
FIGURE1.2 Three-stageandtwo-stagerecoveryscenarios. Copyright2016FromRecoveryfromdisasterbyDavid AlexanderandIanDavis.ReproducedbypermissionofTaylorandFrancisGroup,LLC,adivisionofInformaplc.
ofrecoverydistinguishesbetweenincrementalprocessesandamultiphasedapproachwhile advocatingforincrementalshelter.TheShelterCentre’sidealconceptualizationisanincrementaltransitionthroughacontinuumfromtheimmediateemergencytopermanenthousing.ThemultiphasemodelincludesthreediscretephasesasshowninDavisand Alexander’sthree-stagerecoverymodel,buttheShelterCentreusestheterm “temporary shelter” ratherthan “transitionalshelter” (see Fig.1.3).
The Transitionalshelterguidelines (ShelterCentre,2012)soughttoclarifyshelterandsettlement termswhilealsoaddressingissuesofconceptualoverlap.Thepublicationprovidedanswersto questionssuchas “areprefabricatedshelterstransitionalshelters?” and “whatisthedifference betweentransitionalshelterandcorehousing?” (ShelterCentre,2012,p.8).Despitethis,thedefinitionsprovidedinthepublicationhavenotbeenuniversallyadopted,afactevidencedbythe continuedproliferationofconflictingandcontradictorysheltertermsinthesector.
3.Researchmethodsandmaterials Thisstudyinvolvedasystematicreviewofkeypublicationsandwebsitesfromtheshelter sector.Thefocuswasspeci ficallyontheGlobalShelterCluster(GSC),comprisingorganizationsacrossallthemajorpartnersinthesector,includingUN,RedCross/RedCrescent,government,academia,andnongovernmentalentities.TheGSCwastargetedfordatacollection tofulfilltheobjectiveofgainingacomprehensivesector-wideoverviewoflanguagesurroundinghumanitarianshelterinbothpost-disasterandrefugeeresponse.
FIGURE1.3 Transitionalshelterasanincrementalprocess. ReproducedwithpermissionfromShelterCentre.(2012). Transitionalshelterguidelines.Retrievedfrom https://www.sheltercluster.org/resources/documents/transitional-shelterguidelines.Geneva:ShelterCentre,p.3.
Inall,65publicationsfromtheGSCandpartnerorganizationswereselected.Inadditionto thesesources,theresearchincludedthethreemostrecent Shelterprojects publications(Global ShelterCluster,2013, 2015, 2017),the2015versionofthe SphereHumanitarianCharter (Sphere, 2015),andthreedocumentsfromeachGSCpartnermember,asoutlinedin Table1.1.The documentsweresourcedfromwebplatforms,suchasHumanitarianResponse(UNOCHA,2017a),ReliefWeb(UN-OCHA,2017b),andPreventionWeb(UNDRR,2017),and includedreports,onlinearticles,websites,guidancematerials,andresearchpublications.
Weappliedqualitativecontentanalysisasamethodinviewofitssuitabilityfordatain whichmanifestandlatentmeaningiscontextdependent(Elo & Kyngäs,2008; Kohlbacher, 2006; Pickering,2011; Schreier,2013).Acategorizationtechniquewasusedtosummarize, explain,andstructuredata(Kohlbacher,2006). Schreier(2013) describedtheoutcomeof thismethodasa “codingframe” inwhichmaincategoriesandsubcategoriesaregenerated andstructuredandthenpopulatedwithreferencesasencounteredinthedata,effectively definingthosecategories.
Alistofsheltertermswasbuiltthroughthemeta-analysisofthethemesbothinthesector andintheliterature.Termswerethenclassifiedandmappedtoaterminologyframework andthemaincategoriesnamed.Throughthisprocess,areasofconceptualoverlaporambiguitywithinthatframeworkwereidentifiedandfurtherclassi fiedintosubcategories.Manual codingwassupportedby NVivo softwaretoef ficientlysearcheveryinstanceoftheword “shelter” anditsassociatedsynonyms:house,housing,andstructure.
Manycombinationsoftermsindicatedasimplereorderingoruseofasynonym for instanceinterchangingtheoperand “shelter,”“house,” or “structure.” Frequently,thiswas seentohavenoimpactontheintendedmeaning,forinstance,where “transitionalshelter” and “transitionalhouse” describethesameshelterstrategy.However,thesepermutations sometimesimpactedupontheintendedmeaning.Anexampleofthisis “durableshelter,” atermthatisappropriateforboth first-andsecond-stageshelters,whereas “durablehouse ” usuallyonlydescribesathird-stage(permanent)solution.Forthisreason,weoptedto includeallthetermsintheframework,despitetheapparentrepetition.
TABLE1.1 FulllistoftheGSCpartners’ publicationssourced.
GlobalShelterClusterpartner'sdocuments
ACTED2010Asheltertorecover
2010Shelterprovisionto flood-affectedpopulations
2014Annualreport
AustralianRed Cross 2011Genderandshelter
2015Annualreview
2016Emergencyshelter
BritishRedCross2011Haitioneyearon:Fromrubbletoshelter
2014Trusteesreportandaccounts
2016Whatisshelter?
CARE2008Internationalpolicybriefonshelter
2015Emergencyshelterteamannualreview
2016Post-disastershelterinIndia:Astudyofthelong-termoutcomesofpost-disaster shelterprojects
Cordaid2012Finalshelterreport
20152014annualreport
2015Shelter2Habitat:Developingresilienthabitatsafteradisaster
CRS2012LearningfromtheurbantransitionalshelterresponseinHaiti
2014Annualreport
2016Shelterandsettlements
DFID2011Humanitarianemergencyresponsereview
2015ShelterfromthestormbyDFIDUK:Exposure
2015Annualreport2014 2015
DRC20152014annualreport
2016DanishRefugeeCouncilprovidesemergencyresponseafterlargescaledestructionin Malakal,SouthSudan
2016Whatwedo
ECHO20152014annualreport
2016Emergencyshelter
2016Givingshelter
Emergency Architects Foundation
2014Annualreport2013
FoundationThisfoundationhasofficesinFranceandCanada;theirAustralianofficeisnow closed.NoEnglishpublicationswereavailablethatmettheselectioncriteria.
TABLE1.1 FulllistoftheGSCpartners’ publicationssourced. cont’d
GlobalShelterClusterpartner'sdocuments
GermanRedCross2011Bangladesh:DRRinvulnerablecommunities
2012Disasterriskreductioninsevenparticularlyvulnerablecommunities 2015Annualreview2014
Global Communities 2010CHFbuildspilottransitionalshelter 20142013annualreport
2015Betterapproachesneededforrapidrehousingafterdisasters
Habitatfor humanity 2012Disasterresponsesheltercatalog 2015Annualreport 2016Shelterreport
IFRC2012Shelterlessonslearned
2013Post-disastershelter:Tendesigns 2014Annualreport
IMPACTAworkinggroupoftheGSC.Nopublicationoutputsfound. InterAction2014Annualreport
2015Modules1 5notes,shelterandsettlementtraining 2016Shelter
IOM2013Reviewofactivitiesindisasterriskreductionandresilience 2015Oneroomshelter:Buildingbackstronger 2015Shelterhighlights
IRC2005Sheltermanual
2013Annualreport
2014GrowinghumanitariancrisisinIraqleavesthousandsinneed LuxembourgRed Cross DocumentsareinFrench.
Medair2013MedairexpandsshelterreliefprogrammeinthePhilippines 2014Annualreport 2016Shelterandinfrastructure
NRC2012Urbanshelterguidelines 2013Shelter 2014Annualreport
OFDA2012Humanitarianshelterandsettlementssectorupdate 2013Humanitarianshelterandsettlementsprinciples 2014Descriptionofhumanitarianshelterandsettlementactivities
OxfordBrookes, CENDEP
2011Gooddesigninurbanshelterafterdisaster 2013Changingapproachestopost-disastershelter 2016Shelterafterdisaster:Descriptionofresearcharea
(Continued) Ahumanitarianshelterterminologyframework
TABLE1.1 FulllistoftheGSCpartners’ publicationssourced. cont’d
GlobalShelterClusterpartner'sdocuments
ProAct2005Emergencyshelterenvironmentalchecklist
2009Environmenttrainingmodulesforemergencyshelter 2011Annualreview
ReliefInternational2014Annualreport
2016Haiti:Emergencyandtransitionalshelter
2016Pakistan:Constructionof2000temporarysheltersforIDPs
SavetheChildren UK n.d.Protectionofchildreninemergencyshelters 2014Annualreport
2015Iraq:Nowindows,noroof.Butfornow,thisishome
ShelterCentre2010Annualreport2009 2010 2012Transitionalshelterguidelines
ShelterforLife International 2006TransitionalshelterassistanceinTajikistan 2014Annualreport
2016Whatwedo:Shelter
ShelterBox2014Annualreport
2016DeadlyearthquakestrikesinEcuador 2016DesperateneedforshelterinFijiinthewakeofcycloneWinston
SwedishRedCross2012Annualreport SeepublicationsforIFRC.
UN-Habitat2005Financingurbanshelter:Globalreportonhumansettlements 2011Enablingshelterstrategies
2013Globalactivitiesreport
UNHCR2014Globalreport
2014Globalstrategyforsettlementandshelter
2016Whatwedo:Shelter
UN-OCHA2005Humanitarianresponsereview 2015Shelterafterdisaster
2016Keythingstoknowabouttheemergencysheltercluster
WorldVision International 2012Minimuminter-agencystandardsforprotectionmainstreaming 2014Annualreport
2016ShelterandwarmclothesforElNiñoaffectedpeople
Astermswereencounteredinthedata,theintendedcontextualorlatentmeaningwas interpretedpragmatically.Theshelterterminologyframework(orcodingframe)wasmaintainedasdynamicandadjustablethroughoutthecodingprocess.
4.Theshelterterminologyframework Datasaturationwasreachedat347termsdescribingshelter.The finalframeworkconsistsof eightmaincategories:immediateshelter;intermediateshelter;permanentshelter;preemptive shelter;nonspecificshelterterms;shelteritems;alternativestrategies;andmultiphaseshelter. Eachcategoryisexplainedbytwo-to-foursubcategories,resultingin25waystodescribeshelter strategies,stages,types,andartifacts.Thefullshelterterminologyframeworkisshownin Fig.1.4 Inconstructingtheshelterterminologyframework,weidentifiedthattheterm “transitional shelter” isasignificantsourceofterminologicalconfusion.Asindicatedin Fig.1.4,two
FIGURE1.4 Theshelterterminologyframework. Credit:Theauthors.
subcategoriesoftransitionalsheltersarerepresented.The firstisinthe “second-stageshelter” category(typea),andthesecondinthe “multiphaseshelter” category(typeb).Thesereflecta distinctionthatisdiscussedextensivelyinthe Transitionalshelterguidelines (ShelterCentre, 2012)andalsotheupdatededitionof Shelterafterdisaster (IFRC & UN-OCHA,2015).Thesubcategory “transitionalshelter(a)” denotesadesignedproductintendedtoserveapurposewithina discreetsecondreconstructionphase.Thesubcategory “transitionalshelter(b)” describesanincrementalprocess.
4.1Immediateshelter Thiscategorysummarizestermsassociatedwiththe firstresponse(see Table1.2).Shelter termsincorporatedinthiscategoryrefertostrategiesinwhichminimalresponsetimeisthe prioritytoprovidelife-savingassistance.Theseshelterstrategiesareusuallyintendedonlyto serveashort-termpurpose.Thiscategoryincludesnewcollectivesheltercenters,lightweight tentsandtarpaulins,andbasicstructuralmaterialsthatarefrequentlyalsocalledasemergencyshelters.
4.2Intermediateshelter Thiscategoryincorporatessemipermanentshelterstrategiesintendedtoserveamediumtermpurpose,oranaverageofthreeto fiveyears(see Table1.3).Itincludesthesubcategories: temporaryshelter,product-focusednotionsoftransitionalshelter,andsometypesoftransportableshelter.Allofthesecanbedescribedas “T-shelters” dependingonthecontext.These “T-words ” areoftenusedinterchangeablytodescribeintermediatesheltersbyGSCpartners, evenwithinthesamedocument.
TABLE1.2 Category1 Immediateshelter.
TotalTermsSubcategoryCategory
3Collectivecenter;transitcenters;returncentersNewcollectiveshelter
13Familytent;government-suppliedtent;makeshifttent;phantom tent;plasticsheeting;sheltertent;tarp;tarpaulinsheeting; tarp-cladshelter;tentstructure;tentonconcrete;emergencytent; shelter-gradeplasticsheeting
20Emergencyshelter;earlyshelter;emergencyhousing;emergency shelter(temporary);emergencystructure;immediateshelter; initialshelter;phase-oneshelter;rapidshelter;short-term emergencyshelter;temporaryemergencyshelter;urgentshelter; emergencyfamilyshelter;recoveryshelter;emergency-shelterkit; specialemergencyshelter;earlyrecoveryshelter;immediate emergency-responseshelter;rapidlydeployableshelter; short-termshelter
Tentsandtarpaulins
Emergency shelter
1
Immediate shelter
TABLE1.3 Category2 Intermediateshelter.
TotalTermsSubcategoryCategory
9Temporaryshelter;temporaryaccommodation;temporaryhome; temporaryhouse;temporaryresettlementsite;temporarystructure; temporaryemergencyshelter;shelter(temporary); temporary-shelterkit
7Two-storeyT-shelter;ruralT-shelter;urbanT-shelter;transitionalshelter (T-shelter);T-shelterphase;transitionalshelter(T-shelter); T-shelterkit
12Transitionalhome;transitionalhouse;transitionalshelter(semipermanent); transitionalshelter(T-shelter);upgradedtransitionalshelter;urban transitionalshelter;expandabletransitionalhousing;transitionalnight shelter;semipermanenttransitionalshelter;transitional-shelterkit; transitionalindividualhouseholdshelter;transitionalhouseholdshelter
T-shelter
Temporary shelter 2 Intermediate shelter
Transitional shelter product(a)
TABLE1.4 Category3 Permanentshelter.
TotalTerms
18Permanentshelter; finalhouse;lifetimehouses;long-termhousing;long-term shelter;durablestructure;durablebuilding;integratedhousing;permanent durablehouse;permanentdurableshelter;permanenthome;permanent house;durablehome;durablehouse;permanentstructure;post-disaster house;durablesolution;long-termshelter
SubcategoryCategory
Generalterms (thirdstage)
5Repairedhousing;as-builtshelter;shelterin-kind;rehabilitatedshelters; repaireddwelling Repair
8Concretehouse;contractor-builthouses;concreteshelter;permanentcore house;newhouseconstruction;permanentreconstructionhousing; permanentreconstruction;mud-brickshelter
4.3Permanentshelter 3 Permanent shelter
New construction
Thiscategorydenotesshelterstrategies associatedwithlong-termrecovery(see Table1.4).These includedescriptivewordssuchasdurableandconcreteshelter.Threesubcategoriesareidentified withinthiscategory:generaltermsdescribinga permanentshelteroutcome,termsassociatedwith therepairofdamagedhousing,andtermsindicatingnewconstructionorreconstruction.
4.4Preemptiveshelter Thiscategoryoutlinessheltertermsdescribingstrategiesconceivedbeforeacrisisevent (see Table1.5).Subcategoriesincludeexistingshelter,sheltermodels,andprefabricatedshelter.Existingsheltersincludelocationsinthecommunityintendedasevacuationpointssuch ascycloneshelters,andalsoexistinghousing.Termsinthesheltermodel’ssubcategory
