Engineering Your Future A Comprehensive Introduction to Engineering
NINTH EDITION
David “Boz” Bowles, MFA
Louisiana State University
Frank M. Croft, Jr., PhD
Ohio State University
Toby Cumberbatch, PhD The Cooper Union
John B. Dilworth, PhD
Western Michigan University
Heidi A. Diefes, PhD Purdue University
Ralph E. Flori, PhD University of Missouri-Rolla
Craig J. Gunn, MS
Michigan State University
Todd Hamrick, PhD West Virginia University
William C. Oakes, PE, PhD
Purdue University
Les L. Leone, PhD
Michigan State University
CONTRIBUTORS
Daniel F. Hartner, PhD
Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
Neal A. Lewis, PhD
University of Bridgeport
Marybeth Lima, PhD
Louisiana State University
Melodee Moore, PhD
FAMU-FSU College of Engineering
Ahad Nasab, PhD, PE
Middle Tennessee State University
Merle C. Potter, PhD
Michigan State University
Yeow K. Siow, PhD University of Illinois at Chicago
Michael F. Young, MS
Michigan Technological University
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Oakes, William C., 1962- author. | Leone, Les L., author. Title: Engineering your future : a comprehensive introduction to engineering. De sc ription: Ninth edition. | New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016047099| ISBN 9780190279264 (pbk.) | ISBN 9780190279288 (eISBN)
Subjects: LCSH: Engineering--Vocational guidance. Classification: LCC TA157 .O223 2017 | DDC 620.0023--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016047099
978-0-19-020892-9
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 N1
Printed by LSC Communications, United States of America
Preface xi
THE WORLD OF ENGINEERING
1 The Heritage of Engineering 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 The Beginnings of Engineering: The Earliest Days 3
1. 3 Early Cities 4
1.4 A Ca se Study of Two Historical Engineers 14
1.5 Computers, Information, Networking, and People 18
1.6 The History of the Disciplines 24
1.7 Closing Thoughts 31
REFERENCES 32
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 32
2 Eng ineering Majors 35
2.1 Introduction 35
2.2 Engineering Functions 40
2.3 Engineering Majors 49
2.4 Emerging Fields 74
2.5 Closing Thoughts 76
2.6 Engineering and Technical Organizations 76 REFERENCES 81 EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 82
3 A St atistical Profile of the Engineering Profession 87
3.1 Statistical Overview 87
3.2 College Enrollment Trends of Engineering Students 87
3.3 College Majors of Recent Engineering Students 89
3.4 Degrees in Engineering 89
3.5 Job Placement Trends 91
3.6 Sa laries of Engineers 94
3.7 The Diversity of the Profession 102
3.8 Distribution of Engineers by Field of Study 10 4
3.9 Engineering Employment by Type of Employer 10 4
3.10 Percent of Students Unemployed or in Graduate School 10 5
3.11 A Word from Employers 10 5
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 107
4 Global and International Engineering 109
4.1 Introduction 109
4.2 The Evolving Global Marketplace 110
4. 3 International Opportunities for Engineers 114
4.4 Preparing for a Global Career 125
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 130
5 Fu ture Challenges 133
5.1 Expanding World Population 133
5.2 Pollution 135
5.3 Energy 141
5.4 Transportation 145
5.5 Infrastructure 147
5.6 Aerospace and Defense 14 8
5.7 Competitiveness and Productivity 15 0
5. 8 Engineering’s Grand Challenges 152
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 154
STUDYING ENGINEERING
6 Succeeding in the Classroom 157
6.1 Introduction 157
6. 2 At titude 158
6. 3 Goals 159
6.4 Keys to Effectiveness 162
6.5 Test-Taking 167
6.6 Making the Most of Your Professors 169
6.7 Learning Styles 171
6. 8 Well-Rounded Equals Effective 176
6.9 Your Effective Use of Time 18 0
6.10 Accountability 185
6.11 Overcoming Challenges 187
REFERENCES 189
EX ERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 189
7 Pr oblem Solving 195
7.1 Introduction 195
7. 2 Analytic and Creative Problem Solving 19 5
7.3 Analytic Problem Solving 198
7.4 Creative Problem Solving 20 5
7.5 Personal Problem-Solving Styles 214
7.6 Bra instorming Strategies 219
7.7 Cr itical Thinking 225
REFERENCES 227 E XERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 227
8 Gr aphics and Orthographic Projection 235
8.1 Introduction 235
8.2 Or thographic Projection 235
8.3 The Meaning of Lines 238
8.4 Hidden Lines 241
8.5 Cylindrical Features and Radii 242
8.6 Line Precedence 243
8.7 Freehand Sketching 24 4
8.8 Pictorial Sketching 245
8.9 Dimensioning 252
8.10 Sc ales and Measuring 25 4
8.11 Coordinate Systems and Three-Dimensional Space 257
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 258
9 Computer Tools for Engineers 263
9.1 Introduction 263
9.2 The Internet 26 4
9.3 Word-Processing Programs 271
9.4 Spreadsheets 272
9.5 Mathematics Software 276
9.6 Presentation Software 28 4
9.7 Operating Systems 28 5
9.8 Programming Languages 28 5
9.9 Advanced Engineering Packages 287
REFERENCES 292 E XERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 293
10 Teamwork 297
10.1 Introduction 297
10.2 Engineers Often Work in Teams 297
10.3 Team Organizational Structures 303
10.4 Team Growth Stages 30 4
10.5 What Makes a Successful Team? 307
10.6 Team Leadership 30 9
10.7 Ef fective Decision Making 311
10.8 At titudes Toward Team Experiences 314
10.9 Documenting Team Performance 315
REFERENCES 316
E XERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 317
11
Pr oject Management 319
11.1 Introduction 319
11.2 The Triple Constraints 320
11.3 Student Example Project 321
11.4 Creating a Project Charter 322
11.5 Ta sk Definitions 323
11.6 Schedule 324
11.7 Work Breakdown Structure 326
11.8 Network Diagrams 328
11.9 Cr itical Paths 330
11.10 Gantt Charts 330
11.11 Costs 332
11.12 Personnel Distribution 332
11.13 Documentation 333
11.14 Team Roles 333
11.15 Agile Project Management 335
REFERENCES 336
E XERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 336
12
En gineering Design 339
12.1 What Is Engineering Design? 339
12.2 The Engineering Design Process 341
12.3 Using the Engineering Design Process—ATM 352
12.4 Using the Engineering Design Process—Backpack 363
REFERENCES 369
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 370
13 Technical Communications 373
13.1 Visual Communication 374
13.2 Oral Presentations 378
13.3 Wr itten Documents 39 0
13.4 Revising and Editing 398
13.5 Conclusion 4 00
REFERENCES 400
E XERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 400
14 Et hics and Engineering 403
14.1 Introduction 4 03
14.2 The Nature of Ethics 40 4
14.3 The Nature of Engineering Ethics 414
14.4 Codes of Ethics and the Obligations of Engineers 419
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 436
THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING
15 Units and Conversions 441
15.1 History 4 41
15.2 The SI System of Units 442
15.3 Derived Units 44 4
15.4 Prefixes 4 46
15.5 Numerals 4 47
15.6 Unit Conversions 44 8
15.7 Dimensional Homogeneity and Dimensionless Numbers 45 0
REFERENCES 453
E XERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 453
16 Mathematics Review 457
16.1 Algebra 457
16.2 Tr igonometry 4 61
16.3 Geometry 4 64
16.4 Complex Numbers 46 8
16.5 Linear Algebra 471
16.6 Ca lculus 476
16.7 Probability and Statistics 481
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 485
17 En gineering Fundamentals 493
17.1 Statics 493
17.2 Dynamics 5 00
17.3 Thermodynamics 5 06
17.4 Electrical Circuits 516
17.5 Economics 524
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 533
18 The Campus Experience 551
18.1 Orienting Yourself to Your Campus 551
18 .2 Exploring Your New Home Away from Home 551
18.3 Determining and Planning Your Major 552
18 .4 Get into the Habit of Asking Questions 552
18 .5 The “People Issue” 553
18 .6 Searching for Campus Resources 55 4
18.7 Other Important Issues 556
18 .8 Final Thoughts 561
REFERENCES 561
E XERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 562
19 En gineering Work Experience 56 5
19.1 A Job and Experience 56 5
19.2 Summer Jobs and On- and Off-Campus Work Experiences 56 7
19.3 Volunteer or Community Service Experiences 56 8
19.4 Supervised Independent Study or Research Assistantship 56 8
19.5 Internships 569
19.6 Cooperative Education 570
19.7 Which Is Best for You? 576
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 576
20 Connections: Liberal Arts and Engineering 579
20.1 What Are Connections? 579
20.2 Why Study Liberal Arts? 58 0
EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES 584
Appendix A Nine Excel Skills Every Engineering Student Should Know 58 5
Appendix B Impress Them: How to Make Presentations Effective 605
Appendix C An Introduction to MATLAB 619 Index 645
Preface
You can’t make an educated decision about what career to pursue without adequate information. Engineering Your Future endeavors to give you a broad introduction to the study and practice of engineering. In addition to presenting vital information, we’ve tried to make it interesting and easy to read as well.
You might find Chapter 2, “Engineering Majors,” to be a tremendous help to you in determining what areas of engineering sound most appealing to you as you begin your education. Our “Profiles of Engineers”, available on the Companion Website, may also be of particular interest to you. It includes information from real people— engineers practicing in the field. They discuss their jobs, their lives, and the things they wish they had known going into the profession.
The rest of the book presents such things as the heritage of engineering; some thoughts about the future of the profession; some tips on how best to succeed in the classroom; advice on how to gain actual, hands-on experience; exposure to computer-aided design; and a nice introduction to several areas essential to the study and practice of engineering.
We have designed this book for modular use in a first-year engineering course that introduces students to the field of engineering. Such a course differs in content from university to university. Consequently, we have included many topics, too numerous to cover in one course. We anticipate that several of the topics will be selected for a particular course with the remaining topics available to you for outside reading and for future reference.
As you contemplate engineering, you should consider the dramatic impact engineers have had on our world. Note the eloquent words of American Association of Engineering Societies Chair Martha Sloan, a professor emeritus of electrical engineering at Michigan Technological University:
In an age when technology helps turn fantasy and fiction into reality, engineers have played a pivotal role in developing the technologies that maintain our nation’s economic, environmental and national security. They revolutionized medicine with pacemakers and MRI scanners. They changed the world with the development of television and the transistor, computers and the Internet. They introduced new concepts in transportation, power, satellite communications,
earthquake-resistant buildings, and strain-resistant crops by applying scientific discoveries to human needs.
Engineering is sometimes thought of as applied science, but engineering is far more. The essence of engineering is design and making things happen for the benefit of humanity.
Joseph Bordogna, former president of IEEE, adds:
Engineering will be one of the most significant forces in designing continued economic development and success for humankind in a manner that will sustain both the planet and its growing population. Engineers will develop the new processes and products. They will create and manage new systems for civil infrastructure, manufacturing, communications, health care delivery, information management, environmental conservation and monitoring, and everything else that makes modern society function.
We hope that you, too, will find the field of engineering to be attractive, meaningful, and exciting—one that promises to be both challenging and rewarding, and one that matches well with your skills and interests.
For the instructor’s convenience, there is an Ancillary Resource Center site with support materials (PowerPoint figure slides and a test bank). This material may be found at http://oup-arc.com/oakes-engineering-9e/.
New to the Ninth Comprehensive Edition
■Chapter 1 “The Heritage of Engineering” replaces “The History of Engineering.” Th is chapter was rewritten to move away from chronicling historical engineering achievements to describe engineering as a profession that has impacted so much of our daily lives and to appreciate the rich and inclusive heritage of engineering and engineers that contributed to what we see today. Diverse examples are used to discuss themes of the heritage of engineering that span genders and cultures with some discussion of the historical contexts to prompt ideas and allow for further research and discussions. Themes that are discussed include how engineers are making the world a better place and improving the human condition as well as the importance of teamwork and communication now and historically.
■Ch apter 2, “Engineering Majors,” was updated to reflect current technological advances, especially in the computer, electrical, and biological areas. Mobile computing is discussed as an example. Nanotechnology and its influence have also been reflected in the descriptions of the majors.
■ Chapter 3, “A Statistical Profile of the Engineering Profession,” provides the latest available data on the job market for engineers, recent starting salaries for the
different majors, and a variety of related information. This material includes updated college enrollment data trends, number of degrees awarded for the various engineering majors, and career-long projections of salaries by employer size and type, field of study, and geographical region. Updated information is also provided concerning the diversity of the profession, and engineering graduate school data.
■ Chapter 5, “Future Challenges,” was updated to include a list and description of the National Academy of Engineering’s Grand Challenges. These descriptions, used with permission from the National Academy, are the result of the academy’s study of the most significant technological challenges of the day. These have been added to the existing chapter and can be used as a standalone section or as part of the existing chapter.
■ Previously called “Visualization and Graphics, Chapter 8 is now titled “Graphics and Orthographic Projection” and has been rewritten to be more concise and practical. The text has been refocused to concentrate on techniques applied by working engineers.
■ Chapter 10, “Teamwork,” has been completely updated with new examples and material. The chapter uses real examples from today’s leading companies, including Netflix, Boeing, Tesla Motors, and Google.
■ Chapter 11, “Project Management,” has been completely rewritten with significant new material added. A sample student project is introduced and developed, showing how a project plan can be developed using project management tools. The application of Microsoft Project software is demonstrated.
■ Chapter 12, “Engineering Design,” was revised to help students gain insight into the more practical aspects of learning the engineering design process. The 10-stage process has been reduced to a more manageable five stages and includes an openended case study that can be used in the classroom as is or with modification.
■ Chapter 14, “Ethics and Engineering,” has been rewritten with the goal of introducing ethics to future professional engineers in a lively, more accessible way. In addition to systematically introducing the vocabulary and concepts needed to understand the nature of professional ethics and the difference between ethics and policy, the chapter now more directly confronts and clarifies some of the most common questions and confusions students have about ethics, including where professional ethical obligations come from, why the ethical obligations of engineers are not merely matters of subjective opinion and personal conscience, and why codes of professional ethics must be understood not as arbitrary lists of rules but rather as a reflection of rational, intuitive requirements on the practice of a learned profession. These insights about the nature of professional ethics are now also reinforced in the revised explanation and analysis of existing codes of engineering ethics as well as in the review questions.
■ Chapter 15, “Units and Conversions,” includes expanded sections on significant figures and unit conversion along with numerical examples. A new section on dimensionless numbers has been added. Several problems regarding dimensionless numbers have been added to the end-of-chapter problems.
■ Chapter 16, “Mathematics Review,” presents brief yet concise reviews of many of the mathematical concepts students will encounter in their engineering studies. Improvements to previous editions include “in line expansion” of select example problems, additional help with vector math, and a unit circle to accompany the trigonometry section of the chapter.
■ Chapter 17, “Engineering Fundamentals,” provides a review of specific math and science applications that are fundamental to engineering studies. Select example problems in this chapter also have more detailed “in line expansion” of solutions, designed to encourage good problem-solving skills and problem documentation. Included also in the revised chapter is a brief review of partial pressures in the thermodynamics section.
■ Appendix A, “Nine Excel Skills Every Engineering Student Should Know,” While the number of skills is retained, the skills themselves have been completely revised. Instead of focusing on “which button to click,” the skills are now presented in a way that promotes everyday application as well as lifelong learning.
■ Appendix B, “Impress Them: How to Make Presentations Effective,” Given a complete overhaul, this appendix now offers guidelines for making a powerful presentation that will leave a lasting impression on the audience. The makeup of a presentation is dissected, and plenty of good and bad examples are included.
■ Appendix C, “An Introduction to MATLAB,” The programming section has been significantly expanded. Learning to code is an art, and making an efficient and elegant code is a lifelong pursuit—with this appendix serving as a starting point.
Acknowledgments
The authors are especially grateful to the reviewers whose opinions and comments directly influenced the development of this edition:
Anil Acharya, Alabama A&M University
Spyros Andreou, Savannah State University
Asad Azemi, Penn State University
Jerome Davis, University of North Texas
Chris Geiger, Florida Gulf Coast University
Nolides Guzman Zambrano, Lone Star College
Dr. Dominic M. Halsmer, Oral Roberts University
Todd Hamrick, West Virginia University
Matthew Jensen, Florida Institute of Technology
Benjamin S. Kelley, Baylor University
Mark Keshtvarz, Northern Kentucky University
Dr. Raghava R. Kommalapati, Prairie View A&M University
Tanya Kunberger, Florida Gulf Coast University
Andre Lau, Penn State University
Dean Lewis, Penn State University
Jennifer Light, Lewis-Clark State College
Dr. James McCusker, Wentworth Institute of Technology
Deepak Mehra, Potomac State College
Christopher Miller, University of Akron
Melodee Moore, Florida A&M University
Ahad Nasab, Middle Tennessee State University
Herbert Newman, Coastal Carolina University
Dr. John H. O’Haver, University of Mississippi
Olayinka Frank Oredeko, Central Georgia Technical College
Reginald Perry, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering
Cherish Qualls, University of North Texas
James Rantschler, Xavier University of Louisiana
Dr. Farhad Reza, Minnesota State University
Bernd F. Schliemann, University of Massachusetts at Amherst
Gary Scott, State of University of New York
Yeow Siow, Purdue University at Calumet
Yiheng Wang, Lone Star College
We would also like to thank those reviewers who provided feedback for previous editions:
Spyros Andreou, Savannah State University
Juan M. Caicedo, University of South Carolina
Matthew Cavalli, University of North Dakota
Rafael Fox, Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi
Keith Gardiner, Lehigh University
Chris Geiger, Florida Gulf Coast University
Yoon Kim, Virginia State University
Nikki Larson, Western Washington University
Keith Level, Las Positas College
Jennifer Light, Lewis-Clark State College
S. T. Mau, California State University at Northridge
Edgar Herbert Newman, Coastal Carolina University
John Nicklow, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale
Megan Piccus, Springfield Technical Community College
Charles E. Pierce, University of South Carolina
G. Albert Popson, Jr., West Virginia Wesleyan College
Ken Reid, Ohio Northern University
Nikki Strader, Ohio State University
Yiheng Wang, Danville Community College
Gregory Wight, Norwich University
David Willis, University of Massachusetts at Lowell
Shuming Zheng, Chicago State University
—The Authors
The Heritage of Engineering
While writing this chapter, I was teaching a class over the Internet to engineering professors in India. The class was about how to integrate design experiences (a ddressing needs of underserved people and communities) into undergraduate engineering courses. I was excited when I finished that day’s class as we had had a great conversation about how we can use engineering to meet human, community, and environmental needs in India and the United States. The same ideas could be applied to any country to make our world a better place. Today’s technology has opened so many opportunities to make an impact in our communities, our countries, and our world. I ended the class thinking that this is really an exciting time to be an engineer or an engineering student—with all of the technological tools we have at our disposal and the exciting things we can do with them.
As I ended the class, I looked outside at the first snowfall of the year. Because of the time difference between India and the United States, I have to teach the class very early in the morning, so the sun was just coming up. The beautiful sunrise with the falling snow got me thinking. I had just been talking with about 40 colleagues who were literally on the other side of the world and spread out all over their country. I was in Indiana, and our course facilitator was from Massachusetts. The incredible technology that allowed us to discuss how to use technology to make a difference in the world was created by engineers who had come before us. A generation ago, we would have had to make a very expensive phone call to have that discussion. Earlier generations would have had to communicate with letters on actual paper that were physically carried from one place to the next. Technology has significantly changed the way we communicate, as well as so many other parts of our lives. Those changes were created and driven by engineers who started out a lot like you.
As I sat there in the warm house and watched the snow, I began to think about all of the other ways that engineers have impacted us. The materials to make the house to keep me warm were developed by engineers. The house is heated with an ultra-high-efficiency furnace that also protects the environment. The natural gas burning in the furnace was found, extracted, refined, and piped to the house using technology developed by engineers. The lights in the house were developed by engineers. The appliances in the house all have computers to make them more efficient and easier to use. Everywhere I looked I saw something that had been touched by engineers . . . with the exception of the snowflakes falling outside, of course.
There are so many engineers who have made an impact in our daily lives, and they came from many different places and backgrounds. I thought about them as I moved through the day. I had to pick up my daughter from a friend’s house, and I was grateful for Mary Anderson, who had invented the windshield wiper to clear the snow from my car’s windshield. When I got to the first intersection, I thought about Garrett Morgan, the African American inventor who developed the traffic light to keep us safe on the roads. I was grateful for the computer and electrical engineers who developed the technology in my hearing aids that allow me to have a conversation with my daughter when I picked her up.
1.1 Introduction
The impact of engineers on our everyday lives is incredible. Even our life expectancies are so much higher in large parts due to the technologies that engineers have developed to provide safe drinking water, sanitation, accessible medicines, and much more. Engineers have made an enormous impact on our world, and there are so many opportunities yet to come. Today’s technology has given us the tools to address needs and opportunities to make a difference in our world.
The purpose of this first chapter is to give you a sense of the strong heritage of the engineering profession. We will provide a brief glimpse into some of those who have come before you and a feeling of the incredibly exciting profession you are exploring. This is not meant to be a comprehensive overview of the history of engineering, as that would be a book in itself. Instead we use history to illustrate some of the diversity and wondrous heritage of the engineering profession and highlight a few of the men and women who have developed the amazing world of technology we live in today.
Definition of Engineering
Even if you already have a general knowledge of what engineering involves, a look at the definition of the profession may give you some insight. The organization that accredits engineering programs is called ABET, and they define engineering as:
The profession in which knowledge of the mathematical and natural sciences, gained by study, experience, and practice, is applied with judgment to develop ways to use, economically, the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind.
This definition places three responsibilities on an engineer: (1) to develop judgment so that you can (2) help mankind in (3) economical ways. It places obligations on us to address needs that benefit others and to make sure we don’t do harm. We seek to provide economical solutions because if they are too expensive, they are out of reach of people. Looking at case histories and historical overviews can help us see how
others have applied these principles before us and understand more about the profession we are entering. Study of history can also give us a sense of belonging to the profession. There are engineers who come from the very kind of background you come from and look a lot like you—or did when they were your age.
Definitions are important, but they don’t always inspire. The National Academy of Engineering is a body of outstanding engineers who advise the federal government on matters pertaining to engineering and technology. One has to be nominated and invited to become a member of the national academy. This body studied the perceptions of engineering and engineers in the United States and came to the conclusion that most people do not understand who we are and what great things we could do. They produced a report entitled Changing the Conversation to help us communicate the potential of engineering. Part of that report includes a positioning statement to help guide our conversations. It reads,
No profession unleashes the spirit of innovation like engineering. From research to real-world applications, engineers constantly discover how to improve our lives by creating bold new solutions that connect science to life in unexpected, forward-thinking ways. Few professions turn so many ideas into so many realities. Few have such a direct and positive effect on people’s everyday lives. We are counting on engineers and their imaginations to help us meet the needs of the 21st century.
We need this positioning statement because engineers and engineering are often misunderstood as a field. The contributions of engineers are not always seen, understood, or appreciated. As illustration, I think of a class I teach that engages about 500 students per semester in designs to meet community needs locally and globally. The students work together to develop designs, and they work with community partners. I often hear them describe themselves as “not a typical engineer.” They like to work with others, have a social life, and want to make a difference in the world. I love that attitude, and I do wonder how I have 500 students who view themselves as “not typical.” At least in our class they are typical and are very much more typical of engineers and the overall engineering profession, what it is and what is should be. It may not match the stereotypes, but it does match the heritage we have as engineers. We have a strong knowledge of math, science, and technology and have to work with many others to create solutions that can improve the human and environmental conditions. It takes many different people to do that, and it always has and always will. The following sections will explore history with examples of some of these diverse engineers who were real people who have helped make the world a better place.
1.2 The Beginnings of Engineering: The Earliest Days
The foundations of engineering were laid with our ancestors’ efforts to survive and to improve their quality of life. From the beginning, they looked around their environments and saw areas where life could be made easier and more stable. They found
improved ways to provide for food, through hunting and fishing. They discovered better methods for providing shelter for their families and ways to make clothing. Their main physical concern was day-to-day survival. As life became more complicated and small collections of families became larger communities, the need grew to look into new areas of concern and specialization.
If you look back at the definition of engineering given by ABET, you will notice a statement: “The profession in which knowledge of the mathematical and natural sc iences . . . is applied.” Prehistoric engineers applied problem solving and toolmaking but did not have a grasp of the same mathematical principles or knowledge of natural science as we know it today. They designed and built items more by trial and error, testing, and intuition. They built spears that worked and others that failed, but in the end they perfected weapons that allowed them to bring down game animals and feed their families. Although they couldn’t describe it, they used principles of aerodynamics and mechanical advantage to develop more efficient tools to hunt.
Since written communication and transportation did not exist at that time, little information or innovation was exchanged with people from faraway places. Each group around the world moved ahead on its own. It is inspiring to see how people from all over the world developed innovations to improve the quality of life for their families and their communities.
Transportation was another area where early engineers made an impact. The designs of early boats, for example, inspire even today’s engineers. Breakthroughs in transportation and exploration are being located ever earlier as we continue to make discoveries about various peoples traveling long before we thought they did— in fluencing others and bringing back knowledge. Transportation was used to hunt and fish, to move families, and to explore new areas. Polynesian boat designers, for example, developed crafts that could sail great distances and allowed people to settle many of the islands across the Pacific. Their use of mathematics and astronomy allowed them to navigate great distances on their vessels that were designed for long ocean voyages. Their vessels are still an engineering marvel today.
Prepare a brief report that focuses on engineering in a historical era and cultural area (for example, pre-Columbian Central America, Europe in the Industrial Revolution, Mesopotamia). Analyze the events that you consider to be engineering highlights and explain their importance to human progress.
Early Cities
As cities grew and the need to address the demands of the new fledgling societies increased, a significant change took place. People who showed special aptitude in certain areas were identified and assigned to ever more specialized tasks. This development gave toolmakers the time and resources to dedicate themselves to
building and innovation. This new social function created the first real engineers, and innovation flourished more rapidly.
Between 4000 and 2000 b.c., Egypt in Africa and Mesopotamia in the Middle East were two areas for early engineering activity. Stone tools were developed to help humans in their quest for food. Copper and bronze axes were perfected through smelting. These developments were not only aimed at hunting: The development of the plow was allowing humans to become farmers so that they could reside in one place and give up the nomadic life. Mesopotamia also made its mark on engineering by giving birth to the wheel, the sailing boat, and methods of writing. Engineering skills that were applied to the development of everyday items immediately improved life as they knew it.
During the construction of the pyramids (c. 2700–2500 b.c.) the number of engineers required was immense. They had to make sure that everything fit correctly, that stones were properly transported long distances, and that the tombs would be secure against robbery. Imhotep (chief engineer to King Zoser) was building the Step Pyramid at Sakkara (pictured in Fig. 1.1) in Egypt about 2700 b.c. The more elaborate Great Pyramid of Khufu (pictured in Fig. 1.2) would come about 200 years later. These early engineers, using simple tools, performed, with great acuity, insight, and technical rigor, tasks that even today give us a sense of pride in their achievements.
The Great Pyramid of Khufu is the largest masonry structure ever built. Its base measures 756 feet on each side. The 480-foot structure was constructed using over 2.3 million limestone blocks with a total weight of over 58 million tons. Casing blocks
Figure 1.1 The Step Pyramid of Sakkara Source : © iStockPhoto
Figure 1.2 The Great Pyramid of Khufu
Source : © iStockPhoto
of fine limestone were attached to all four sides. These casing stones, some weighing as much as 15 tons, have been removed over the centuries for a wide variety of other uses. It is hard for us to imagine the engineering expertise needed to quarry and move these base and casing stones, and then piece them together so that they would form the pyramid and its covering.
Here are additional details about this pyramid given by Roland Turner and Steven Goulden in Great Engineers and Pioneers in Technology, Volume 1: From Antiquity through the Industrial Revolution:
Buried within the pyramid are passageways leading to a number of funeral chambers, only one of which was actually used to house Khufu’s remains. The granite-lined King’s Chamber, measuring 17 by 34 feet, is roofed with nine slabs of granite which weigh 50 tons each. To relieve the weight on this roof, located 300 feet below the apex of the pyramid, the builder stacked five hollow chambers at short intervals above it. Four of the relieving chambers are roofed with granite lintels, while the topmost has a corbelled roof. Although somewhat rough and ready in design and execution, the system effectively distributes the massive overlying weight to the sturdy walls of the King’s Chamber.
Sheer precision marks every other aspect of the pyramid’s construction. The four sides of the base are practically identical in length—the error is a matter of
inches—and the angles are equally accurate. Direct measurement from corner to corner must have been difficult, since the pyramid was built on the site of a rocky knoll (now completely enclosed in the structure). Moreover, it is an open question how the builder managed to align the pyramid almost exactly north-south. Still, many of the techniques used for raising the pyramid can be deduced.
After the base and every successive course was in place, it was leveled by flooding the surface with Nile water, no doubt retained by mud banks, and then marking reference points of equal depth to guide the final dressing. Complications were caused by the use of blocks of different heights in the same course.
The above excerpt mentions a few of the fascinating details of the monumental job undertaken to construct a pyramid with primitive tools and human labor. It was quite a feat for these early African engineers.
As civilizations grew around the world, the need for infrastructure increased, and it was the early civil engineers who met this challenge. Cities developed in many places, including India, China, and the Americas. Early engineering achievements can be seen even today in many places. For example, pyramids still stand in Latin America as a testament to the skill and expertise of early Native American engineers. Cities were constructed that included sophisticated infrastructure and building techniques. One extraordinary example of ingenuity and skill that inspires many visitors is the Incan city of Machu Picchu (Fig. 1.3) built on top of the Andes mountains in Peru. Constructed in the 15th century at the height of the Inca Empire, it is an
Figure 1.3 Machu Picchu in present-day Peru Source: Damian Gil/Shutterstock.com
engineering marvel that used sophisticated techniques of dry-stone walls that fused huge blocks without the use of mortar. The design of the city itself is based on astronomical alignments that show mathematical and astronomical sophistication. The site at the top of the mountains would have created significant engineering challenges, as well as providing for incredible panoramic views that can be enjoyed today. Recreating that city would be a challenge even with today’s technology.
Engineering the Temples of Greece
The Parthenon (Fig. 1.4) was constructed by Iktinos in Athens starting in 447 b.c. and was completed by 438 b.c. It is an extraordinary example of a religious temple. Engineers played a role in the religious aspects of societies all over the world. The Parthenon was to be built on the foundation of a previous temple using materials salvaged from its remains, making this an early example of recycling. The Parthenon was designed to house a statue of Athena that stood almost 40 feet tall. Iktinos performed the task that he was assigned, and the temple exists today as a monument to engineering capability.
Structural work on the Parthenon enlarged the existing limestone platform of the old temple to a width of 160 feet and a length of 360 feet. The building itself, constructed entirely of marble, measured 101 feet by 228 feet; it was the largest such temple on the Greek mainland. Around the body of the building Iktinos built a colonnade,
Source: Rich Lynch/Shutterstock.com
Figure 1.4 The Parthenon in Athens
customary in Greek temple architecture. The bases of the columns were 6 feet in diameter and were spaced 14 feet apart. Subtle harmonies were thus established, for these distances were all in the ratio of 4:9. Moreover, the combined height of the columns and entablatures (lintels) bore the same ratio to the width of the building.
Remember that this was the year 438 b.c. It would be a significant feat to replicate the Parthenon today.
Aqueducts and Roads
As cities and populations grew, additional needs had to be met, including the delivery of water. In Europe, the Romans developed sophisticated systems of aqueducts to deliver and distribute water into their cities. This was the work of early civil engineers who were using mathematics and an early understanding of sciences. One such aqueduct is shown in Figure 1.5. It is remarkable that these well-designed structures still stand. Transportation, including the design and construction of roads, continues to be an active area of study for civil engineers, and the Romans were among the first great transportation engineers. Construction of the first great Roman road, the Appian
Figure 1.5 Roman aqueduct
Source: © iStockPhoto
