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This image shows the cover of Energy Systems & Sustainability: power
ENERGY SYSTEMS & SUSTAINABILITY
THIRD EDITION
edited by Bob Everett
Stephen Peake
James Warren
New York Oxford
Oxford University Press
Published by Oxford University Press, Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP in association with The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, United Kingdom. Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries.
First published 2003. Second edition 2012. Third edition 2021.
Copyright © 2003, 2012, 2021 The Open University
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted or utilised in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher or a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd. Details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 5th Floor, Shackleton House, 4 Battle Bridge Lane, London SE1 2HX (website www.cla.co.uk).
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press, 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.
Edited and designed by The Open University.
Typeset by The Open University.
Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by Bell & Bain Ltd, Glasgow
This book forms part of Open University teaching materials. Details of Open University modules can be obtained from Student Recruitment, The Open University, PO Box 197, Milton Keynes MK7 6BJ, United Kingdom (tel. +44 (0)300 303 5303, email general-
enquiries@open.ac.uk).
www.open.ac.uk
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available on request.
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data available on request.
ISBN 978 0 19 876764 0 (print)
ISBN 978 0 19 260894 9 (epub)
3 1
Created on: 31 December 2021 at 11:37 a m
Preface
Bob Everett
Stephen Peake
James Warren
Billions of people in developing countries are striving to achieve higher living standards. The rate of energy use in China and India has grown enormously over the past thirty years, accompanied by dangerous levels of air pollution.
There is also the urgent need to address the dangers of climate change. Global emissions of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide from fossil fuel combustion, will have to be cut dramatically over the next three decades. It is vital that the rise in global temperature is, if possible, kept down to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels.
The 2020 Covid-19 pandemic has dramatically changed transport energy use across the world and its longer-term effects on global energy use remain to be seen.
How can global energy demand be met cleanly, safely and sustainably?
There are those who say that the continued use of fossil fuels is
essential to continuing economic growth. Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels could be reduced using carbon capture and storage (CCS). However, coal, oil and gas are finite resources that cannot be used indefinitely.
Nuclear power may offer a limited solution, but it has its own problems of uranium supply, waste disposal and the proliferation of nuclear weapons.
Renewable energy technologies, particularly those of wind power and solar energy have developed dramatically since the 1970s. These are now significant contributors to the energy mix in the UK and many other European countries. Future expansion of renewable energy could be the most sustainable solution to global energy needs.
This book is focused on energy supply, but not because energy saving is any less important. It also concentrates on the UK, but also looks at a range of other countries, such as the USA, France, Denmark, India and China.
Many readers will want to know what ‘the answer ’ is. Alas, there is no ‘magic silver bullet’. This book attempts to set out the sustainability problems in energy use, and explain the issues, the terminology and the basic physics. It hopefully gives a good grounding for reading other reports and books on the subject, particularly the companion volume Renewable Energy.
This book and its companion have been written initially for undergraduates studying energy modules at The Open University. However, they are also for all readers interested in sustainable energy
futures. We hope that both books will convey something of the enthusiasm we feel for this complex and important subject.
Bob Everett Lecturer in Renewable Technology, The Open University
Editor and author biographies
Bob Everett
Stephen Peake
James Warren
Bob Everett
Bob Everett is Lecturer in Renewable Technology at The Open University (OU) where he has been teaching energy for over 25 years. An electrical engineer by training, he took up energy research in 1977 after working in the printing industry developing desktop publishing. His research has included building energy projects featuring active and passive solar heating. Since 1991 he has worked on OU modules on the environment and sustainable energy. He has contributed to previous editions of this book and its companion volume Renewable Energy.
Stephen Peake
Stephen Peake is Professor of Climate Change and Energy at The Open University and a Fellow of the Judge Business School, University of Cambridge. He has worked in energy and sustainability for over 20 years, as a Fellow of the Royal Institute of International Affairs (RIAA) in London (including a stint at the Shell International Petroleum Company), as a Fonctionnaire at the International Energy Agency (IEA) in Paris, and as an official with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Bonn, Germany. He is an enthusiastic researcher, teacher and consultant in the field of energy, climate and sustainability.
James Warren
James Warren is a Senior Lecturer at The Open University where he has worked as Associate Dean (Quality). Before joining the OU in 2000, he worked in the automotive industry designing vehicle exhaust catalysts. He is an author on many OU modules, including transport studies. His research and scholarship mainly deal with quantifying transport exhaust emissions, and he has a particular interest in transport issues in the city of Havana in Cuba.
Godfrey Boyle
Godfrey Boyle (1945–2019) was Professor of Renewable Energy at The Open University, where he taught for 40 years. His research interests were in solar and wind power, energy systems modelling and energy policy. An enthusiastic campaigner for renewable energy since the 1970s, he was instrumental in setting up OU modules on sustainable energy. He has written extensively for previous editions of this book, its companion volume Renewable Energy, and for many other books.
David Crabbe
David Crabbe was a Senior Lecturer at The Open University, where his research interest was the UK gas industry. He is now retired.
David Elliott
Dave Elliott is Emeritus Professor of Technology Policy at The Open University and has written extensively on renewable energy.
William Nuttall
Bill Nuttall is Professor of Energy at The Open University. His work
has focused on the technology and policy issues of energy, particularly civil nuclear energy and – more recently – hydrogen energy systems.
Janet Ramage
Janet Ramage was Visiting Lecturer at The Open University but is now retired. Having studied physics in London, she moved to the USA, teaching physics at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA). Returning to London, she produced short courses on energy for physics teachers and in 1983 she wrote Energy, A Guidebook (Oxford, 1983). She has contributed to OU teaching, including the first edition of this book, and its companion volume, Renewable Energy, since 1992.
Project team
Heather Patrick – Curriculum manager
Leanne Harvey – Senior project manager
Paul Hoffman – Development editor
Sarah-Jane Hofton – Graphic designer
Katie Belcher – Artworker
Carol Houghton – Licensing and acquisitions assistant
Gill Gowans – Materials procurement executive
Critical reviewers
Dr Trevor J. Price – Chapter 1
Bruce Heil – Chapter 2
J. Richard Boothman – Chapter 3
Dr Chris A. Ashley – Chapter 4
Dr Stephen Bater – Chapter 5
Dr Stephen B. C. Larkin – Chapter 6
Dr Stephen G. Staples – Chapter 7
Dr W. Gerald Barr – Chapter 8
Dr Ron Malyan – Chapter 9
John D. Filimon – Chapter 10
Sebastián D. Tyrrell – Chapter 11
Dr Barbara L. Jones – Chapter 12
Michael N. Purves – Chapter 13
Brian D. Allison – Chapter 14
Contents
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCING ENERGY SYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABILITY
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is an ‘ energy system’?
1.3 The present global energy system
Fossil fuels
Nuclear energy
Renewable energy sources
1.4 What is a sustainable energy system?
1.5 Why sustainable energy matters
Growthist: ‘business as usual’
Peakist: fossil fuels limit growth
Environmentalist: global environment limits growth
Three perspectives: a summary
1.6 How can we achieve the transition to low-carbon energy systems?
Changing patterns of UK energy use
1 7 Summary
Key points
References
CHAPTER 2 PRIMARY ENERGY
2 1 Introduction
2.2 Consuming energy
What is energy consumption?
What is primary energy?
‘Energy arithmetic’
Energy and power
2.3 Quantities of energy
Units based on oil
Units based on coal
The BTU and related units
The calorie and related units
2.4 Interpreting the data
Definitions
Conversions
Conventions
2.5 World primary energy sources
World renewable energy
International comparisons
2.6 Primary energy in the UK
The UK’s changing energy scene
Renewables in the UK
2.7 Primary energy in Denmark
Renewables in Denmark
2.8 Primary energy in the USA
2.9 Other countries of interest
France
India
China
2.10 Summary
Key points
References
CHAPTER 3 WHAT DO WE USE ENERGY FOR?
3 1 Introduction
3.2 Primary, final and useful energy
3.3 The expanding uses of energy
Food
Domestic energy
Industry
Transport Services
3.4 UK energy uses today
UK electricity conversion losses
Trends in UK energy consumption
3.5 International comparisons
Energy and GDP
More and more electricity
More and more travel
3.6 Summary
Key points
References
CHAPTER 4 FORMS OF ENERGY
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Kinetic and potential energy
4.3 Heat
4.4 Electrical energy
Electrons
Electrical circuits
4.5 Electromagnetic radiation
4.6 Chemical energy
The chemical elements
Using chemical energy
The nuclear atom
Isotopes
The energy
4.7 Beyond chemistry
The nuclear force
Mass and energy
4.8 Summary
The essentials
Key points
In conclusion
References
CHAPTER 5 COAL
5.1 Introduction
5.2 From wood to coal
The early years
The Industrial Revolution
The 19th century
5 3 The nature of coal
Types of coal
Composition of coal
The combustion process
Proximate analysis
Combustion products
5.4 Uses of coal
The 19th century gasworks
Modern coke production
Smokeless fuels
Coal for electricity
5.5 The coal resource
Mining the coal
Resources, reserves and production
5.6 Fires, furnaces and boilers
Power station boilers
Flue gases
Disposing of the ash
5.7 Is there a future for coal?
5.8 Summary
Key points
References
CHAPTER 6 HEAT TO MOTIVE POWER
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Steam engines
The early years
James Watt
6.3 The principles of heat engines
Carnot’s law
The Carnot engine
The laws of thermodynamics
Atoms in motion
Heat flow
6.4 The age of steam
Improving the efficiency
Mobile power
6.5 Steam turbines
Steam, speed and rpm
Parsons’ turbo-generator
Marine engines
6.6 Power station turbine systems
The turbines
The boiler
The condenser
Materials
6.7 Flows in a 660 MW turbine system
The feedwater pump
The boiler
The turbines
The condenser Efficiency
6.8 The future
6.9 Summary
Key points
References
Further reading
CHAPTER 7 OIL AND GAS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The origins and geology of petroleum
7 3 The start of the oil and gas industries
Petroleum for illumination
Petroleum for transport
The natural gas industry
7.4 Finding and producing petroleum
Oil prospecting
Production
7.5 Oil refining and products
Getting more of what you want
7.6 Oil today
Reserves and production
The changing pattern of UK oil use
7.7 Natural gas
An energy revolution in the UK
Global gas reserves and production
The future prospects for gas in the UK
7.8 The rise and fall of North Sea oil and gas
7.9 Why are oil and gas so special?
High energy density – clean to burn
Convenient and easy to use
Ease of distribution, storage and portability
Readily available and (for the moment) cheap
7.10 Conversion technologies
Town gas from oil
Synthetic natural gas (SNG) from coal
Coal to liquids (CTL)
Gas to liquids (GTL)
Jet fuel and syngas from biomass
7.11 Unconventional oil and gas
Heavy oil and extra-heavy oil
Oil shales
Oil or tar sands
Tight oil and gas
Coal bed methane (CBM)
Methane hydrates
7.12 Peak oil or peak demand
Hubbert’s shocking scenario
Has tight oil proved him wrong?
First the USA … now the world
What is the future for natural gas?
Will climate change produce ‘peak oil demand’?
7 13 Summary
Key points
References
CHAPTER 8 OIL AND GAS ENGINES
8.1 Introduction
8 2 The petrol or spark ignition engine
The birth of the car engine
The motorization of the USA
Aircraft petrol engines
Compression ratio and octane number
Lead additives
Alternative fuels
8.3 The diesel or compression ignition engine
Diesel power for ships
Diesel engines for road, rail and air
DERV
Biodiesel
8.4 Petrol and diesel engines – reducing pollution
Emissions from petrol engines
The lean-burn engine
The 3-way catalytic converter
Emissions from diesel engines
Obtaining best efficiency
8.5 The gas turbine
Two rival jet engines
Post-war developments
Modern jet engines
Industrial gas turbines
Gas turbines for cars?
Improving efficiency and CO emissions
8.6 The Stirling engine
Principles
The Philips engine
8.7 Which is the best engine?
8.8 Summary
Key points
References
Further reading
CHAPTER 9 ELECTRICITY
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Making electricity in the 19th century
Batteries and chemical electricity
Magnetism and generators
The telegraph
The rise of electric lighting and mains electricity
AC or DC?
High voltage or low voltage?
Simple metering and tariffs
9.3 The continuing development of electric lighting
Improving the incandescent light bulb
The fluorescent lamp
The light-emitting diode (LED)
Efficacy and colour rendering index
Pollution problems – the end of the incandescent?
9 4 Electric traction
Electric trams and trains
Battery electric vehicles
Electric transmissions and hybrid electric drives
9.5 Expanding uses
Telecommunications and computers
Cooking and heating
Refrigeration
Electric motors everywhere
Where electricity is used in the UK today
9.6 Large-scale generation
Competition versus economies of scale
Hydroelectricity
New fuels
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) generation
9.7 Transmission and distribution
The National Grid in the 1930s
Coal by wire
The Supergrid
The UK grid today
International links
9.8 Running the system
Four tasks
What exactly is being optimized?
Ownership of the system
Balancing supply and demand
Peak demands and pumped storage
Coping with the variability of renewable energy
Smart meters and smart grids
9.9 Electricity around the world
UK
