EnergySustainability
IbrahimDincer
UniversityofOntarioInstituteofTechnology Oshawa,ON,Canada
AzzamAbu-Rayash
UniversityofOntarioInstituteofTechnology Oshawa,ON,Canada
Elsevier
Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates
EnergySustainability
Copyright © 2020ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
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Notices
Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgein evaluatingandusinganyinformation,methods,compoundsorexperimentsdescribed herein.Becauseofrapidadvancesinthemedicalsciences,inparticular,independent verificationofdiagnosesanddrugdosagesshouldbemade.Tothefullestextentofthe law,noresponsibilityisassumedbyElsevier,authors,editorsorcontributorsforanyinjury and/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceor otherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructions,orideas containedinthematerialherein.
ISBN:978-0-12-819556-7
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Preface
Sustainabilityisrecognizedasoneofthemostcriticaltargetstoachieveintheworld today.Energysystemsarealsoanintegralcomponentofthistargetandanythingthat wedodirectlyaffectsit.Thecurrentglobalsocialnormsrelyheavilyonenergy systemstoprovidevarioususefulenergycommoditiesnecessaryforliving.Such commoditiesincludeelectricity,heating,cooling,domestichotwater,freshwater, andtransportationfuel.Theseenergysystemshavebeenevolvingfromconventional fossilfuelandnuclear-basedenergysystemstomoreenvironmentallybenignenergy systems,suchasrenewableenergysystems.Hybridizationallowsformorethanone sourceofenergytocombineallowingflexibilityandcreativityinthedesignofnew energysystemsbasedontheneedandtheavailableresources.
Thisbookisdesignedtobenefitstudents,researchers,scientists,andpracticing engineersforbetterunderstandingofsustainabilityandassessmentofenergysystemsfromasustainabilityperspective,usingvariousthermodynamicfundamentals. Thisbookfollowsthe3Sconcept(source system service),whichwasoriginally developedbytheleadauthor,IbrahimDincer,whereenergysourcesarediscussed thoroughly,followedbyadetailedinvestigationofavarietyofenergysystems andenergyservicesthatbasicallymeanusefulcommodities.Fundamentalaspects ofenergy,environment,andsustainabilityarediscussedindetailinthefirstchapter. Sustainabilitymodelingfeaturesvariousaspectsincludingeconomic,social,and environmentalaspectsinadditiontootherdomainssuchasenergy,exergy,technology,education,andsizing.Moreover,althoughcitiesareinneedofoptimizingtheir energyinfrastructureandresources,communityenergysystemsisachapterthatis dedicatedtodiscussingsystemspertainingtocommunitiesasawhole.Thisbook providesmodels,descriptions,analyses,andassessmentsofvarioussystemsand casestudies.
Thisbookiscomposedofeightchapters,startingwithintroductoryinformation onenergyforms,history,andessentialthermodynamicconcepts.Thischapteralso introducesenvironmentalimpact,climatechangeandglobalwarming,aswellasthe relationshipbetweenenergyandtheenvironmentfollowedbyanintroductionabout sustainability.Chapter2discussesallenergysources,includingprimary,secondary, andconvertedsourceswhereitisorganizedbydiscussingfossilfuelsfirst,followed bynuclearenergyandfinallyrenewables.Energysystemsareinvestigatedindetail inChapter3,wheretheenergysystems,particularlypowergeneratingsystems, includingalltypesofpowerplantsarepresented.Variousmodelsaredescribed andillustratedindetailinthischapter.Othertypesofenergysystemsincludeheating systemsandalltheirtypessuchasgeothermal,biomass,andheatpumps.Refrigerationsystemsarealsoexploredfollowedbyrefineries.Chapter4dwellsonenergy services,particularlyaimingtopresentusefuloutputsofthesystemsunderservices. Chapter5discussescommunityenergysystemswherecombinedheatandpower solutionsareconsidered,inadditiontomicrogrids,hybridenergymodels,district heating,cooling,andthermalenergystorage.Cogeneration,trigeneration,and
Preface
multigenerationsystemsarealsoincludedinthischapter.Chapter6focuseson sustainabilitymodels,coveringeightdifferentaspectsofsustainabilityandthe sustainabilitymethodologyusedforassessmentinthisbook.Eachaspecthasanumberofindicatorsassociatedwiththem.Chapter7includesanumberofcasestudies includingmicroandmacroenergysystemsforsmallresidentialdwellingsand communityenergyneeds.Finally,Chapter8isatypeofwrap-upchapterforthe book,focusingonfuturedirectionsandmainfindingsofthisparticularbook.
Wehopethatthisbookprovideseye-openingtypematerialsfortheenergy communityandservesasausefulsourceforresearch,innovation,andtechnology developmentinthefieldofenergysustainability. IbrahimDincer
Fundamentalaspectsof energy,environment,and sustainability 1
1.1 Introduction
Energyplaysapivotalroleinthedevelopmentandprosperityofnations.Infact,the industrialrevolution,followedbytheoilexplorationscombined,makesupourcurrentdigitalcivilization.Furthermore,asidefrompower,energyinfluencesourlives onadailybasis.Forexample,electricityinfrastructure,thetransportation,andindustrysectorsalldependonenergy.Infact,Holdenetal.(1997)publisheda bookdiscussingthepoliticaleconomyofSouthAfricathroughitstransitionfrom minerals-energycomplextoindustrialization.Inthisbook,energyisadrivingfactor intheeconomyforSouthAfricaandtherestoftheworld,whichconsequentlybecomesamajorfactorinpoliticaldynamics.Moreover,Georgescu-Roegen(2018) dwellsindetailtohighlightthelimitationofnaturalresourcesandtheirimpacton globaleconomy.Inthischapter,theauthoranalyzesenergyoptionsanddiscusses indetailthedegreeofinfluenceeachaspecthasontheglobaleconomy.Ontheother hand,Gomez-Expositoetal.(2018)focusedontheelectricaspectofenergysystems byprovidingadeepandacomprehensiveunderstandingintomodernelectricenergy systems.Topicsofresearchinthisfieldincluderenewablepenetration,smartgrids, andactiveconsumption.Furthermore,electricalaspectsofresearchincludeharmonicanalysis,stateestimation,optimalgenerationscheduling,andelectromagnetictransients.Babuetal.(2013)havesummarizedthehydrate-basedgas separationprocessforcarbondioxideprecombustioncapture.Superhydrophobic surfacesarealsoarecenttopicofresearchforvariousenergy-relatedapplications includingheatexchangers,iceslurrygeneration,photovoltaiccell,electricpower line,andairplanes(ZhangandLv,2015).Thesedevicesbenefitfromthefreezing delayandtheavoidanceoficeaccumulationonsurfacestomaintainoperational function.Inaddition,latestresearchalsorevolvesaroundtheuseofhydrogenas anenergycarrierorsourceforvarioussystems.NastasiandLoBasso(2016)investigatedtheuseofhydrogenasalinkbetweenheatandelectricityinthetransition towardfuturesmartenergysystems.Thedualityintheuseofhydrogenasbotha fuelforcombustionandachemicalforenergystorageorchemicalconversionalong withitsabundancegivesitauniquefeatureaboveotherenergyoptions.Additionally,energystorageisalsoanotherhottopicforresearch.Luoetal.(2015)
EnergySustainability. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819556-7.00001-2
Copyright © 2020ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
investigatedthecurrentdevelopmentinelectricalenergystoragetechnologiesand theirapplicationpotentialinpowersystemoperation.Thisfeaturesthedynamic changesofthegridsystemalongwiththemixedenergysourcesinmodernelectric gridsaswellasthereductioninnaturalresourceandtheexponentiallyincreasing populationoftheworld.Moreover,energystoragesystemsforwindpowerintegrationsupportareinvestigatedbyZhaoetal.(2015).Furthermore,smartenergysystemshavebeenanalyzedfor100%renewableenergyandtransportsolutionsby Mathiesenetal.(2015).Theyidentifiedleastcostsolutionsoftheintegrationoffluctuatingrenewableenergysources.Inadditiontorenewableenergy,utilizationof variousfossilfuelby-productssuchascarbondioxideandnaturalgashydrates arebeingresearched.Chongetal.(2016)reviewedthenaturalgashydratesasan energyresource.Moreover,darkfermentativebiohydrogenproductionfromorganic biomassincludingagriculturalresidues,agro-industrialwastes,andorganicmunicipalwastehasbeeninvestigatedbyGhimireetal.(2015).Infact,furtherresearch anddevelopmenttothistechnologyincludeimprovingthebiohydrogenyieldby optimizingsubstrateutilization,microbialcommunityenrichment,andbioreactor operationalparameterssuchaspH,temperature,andH2 partialpressure.Asfor researcharoundrenewableenergy,atechnicalandaneconomicreviewofrenewable power-to-gasprocesschainisinvestigatedbyGotzetal.(2016)andisthoughtto playasignificantroleinthefutureenergysystems.Inthisprocess,renewableelectricenergycanbetransformedintostorablemethaneviaelectrolysisandsubsequent methanation.Furthermore,thepotentialoflithium-ionbatteriesinrenewableenergy isfurtheranalyzedbyDioufandPode(2015)asamajorenergystoragemediumfor off-gridapplications.Moreover,theintegrationofrenewableenergysystemsintothe futurepowersystemsisresearchedindetailbyWeitemeyeretal.(2015).A modelingapproachtoinvestigatetheinfluenceofstoragesizeandefficiencyon thepathwaytowarda100%RESscenarioispresentedafterusingalong-termsolar andwindenergypowerproductiondataseries.Overall,themainobjectivesbehind latestenergyresearcharetodevelopenvironmentallybenignenergysolutionsas wellasimproveenergystorageoptionsformoresustainableandreliableenergysupplyfromrenewables.Furthermore,theenvironmental,social,andeconomicaspects ofenergydrivethesustainabledevelopmentofallenergysystems.Moreover,unprecedentedrecordsofhighglobaltemperaturesandtheuniversalclimatechange havebeenamajortriggertobecomingmoreenvironmentallyconscious,which eventuallydrivesenergyresearchinthisdirection.
1.2 Energy
Energyisanimportantconstantoftheuniverse.Energyistheabilitytodowork, whereasworkistheactivedisplacementofanobjectbyapplyingforce.Energy seemsneartangibletous,asitispresentindailyactivities.Thisisbecauseenergy isnotasubstanceoranelement,butratheraquantity,derivedfromamathematical relationshipwithothermorefundamentalquantities.Therefore,becauseenergyisa
conservedquantity,energycannotbecreatedordestroyed,rathercanbeconverted informaccordingtothelawofconservationofenergy.TheSIunitusedtocalculate energyisjoule,whichistheenergytransferredtoanobjectbyexertingaforceof1N againstitwhilemovingitadistanceof1m.Ontheearth,mostoflikeispoweredby acentralsourceofenergy,thesun.Radiantenergyfromthesunisemittedintospace afterthesunisheatedtohightemperaturesduetotheconversionofnuclearbinding energy.Moreover,energycomesinvariousformssuchaskinetic,potential,elastic, chemical,gravitational,electric,magnetic,radiant,andthermalenergy.Consequently,energyhasnumerousapplicationsoneverysegmentoflifearoundus. Therefore,energyisveryvaluableasitaffectsusdaily. Table1.1 summarizesthe mainintroductoryaspectsofenergy.
1.2.1 Energyforms
Energycanbeclassifiedintotwomaincategories:kineticandpotentialenergy.Kineticenergyreferstotheenergythatanobjectpossessesduetoitsmotion.Maintainingtheacceleration,theobjectskeeptheirkineticenergy.Ontheotherhand, potentialenergyreflectsthepotentialofanobjecttohavemotionanditisgenerally afunctionofitspositionrelativetothesurroundingfield.Theinteractionbetween kineticandpotentialenergiesresultsinmanytypesofenergy. Fig.1.1 illustrates varioustypesofenergythatresultfromthecombinationofkineticandpotential energies.
Therefore,energycanmanifestitselfinmanyforms.Infact,energycanbe convertedfromoneformtoanotherdependingontheneedandavailableresources. Toelaboratefurtheronthesetypesofenergy, Table1.2 presentsthedifferenttypes ofenergyalongwithashortdescriptofeachandacommonapplicationforeach type.
1.2.2 Energyhistory
Inthe17thcentury,GottfriedLeibnizdefinedthemassoftheobjectanditsvelocity squaredas visviva,orlivingforce.Laterin1807,ThomasYoungusedtheterm“energy”insteadof visviva, whichthenwasdescribedaskineticenergy Later,William Rankinedevisedthetermpotentialenergy.Shortlyafter,thelawofenergyconservationwaspostulatedintheearly19thcentury.In1845,JamesJoulediscoveredthe linkbetweenmechanicalworkandheatgeneration.Allofthesedevelopmentshave
Table1.1 Highlightedsummaryofbasicenergy properties.
Forms of Energy
FIGURE1.1
Formsofenergyemergingfromthecombinationofkineticandpotentialenergies.
Table1.2 Descriptionsofvarioustypesofenergyandexampleapplication foreachtype.
TypeDescriptionApplication
MechanicalEnergyacquiredbyobjects,where workisdoneuponthem. Usingahammertoapplyforceon anail.
ElectricKineticenergyofmovingelectrons.Electricpowerutility. MagneticEnergybymagnetinamagnetic field. Operationoftransformersand inductors.
GravitationalPotentialenergyofanobjectdueto itshighposition. Objectfallingfromtopofabuilding downtotheground.
ChemicalEnergystoredbetweenatomic bonds. Chemicalreactionssuchas burningsugarinhumanbody.
NuclearNuclearreactionsreleasingnuclear energytogenerateheat. Nuclearpowerplants.
RadiantEnergyofgravitationaland radiomagneticradiation. Solarenergy.
ThermalInternalheatwithinasystem responsibleforitstemperature. Warmingupakettle.
ledtothetheoryofconservationofenergy,whichwaslaterformalizedbyLord Kelvinasthefieldofthermodynamics.Thisemergingfieldofthermodynamics aidedtheinvestigationsofchemicalprocessesaswellasledmathematicalformulationsoftheconceptofentropy.
Magne c
Gravita onal Chemical
Energyplayedanintegralandsignificantroleinthedevelopmentofcivilizations asitinfluencedthesocial,economic,andgeopoliticalaspectsofsocietiesacrossthe globe.Thedestructionofmodernorancientsocietieswasduetoanumberoffactors thatdirectlyorindirectlyconnecttotheshortfallofenergyresources.Collapsewas acceleratedbywarsthatemergedduetocompetitionoverscarceenergyresources. Largeenergyabsorptioncanleadtothedestructionofcivilizationsaccordingtohistory.Imaginewhatcouldhappentoourmodernsocietythatisfoundedonexaggeratedenergyconsumption?
Thebasicneedsforhumansenergy-wiseremainsunchanged:heat,light, manufacturing,andtransportation.Humanityhaspassedthroughnumerousstages ofenergydevelopment.Eachhumansocietyhadreliedonenergyinitsdistinct form.However,thepasttwocenturieshavebeenunprecedentedinhumanhistory intermsofenergydevelopmentandtransformation.Theintensityandadvancement ofenergytodayisamajormilestoneinhumanhistory.Thisgreataccelerationon environmentalimpactandeconomicchangesishistoric.Modernlifestyleisradically differentfromthelifestyleofourancestors.Oursocietieshavebeenextremelydependentonenergy.Forexample,lightingatnightisconsideredanecessityandaservice thatisreadilyavailableinthe21stcentury.Inthepast,peoplestruggledwithlighting indooramenitieswithcandlesordriedstripsofvegetablesdippedintoanimalfatand thusproducingafilthysmell.Oncethesunset,theynolongerhadnightillumination orstreetlightsallovertheircities.Heatingwasonlyprovidedinextremecasesofnecessity.Evenwell-to-dofiguresstruggledwithinkfreezingintheinkpot.Now, manufacturingservicesrunatalltimes.Centralairconditioningandtemperaturecontrolhasbecomeanorminoursociety,thuscoolingindoorspaceinthehotsummer daysandheatingthemintheharshwinters.Theseservicescanbeseenasthesame servicesprovidedinthepast(i.e.,heating,lighting,etc.)torunthedailyaffairs.However,theshockisthatnoneoftheseservicescomesfromthesamesourcesastheydid inthe19thcentury.Notevenone.Suchaparadigmshifthasneverbeenwitnessed sincehumanslearnedtoharnessfire.Heat,light,andmotionnotonlyprovideus withnecessaryservicesbutalsoprovideawiderangeofnewservicesthathave becomeavailabletoussuchaspicturesthatcomefromscreenormusicfrom speakers.Asaresultofsuchremarkabletransformation,ourcommandoverresources hasgotmuchstrongerasindividualhumanbeingsandsocietieshaveexpanded. Furthermore,thedegreeofchoicesavailabletoushasimmenselyincreased.
About2millionyearsago,humanslearnedtomanufacturetoolsforhunting. Around500,000yearsagoorearlier,humansdiscoveredtheuseoffire.Firewas usedtocreateandtodestroy.Itprovidedlightandwarmthandalsowasusedasa weapontokill.Withthisnewresource,humanswereabletoshapetheirenvironmentsbyselectivelycreatingordestroyingwhatwasnecessaryfortheirsurvival. Lateon,humanslearnedtousethefireforcraft(i.e.,meltingmetalsorhardening clary),whichenabledthemtotriggermoreenvironmentalchanges.About 18,000yearsago,theanimalpowerwasamajorsourceofpower.Domestication ofanimalsenabledhumanstocaptureanewsubstantialenergysource.Sheep,goats, andcowsprovidednotonlyareliablefoodsourcebutalsoapredictablemobile
sourceofenergyfornomadpopulations.Around10,000yearsago,somenomad populationsbegantosettlenearriversandfertilelandtodevelopmorereliable andconsistentsourcesofenergy.Permanentsettlementsandthepopulationgrowth urgedhumansocietiestorelyontheresourcesaroundthemfromtrees,soil,water, andanimalstosatisfytheirneeds.Around8000yearsago,theuseofanimalstopull cartsbegan,whichcausedagriculturetoflourish.Stationarytaskssuchasmillingof grain,pumpingofwater,andothermechanicalconversionsofenergyonlyemerged inthe19thcentury.In2000BC,earlymissionariestoChinahavereportedthatcoal wasalreadybeingusedforheatingandcooking,makingtheChinesetobethefirstto usecoalforenergyuse.Thereportalsomentionsthatcoalhasbeenutilizedformore than4000years.Inanotherreport,MarcoPolohighlightsthewidespreaduseofcoal inChinainthe13thcentury.Indeed,coalmighthavebeenusedbymammoth huntersinEasternEurope.InmedievalEurope,theexistenceofcoalwasalsorecognized,yetignoredduetothesootandsmoke.Woodwasfavoredovercoaluntilthe 13thcentury.TheGreeksalsorecognizedcoalfromageologiccuriouspointofview. Aristotlementionedcoal,andthecontextimpliesthathewasreferringtoitasamineralofearthnotasanenergysource.DuringtheBronzeAge,coalwasusedinsouthernWales.TheRomansusedcoalinlargequantitiesinmultiplelocations.Afterthe Romanshaveleft,theuseofcoalstoppeduntilthesecondmillennium.Ligniteand peataregeologicprecursorstocoal,andtheywereusedinnorthernandWestern EuropeinthefirstcenturyAD.IndicationspointattheNetherlands,wherepeat wasusedasafuel.RomansburnedcoalnearSt.Etienne,whichlaterbecameamajor Frenchminingcenter.CoalmininginIndiatracesbacktothe18thcentury.However, namesandsignsintheBengal-Biharregionindicatethatcoalmayhavebeenusedin theseareasinancienttimes.Thefirstpracticaluseofnaturalgasisalsotracedback totheChinesein200BC,wheretheyusedtomakesaltfrombrineingas-firedevaporators,boringshallowwells,andconveyingthegastotheevaporatorsthrough bamboopipes.Inthesameeraof200BC,Europeansharnesswaterenergytopower mills.Theinventionofthisverticalwaterwheelpoweredmills,whichrefreshed variousindustries.Italsodecreasedthedependenceonhumanandanimalmuscle fortheproductionofpower.Furthermore,siteswithdecentwaterpowerpotential havebecomemorefavorable,andcommunitiesstartedtobeestablishedaround theseplaces,causingeconomic,industrial,andsocialgrowth.Inthefirstcentury, theChinesehaverefinedpetroleumtouseitasanenergysource.ShengKuo (1031 1095)havedocumentedthattherewasalotofoilinthesubsurfaceand thatitwasinexhaustible.Theyappliedpetroleumforlamps,aslubricantsinmedicine,andotheruses.Inthe10thcentury,windmillswerebuiltinPersiatogrindgrain andpumpwater.ThistechnologyspreadtoChinaandtheMiddleEast,where farmersusedthemtoirrigatecrops,pumpwater,andcrushsugarcane.
Thehistoryofenergycontinuestoourcurrentmodernsocieties,whererenewableenergyisontheriseandfossilfuelsareinfluencingtheenvironmentsignificantly.Moreover,energyconsumptionpercapitavariesfromcountrytoanother. Fig.1.2 demonstratestheannualaverageenergyconsumptionpercapitaforthe 20largestenergy-consumingcountriesintheworldalongwiththeglobalaverage.
FIGURE1.2
Annualaverageenergyconsumptionpercapitain2016(kWh/per/yr).
(Datafrom:IESO,2016).
7,000,000,000,000
6,000,000,000,000
5,000,000,000,000
4,000,000,000,000
3,000,000,000,000
2,000,000,000,000
1,000,000,000,000
FIGURE1.3
Electricityconsumptionversuspopulationforvariouscountriesacrosstheworldforthe year2014.
DatafromOntarioEnergyReportQ12016.IndependentElectricityServiceOperator,Toronto,ON,pp.1 16, Rep.
Itisnoticeablethatenergyconsumptionisnotequallydistributed.Infact,the UnitedStates,China,India,andRussiaarethemostconsumingcountries.Furthermore,the20largestenergyconsumersaccountfor80%oftotalprimaryenergyconsumption,withthetwolargestconsumers(theUnitedStatesandChina)accounting for40%ofthetotalglobalconsumption.Furthermore, Fig.1.3 demonstratesthe relationshipbetweenpopulationandelectricityconsumptioninthetop20countries
Popula on
Electricity Consump on
Electricity Consump on (kWh/yr) Popula on
worldwideaswellasthelowestelectricityconsumingstripontheplanet,theGaza strip.
Fig.1.3 isveryconcerningasitdemonstratesinequalityintheglobalenergyconsumptionanddistribution.Thepoorest10%accountfor0.5%oftotalglobalenergy consumption,whereasthewealthiest10%accountfor59%.Moreover,Americans constitute5%oftheworld’spopulationandyetconsume24%oftheworld’senergy.
1.2.3 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamicsisabranchofphysicalsciencesthatspecializesinheatandtemperatureandtheirrelationshipwithotherformsofenergysuchaselectrical,mechanical,andchemicalenergies.DincerandAcar(2018)proposesthatthermodynamics isthescienceofenergyandexergy.Therearefourfundamentallawsofthermodynamicthatdefinethephysicalquantitiesofathermodynamicsystem.Moreover, thermodynamicsfeaturefourbranchesincludingclassical,statistical,chemical, andequilibriumthermodynamics.Themainlawsofthermodynamicsareasfollows:
a. Zerothlawofthermodynamics:Iftwosystemsareeachinthermalequilibrium withathird,thentheyarealsointhermalequilibriumwitheachother.
b. Firstlawofthermodynamics:Theinternalenergyisconstantforisolatedsystems.Energyisneitherdestroyednorcreated.Itisalwaysconserved.
c. Secondlawofthermodynamics:Heatcannotflowspontaneouslyfromacolder locationtoahotterlocation.Exergycannotbeconserved.Itcanonlybe minimizedifthemeasuresaretakenproperly.
d. Thirdlawofthermodynamics:Asasystemapproachesabsolutezero,allprocessesceaseandthesystem’sentropyapproachesaminimumvalue.
Thefirstlawofthermodynamicsisthemainlawhighlightingconservationofenergy.Itimpliesthatalthoughenergycanchangeitsform,itcanneitherbecreated norbedestroyed.Therefore,thislawiscloselyassociatedwiththeenergyaspect ofanysystem.However,thislawdoesnotgiveinformationonthedirectionofwhich theprocessesspontaneouslyflow.Thisaspectreferstothereversibilityofthermodynamics.Thisiscoveredbythesecondlawofthermodynamics,whichembodies theabilitytoassesstheenergyqualitatively,characterizetheavailabilityofrequired energy,andspecifyreversiblereactions.Indeed,thesecondlawiscloselyassociated withtheexergyaspectofanysystem.
Therefore,thefirstandsecondlawsofthermodynamicsaretheconstitutional lawsthatdrivethedisciplineofthermodynamics,andwhereasthefirstlawisameasureofquantityonly,thesecondlawisameasureofbothquantityandquality. Exergyandthetranslationofthesecondlawofthermodynamicsisnecessary,as inrealitywefailtoidentifywastesorusefuelseffectively.Inaddition,thesecond lawofthermodynamicsandconsequentlyexergyaimtointroducebetterefficiency, cost-effectiveness,design,analysis,andimplementationaswellasbetterstrategies andpolicies.Moreover,exergypositivelyinfluencestheenvironmentandinturn sustainabilityandenergysecurity.
Inaddition,theconceptofexergyiscriticalwhenanalyzingsustainabilityaspects ofenergysystems.Theimpactofexergizationnotonlyislimitedtoenvironmental friendlinessbutexpandstoeconomicperformanceandmoreeffectiveandefficient energysystemsandsources.Forexample, Fig.1.3 showsapersonwithahugebattery, tosimplypowerhisphone.Employingexergyasatooltowardenergysustainability allowsforusinggreenenergyandcleanertechnologiesaswellasconserveenergy. Thisconflictingdilemmaisanexampleprovingthatimportanceofexergy.Largescaleimplicationsofthisfigurecanbepostulatedwhenusingvariouselectricitygenerationplantsforurbanuse,forexample,andwhichenergymixismostsuitableand practicalfortheservicesandcommoditiesneeded. Fig.1.4 alsodemonstratesa thought-provokingquestionabouttheconceptofexergyanditsroleinenergysustainability.Thisnicelyillustratestheconceptofexergybymeaningthatexergyasatool helpmakeenergysystemsmoreenvironmentallybenign.ItwaspresentedinaParliamentResearchDayEventinToronto,OntariotodisplayDr.Dincer’sresearch.
Moreover,inthermodynamics,propertiescombinetocreateastatepoint,which canconsequentlybecombinedtoformaprocess.Morethantwoprocessescanbe designedtoformulateacycle. Fig.1.5 illustratesthesix-stepapproachinthermodynamics(DincerandAcar,2018).
Thermodynamicpropertiesincludetemperature,pressure,volume,specificinternalenergy,andspecificentropy.Thesepropertiesareusedtoidentifyanyselected statepoint.Thestatepointisanidentifiedpointwithinthecyclewithdistinctproperties.Forexample,pointsaredistinctbeforeandafteragivenheatexchangerasthe temperatureand,consequently,theenthalpyaredifferentbeforeandafterafluid passesthroughaheatexchanger.Furthermore,aprocessisdefinedbyatleasttwo statepoints.Theactualchangefromonestatepointtothenextisconsideredaprocess.Infact,twomoreprocessesinaclosed-loopsequencemakeupacycle.Balance
FIGURE1.4
Significanceofexergyusingcreativethought-provokingillustrations(Dincer,2016)
FIGURE1.5
Approachtothermodynamicsusingthesix-stepapproach.
equationsarethencarriedouttoconfigurethemassbalanceequations,energybalanceequations,exergybalanceequations,andentropybalanceequations,taking intoaccountthedifferentoutputsandinputsoftheoverallsystemorcycle.After configuringthebalanceequations,thermodynamicperformanceassessmentscan beconductedbyanalyzingtheenergeticandexergeticefficienciesofthesystem aswellasexergydestructionandlossesandotherthermodynamicparameters.
1.3 Environment
Environmentreferstothephysicalandnaturalenvironmentsthatencompassall livingandnonlivingorganisms.Thistermcanalsorefertotheearth,orsomeparts ofit.Theconceptofenvironmentalsoencompassestheinteractionbetweenall livingspecies,climate,naturalresources,weather,andhumanactivity,whichaffect humansurvivalandeconomicprosperity.Thereasonwhytheenvironmentissignificantlyhighlightedinthebookisthecurrentphenomenon,whereearthandenvironmentalprocessesareheavilyimpactedbyhumanactivity.Infact,hundredsofyears ago,humanactivityhadlittleorinsignificantimpactonearth,andhumanneedsand lifestyleswereinharmonywithnaturalprocesses.However,modernsocietiesand currentlifestyleshaveevolvedveryrapidlytothepointwhereenvironmentalprocessesandearthitselfarechangingbecauseofvarioushumanactivities.
1.3.1 Environmentalimpact
Pollutionistheintroductionofcontaminantsintothenaturalenvironment,which causesadversechange.Pollutioncanbeofmanyformssuchaschemicalsubstances orenergy,suchasnoise,heat,orlight.Toxicantsareanytoxicsubstancesthatmay
beman-made,manufactured,orbiologicallyproduced.Pollutionandtoxicantscan beobservedintheair,soil,water,orfood.Althoughpoliciesandbillsarebeing passedtocombatpollution,theproblemremainsatpresent. Fig.1.6 showsthe differenttypesofpollution.Pollutantsarenotonlyharmfultotheenvironment, butsomemayhavehealthandsocialeffectsaswell.Infact,adverseairquality cankillmanyorganismsincludinghumans.Ozonedepletioncanalsocausevarious respiratorycomplications,cardiovascularillnesses,andthroatinflammation.Noise pollutioncanalsocausehearloss,highbloodpressure,andstress.Moreover,sulfur dioxideandnitrogenoxidesintroducedthephenomenonofacidrain,whichlowers thesoilpH,makingitinfertileandunsuitableforcrops.Carbondioxideandgreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsalsohavesignificantimpactsonoceanacidificationand globalwarming,whichadverselyaffectsmanyecosystemsonearth.Therefore, pollutionandcontaminantsaredeadlywhenitcomestothesocialandhealth aspects.
Infact,thetotalemissionsworldwi defortheyear2012havetotaled 51,840MtCO 2-eq.Theindustrialsectoraccounts foralmostone-thirdofthetotal emissions.Furthermore,coalistheenerg ysourcewiththehighestemissions.Itis primarilyburnedforelectricitygenera tioninthesteelandcementindustries. Directemissionsincludemethaneemittedbycowsandotherlivestock,logging orcuttingdowntrees,ororganicmatterinlandfills.Naturalgasisnormally usedasanenergysourceforcooking,heating,andelectricitygeneration. Furthermore,oilemissionsresultfromcombustionastransportfuelsincars, trucks,andairplanes. Fig.1.7 showstheglobalCO2 emissionsbysourceandsector fortheyear2013.
•Release of chemicals and particular contaminats into the atmosphere: •CO2, CFCs, NOx, SOx, PM, Smog.
•Dicharge of wastewater and chemicals into water bodies: •Sewage, chlorine, fertilizers, contaminants from surface runoff.
Wastes/Toxic Material
FIGURE1.6
•Chemical spills or underground leakages: •Hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE, herbicides, pesticides.
•Light pollution, Roadway noise, aicraft noise, industrial and high intensity sonar noise.
Majortypesofpollutionandcontaminationsalongwithcommonpollutants.
Pollution
Pollution
1.3.2 Climatechangeandglobalwarming
Globalwarmingandclimatechangeisaglobaltrend,stemmingfromacenturyscaleriseintemperatureoftheearth’sclimate.TheincreaseoftemperatureisprimarilyduetoenergeticactivitiessuchastheGHGemissions.Thegreenhouseeffect occursaftertheburningoffossilfuelsandresultsinmassiveamountofheatandenergyintheatmosphere.ThemainGHGpollutantiscarbondioxide,andoften methodsofmeasuringtheglobalwarmingpotentialconfinetoevaluationofcarbon dioxide.However,othermajorpollutantscontributingtoglobalwarmingand climatechangeinclude,butnotlimitedtomethane,nitrogenoxides(NOx)andsulfuroxides(SOx).Althoughsomethermalradiationisemittedintospace,thebigger partofthisresidualheatisabsorbedbytheearth.Furthermore,theweakeningofthe atmospheredisablesitfromreflectingtheincomingsolarradiation.Rather,thisradiationisalsoabsorbedbytheearth’slandandoceansurfaces,causingunprecedentedwarmingoftheearth.Theseeventsaretriggerstocriticalramifications suchasarcticseaicemelting,riseofsealevels,glacierretreats,andmanyatmosphericanomalies.Tomitigatetheimpactsofglobalwarming,therehavebeen numerouseffortssocially,politically,andscientificallytoresolvethisissue.Environmentalistmovementsandconservationauthoritieshavebeenestablishedtoraise awarenessandpreservenaturalenvironments.Variousglobalsummitsandprotocols havebeenpassedtocontrolGHGemissions,andmanyalternativeenergyoptions havebeenproposedanddeployedtomitigateglobalwarmingeffects.
1.3.3 Energyandtheenvironment
Thecombustionoffossilfuelssuchascoalandoilaretheprimaryproducesof GHGs.Therefore,energyconsumptionisthemaincauseofclimatechange.In fact,beforethediscoveryoffossilfuelsandbeforetheirdeploymentinindustrial
FIGURE1.7
andcommercialuses,humanactivityandlifestylehadlittleorinsignificantimpact onearthandthenaturalprocesses.However,theindustrialrevolutionandlaterthe discoveryofoilhaverevolutionizedthehumancivilization,assuchenergysources playavitalroleineconomicgrowth,energysecurity,andpoliticalstrength.Furthermore,advancementsinenergyresearchsuchasthedevelopmentofalternativefuels andrenewableenergysystemswereprimarilytriggeredbytherelationshipbetween energyandtheenvironment.Infact,theconcernofglobalwarmingandclimate changeurgedthedevelopmentofenergythroughalternativemeansandthrough renewablesources.Furthermore,therelationshipbetweenenergyandtheenvironmentisverycloselylinked,asallenergyiseitherderivedorcapturedfromtheenvironmentaroundus.Onceenergyhasbeenused,italsoreturnstotheenvironment, eitherasaharmlessby-productorasaharmfulwaste.Insummary,energyandthe environmenthavebeenalwayscloselylinkedandwillremainassuchinthefuture.
1.4 Sustainability
Sustainabilityhasbecomeamajorhighlightinmoderncivilization.Infact,acrucial phenomenon,sustainability,whichisalwayspresentinpoliticaldebates,educationalprograms,socialtrends,andscientificadvancements,hasbecomemultidisciplinary.However,theconceptofsustainabilityhasalwaysbeenpresentthroughout humancivilizations.Indeed,humansalwaysplanned,andtheirconcernforresource availabilitywasonthetopoftheirprioritylist.Thiswasthereasonforhumansto shiftfromhuntingintofarming. Nachhaltigkeit, aGermancointhatreferredto“sustainedyield,”wastheoriginaltermforsustainability,whichwasfoundinaforestry bookin1713.Sustainabilitydoesnothaveastandarddefinition.Scientistsdefined sustainabilityinavarietyofways,dependingonthecontextandthescientificfield ofuse.IntheOxforddictionary,sustainabilityisdefinedastheavoidanceofthe depletionofnaturalresourcestomaintainanecologicalbalance.EncyclopediaBritannicadefinessustainabilityasthelong-termviabilityofacommunity,setofsocial institutions,orsocietalpractice. Table1.3 providesalistofdefinitionsthatareused forsustainability.Sustainabilityandsustainabledevelopmentcanbeusedinterchangeably,asthelattercouldalsomeanacontinuousorsustaineddevelopment. Developmentindeedisaqualitativeimprovementtoasystem,whichisdistinct fromgrowth.Growthdenotestoquantitativeincreaseinphysicalscale.
Theconceptofsustainabilityhascloselybeenassociatedwithenergyconsumption.Theearlyhumansstartedtousethefireforspecificfoods,whichmayhave alteredthenaturalcompositionoftheplanetandanimalspecies(Scholes,2003). Civilizationsthentransformedfromhuntingtomoresustainablesocietiesbyintroducingagriculture.Infact,agrariancommunitiesdependedlargelyontheirenvironment(ClarkeandScruton,1977).Thelongevityofsocietiesandanimportantfactor thatdetermineditsflourishmentordestructionwassustainabledevelopment.Energy isacriticalelement,whicheffectstheinteractionbetweennatureandsocieties.In thepast,increasesinenergydemandswereassociatedwitheconomicand
Table1.3 Selecteddefinitionsofsustainability,sustainabledevelopment, orsustainabilitysciences.
SourceDefinition
(BrundtlandCommissionofthe UnitedNations,1987)
Sustainabledevelopmentisdevelopmentthatmeets theneedsofthepresentwithoutcompromisingthe abilityoffuturegenerationstomeettheirownneeds.
PearceandMarkandya(1989)Sustainabledevelopmentinvolvesdevisingasocial andeconomicsystem,whichensuresthatthesegoals aresustained,i.e.,thatrealincomesrise;that educationalstandardsincreasethatthehealthofthe nationimproves;thatthegeneralqualityoflifeis advanced.
Harwood(1990)Sustainableagricultureisasystemthatcanevolve indefinitelytowardgreaterhumanutility,greater efficiencyofresourceuse,andabalancewiththe environment,whichisfavorabletohumansandmost otherspecies.
Morelli(2011)Meetingtheresourceandservicesneedsofcurrent andfuturegenerationswithoutcompromisingthe healthoftheecosystemsthatprovidethem.Inspecific, sustainabilityisaconditionofbalance,resilience,and interconnectednessthatallowshumansocietyto satisfyitsneedswhileneitherexceedingthecapacityof itssupportingecosystemstocontinuetoregenerate theservicesnecessarytomeetthoseneedsnorbyour actionsdiminishingbiologicaldiversity.
(Forumforthefuture,2008)Sustainabledevelopmentisadynamicprocessthat enablespeopletorealizetheirpotentialandimprove theirqualityoflifeinways,whichsimultaneously protectandenhancetheearth’slifesupportsystems
technologicaladvancements.However,currently,theriseinenergyconsumption maybedetrimentalsocial,environmental,andeveneconomiceffects.Theseeffects couldincludelocalandglobalhealthimpacts.Thedevelopmentofcivilizationsand theintroductionofvariousenergysourcesevolvedtheconceptofsustainability. Althoughearlycivilizationsutilizedlimitedamountsofenergy,industrialsocieties relyonabundantenergysources.Transportation,heating,andelectricitycompose themainneedsofhumans.However,withtheindustrialrevolutionandthetechnologicaladvancements,novelenergyresourceshaveshapedthemodernhumancivilization.Coal,oil,naturalgas,andotherconventionalenergysourceshavecausedan exponentialincreaseinhumanconsumptionofresources.
Thisinturntriggeredenvironmentalismandtheintroductionofnewfieldssuch asecologyandenvironmentalsciences.Theunprecedentedincreaseinenergydemand,population,andeconomyledtheworldtorealizetheimpactsofenergyuse ontheeconomy,environment,andsocially.Energyconservation,sustainableenergy
options,andrenewableenergysourceswerethereforeexploredfurther.Indeed,this concernhasbeenwidelyaddressedglobally.Theunitedsustainabilityinitsmodern contextreferstoarelativelycomplextopicthatismultidisciplinary.Themeaning couldvarydependingonthecontextandthefield.Indicatorsofdevelopmenttoward sustainabilityprovidemeaningfuldatathatcouldcharacterizesystems’sustainabilitylevel.Sustainabilityassessmentreliesonanumberofindicators.Theseindicators coulddifferfromonestudytoanother.Concernedabouteconomy,energy,society, andenvironment,governmentshavebeenintroducingregulationsandlocal/regional bylawsthataimtoenhancesustainabilitymeasures.However,theseeffortsoften includenonrigorousassessmentmethodsthataremainlyqualitativeinnature.
Sustainabilityisacomplexandinterdisciplinaryconcept,whichrelatestoeach ofthepresenteddomainsin Fig.1.8.Toassessthesustainabledevelopmentofenergysystems,resources,energy,andtheeconomymustbetakenintodetailed consideration.Furthermore,theenvironmentalfootprint,socialimpact,culturalparadigmssurroundingtheseprogramsaswellaspublicpolicyandpoliticalaspects needtobestudiedthoroughlytocomprehensivelyandobjectivelyunderstand sustainability.
Moreover,someoftheseconceptsareinterdependent.Forexample,theeconomicdomaincouldinfluencethesocialandpublicpolicydomains.Overall,the roadtowardanobjectiveunderstandingandassessmentofsustainabilitysprings
Thebackboneofsustainabledevelopmentandthemajordomainsthatcontributetothe understandingofthesustainabilityconcept.
FIGURE1.8
fromsoundanddeepanalysisofallfactorsandelementsthatcontributetothis conceptwhetherdirectlyorindirectly.Thesubjectivitysurroundingsustainability makeposesasadisadvantagetoitsessenceaswellasanopportunityforcreativity andinnovation.Infact,sustainabilitycanbeappliedtovariousdisciplinesandconceptsfromenergysystemstocorporatehumanresources.Asforenergysustainability,varioustechnicalparametersmustbeclearlydefinedtoprovidemeaningful resultsalongwiththeconsiderationofotherimportantaspectssuchaspublicpolicy, culture,education,andethics.Theuseofsustainabilityanditsapplicationsin variousdisciplinescanbebetterunderstoodthroughtheillustrationin Fig.1.9
Moreover,energysustainabilitycanbeillustratedbyusingthe3Sapproach developedbyDincerandAcar(2017).The3Sapproachpresentssustainabilityby breakingthevariousaspectsofenergyincludingsource,system,andserviceand furthermoreintroducingemphasizingstorageoptioninbetweeneachaspect.The 3Sapproachasillustratedin Fig.1.10 stressesthattheenergysourcemustbeclean, abundant,cheap,andavailabletoachieveoverallenergysustainability.Onceenergy isharvested,itseffectivestoragesolutionsareproposedbeforemovingtothenext aspectofenergy,whichistheutilizationofenergyusingvariousenergysystems.
Moreover,tomaintainenergysustainability,systemsneedtobehighlyefficient, effective,andreliableaswellasbeabletorecoverlossesandwastes.Oncemore, storagesolutionsareimportantbeforedispatchingtheenergydirectlytotheservice.
Heat Production
Hydrogen and Alternative Fuels Production
Desalination
Renewable Energy Production
FIGURE1.9
Energy Sustainability
Conventional Energy Production
Energy Storage Applications
Steam and Power Generation
Electrochemical Applications
Illustrationthathighlightstheuseofsustainabilityinvariousenergyproductiondisciplines andapplications.
FIGURE1.10
The3SconceptthatwasoriginallyintroducedbyDincer(2015)toachieveenergy sustainability. 1.5 Closingremarks
Finally,sustainabilityisachievedbyprovidingclean,practical,andefficientservices.The3Sruleiscriticalwhenanalyzinganyenergysystem.Theflowofenergy fromthesourcetothesystemandfinallytotheserviceandtheintegrationofstorage solutionsisbothlogicalandpractical.Energysustainabilitycanbeachievedateach stepinthisprocess.Forinstance,sustainabilityattheenergysourcelevelcanbereflectedbyutilizingclean,cheap,andavailableenergyresourcesversustheopposite. Ontheotherhand,sustainabilityatthesystemlevelisachievedbywastelessand efficientenergysystems.Multigenerationalenergysystemsalwaysyieldinhigher efficienciesandlessenergeticandexergeticlosses.Lastly,theservicesustainability isbyprovidingareliableandcleanenergyservice.Thisenergyequationforsustainabilitythereforeisdenotedbyfivesmall(s)thatrepresentsource,system,service, andtheintermediatestorages,allyieldingtotheultimateresultofalarge(S)that denotesSustainabilityorenergysustainability.
1.5 Closingremarks
Thefundamentalaspectsofenergy,environment,andsustainabilityhavebeenoutlinedinthischapter.Asindicated,environmentalimpactsofenergysolutionshave driventheresearcharoundenergysources,storage,andenergyutilization.Furthermore,detailsaroundenvironmentalpollution,climatechange,andtheconceptof
