ElectricVehiclesfor SmartCities
Trends,Challenges,and Opportunities
DepartmentofBusinessDevelopmentandTechnology, CentreforEnergyTechnologies,AarhusUniversity, Herning,Denmark
EVANTHIAA.NANAKI
Elsevier
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Dedication
Tomyson,Anthony
“TheScienceoftodayisthetechnologyoftomorrow” E.Teller
Thispageintentionallyleftblank
Contents Acknowledgmentsxi
1.Introduction1
1.1 SensingtheenergysceneryinthepostCOVID-era1
1.2 Thefutureofmobility2
1.3 Motivationforthebook4
1.4 Aimandobjectivesofthebook7
1.5 Structureofthebook8
1.6 Concludingremarks10 References11
2.Electricvehicles13
2.1 Introduction13
2.2 Electricvehicletechnologies15
2.2.1 Keytechnologiesofelectricmotors16
2.2.2 Batteryelectricvehicles19
2.2.3 Hybridelectricvehicles20
2.2.4 Plug-inhybridelectricvehicles24
2.2.5 Fuelcellelectricvehicles26
2.3 Energysourcesinelectricvehicles28
2.3.1 Energystorageunit28
2.3.2 Energygenerationunit33
2.4 Currentchargingtechnologyandavailablecharging infrastructureworldwide34
2.4.1 Electricvehicleschargingtechnology34
2.4.2 Chargingpowerlevelsandinfrastructure36
2.4.3 Typesofchargingsystems37
2.5 Impactofelectricvehicleschargingonelectricpowergrid39
2.6 Impactofvehicletogridtechnologytopowergrid42
2.7 Concludingremarks43 Listofabbreviations43 References44
3.Electricvehiclechargingwithinsmartcities51
3.1 Introduction51
3.2 Theconceptofthesmartcity52
3.3 Charginginfrastructure53
3.3.1 Typesofchargingsystems54
3.3.2 Chargingpowerlevels56
3.3.3 Standardization:Currenttrends59
3.3.4 Communicationprotocols62
3.4 Chargingeconomics62
3.5 Smartcharging64
3.5.1 Smartchargingstrategies67
3.5.2 Smartgrid69
3.5.3 Vehicle-to-grid70
3.5.4 Challengesandissuesinvehicle-to-gridtechnology78
3.6 Casestudies worldwideprojects78
3.6.1 Smartcharginginislandsystems84
3.7 Concludingremarks88 References89
4.Marketintroductionofelectricvehiclestourbanareas97
4.1 Introduction97
4.2 Businessmodels98
4.2.1 Businessmodelsintheautomotiveindustry:Theshiftto businessinnovation102
4.2.2 Businessmodelsforelectricvehicles103
4.2.3 Businessmodelsforelectricvehicles:Anintegratedapproach105
4.3 IntegratedinnovativebusinessmodelsforEVs(e-IIBMs): Implementationofanovelconcept111
4.4 Electricvehiclesmarketoverview113
4.5 Factorsinfluencingtheadoptionofelectricvehiclesinurbanareas115
4.5.1 Policydriversfortheimplementationofelectricvehicle businessmodelsinurbanareas116
4.6 Casestudiesofbusinessmodelsusedforthedeploymentof electromobilityinurbanareas121
4.6.1 Businesstoconsumerleasing125
4.6.2 Businesstoconsumersalesorleasingwithbatteryswapping125
4.6.3 Electricvehiclescarsharing126
4.6.4 Electricvehiclegridnexusbusinessmodels129
4.7 Concludingremarks134 References135
5.Climatechangemitigationandelectricvehicles141
5.1 Introduction141
5.2 Transportaspartoftheenergysystem145
5.3 Transportenergyconsumption146
5.4 Emissionsfromthetransportationsector148
5.5 Electricvehiclesandenergytransition:majorchallengesto energytransition149
5.6 Lifecycleassessment151
5.6.1 Lifecycleassessmentandelectricvehicles153
5.6.2 Lifecycleassessmentprinciples156
5.6.3 Overviewofavehiclelifecycleassessmentstages156
5.7 Comparativelifecycleassessmentofabatteryelectricvehicles andaninternalcombustionenginevehicle thecasestudyof EuropeanUnion169
5.7.1 Goalandscopedefinition170
5.7.2 Lifecycleinventory170
5.7.3 Resultsofcomparativelifecycleassessment171
5.8 Concludingremarks174 References176 Furtherreading180
6.Electricvehiclecapitals casestudies181
6.1 Introduction181
6.2 Globalelectricvehiclesales:agrowingmarket182
6.2.1 Charginginfrastructure:recentdevelopments185
6.3 Electricvehicleadoptionpolicies:recentdevelopments187
6.4 Europe191
6.4.1 TheNetherlands192
6.4.2 Spain195
6.4.3 Norway198
6.4.4 UnitedKingdom204
6.5 UnitedStatesofAmerica206
6.5.1 California208
6.5.2 NewYorkCity215
6.5.3 Seattle,Washington218
6.6 China220
6.6.1 Beijing225
6.6.2 Shanghai227
6.6.3 Shenzhen228
6.6.4 Tianjin230
6.7 Japan230
6.7.1 GotoIslands232
6.7.2 Tokyo233
6.8 Comparativeanalysisofcities234
6.8.1 Electricvehiclesalesandcharginginfrastructureavailability234
6.9 Concludingremarks238 References239
Index 249 x Contents
Acknowledgments
Thisbookwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthehelpandsupportof acertainnumberofpeople,andIwouldliketoexpressinthisparagraph myenormousgratitudetoallofthem.IwouldliketothankBrian Romer(ExecutiveEditor,Elsevier),forprovidingmethemotivationto starttheprojectofthisbook.Hegavemetherightsupportandsuggestionstoworkonthisbook.IwouldliketothankJohnLeonard(Editorial ProjectManager,Elsevier),whoprovidedgreatassistanceintheproductionofthisbookandshowedgreatpatienceinextendingthedeadlines! Finally,IwouldliketothankAssoc.ProfessorGeorgeXydis(Department ofBusinessDevelopmentandTechnology,UniversityofAarhus),forhis valuableadviceandextensivediscussionsaroundmywork.Manythanks alsotomyparentsandmyfamilyfortheircontinuousloveandsupport.
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CHAPTER1 Introduction
1.1SensingtheenergysceneryinthepostCOVID-era
TheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)declaredCOVID-19apandemiconMarch11,2020(WHO,2020),causingahugeimpactonpeople’slives,families,andcommunities.Thecoronaviruspandemiccreated anunprecedentedglobalhealthandeconomiccrisis.Apartfromthetoll ofearlydeaths,economicactivityhasstalledandstockmarketshavetumbled,whileawiderangeofenergymarketshavebeenseverelyaffected, includingcoal,gas,andrenewables.
TheCOVID-19pandemicandthecontainmentpoliciesaimedat controllingithavechangedconsumptionpatterns.Historicalevidence indicatesthatsuchmajordisruptionsinthesocietalaxisarenotalwaysa temporarycrisisandcanfundamentallyreshapesocialattitudesandhabits, leadingthustonewpoliciesandwaysofworking,aswellasconsumer needsandbehaviors.Forinstance,theimpactofWorldWarIIon
women ’sparticipationintheworkforceacceleratedthefemaleworkforce participationafterthewar(GoldinandOlivetti,2013).
Inregardtotheenergysector,itisnotedthattheoutbreakhascontributedtoadecreaseddemandinglobaloildemand especiallyinthe transportsector aggravatedbyasupplyshockduetotheendofrestraints onproductionfromOPECproducersandRussia(OPEC 1 ).Thescale ofthecollapseinoildemand,inparticular,iswellinexcessoftheoil industry’scapacitytoadjust.As3billionpeoplearoundtheworldwere underlockdown,duetothepandemic’soutbreak,lowpricescouldn’t stimulateareactionfromconsumers.Onthecontrary,arapidbuildupof oilstockswasstartingtosaturateavailablestoragecapacity,pushingdown pricesfurther.Asamatteroffact,onApril21,2020USoilpricesturned negativeforthefirsttimeonrecordafteroilproducersranoutofspaceto storetheoversupplyofcrudeoilleftbythecoronaviruscrisis,triggering anhistoricmarketcollapse.ThepriceofUScrudeoilsankfrom$18a barrelto $38inamatterofhours,asrisingstockpilesofcrudethreatenedtooverwhelmstoragefacilitiesandforcedoilproducerstopay buyerstotakethebarrelstheycouldnotstore(TheGuardian,2020).
Movingforward,manyqueriesinregardtotheenergysceneryof tomorrowarearising.Theseinclude,interalia:
• Howtheenergysupplychainsofcleanenergypathwayswillemergeas thepandemicreachesitsturningpointandtheworldbeginstorecover?
• Willthecoronavirusweakenglobalinvestmentsincleanenergyand broadereffortstoreduceemissions?
• Istheenergydemandgoingtobefollowedbyasustainableenergy consumption?
Governmentsandpolicymakersshouldnotlosesightoftheclimatechallengeandcleanenergysolutionsastheycraftstimuluspackagestocounter theeconomicdamagefromCOVID-19.Asthiscrisisunfolds,aconversation aroundenergysecurity,reliability,andenergyscarcitymightarise,asthiscrisis hasbroughtintolightthesignificantroleoftheelectricitysector,andpointed outtheneedforpolicymakerstotakeallnecessarymeasurestoensurethat currentandfuturesystemswillremainreliable(takingintoconsiderationtheir transformationviatheriseofcleanenergytechnologies).
1.2Thefutureofmobility
Ascitiescontinuetogrow,theneedforasafe,reliable,andaffordablesustainabletransportationisanecessity.Inordertoaddresstheissuesof
climatechangeandurbandevelopmentitisimperativetoshifttoflexible andlong-termsustainablepolicyinstruments.Theenergytransitiontoa zero-carbonfuturenecessitatesthedeploymentandadoptionofinnovativestrategicplansaimingtodevelopinnovativetechnologies,tomodel techniques,toreducegreenhousegasemissions(GHG),andtocreatea sustainabletransportsystemthatwillsupporteconomicgrowthandother socialandenvironmentalcobenefits.Inthisdirection,duringthepast years,therehasbeenagrowinginterestindisruptivemobilitytechnologiessuchasautonomousdriving,connectivity,hydrogen,electrification, andsharedmobility.
Takenintoconsiderationthefactthatthetransitiontozero/lowcarboncitiesischaracterizedbyahighershareofrenewableenergysources andelectricvehicles(EVs),itisremarkedthattheintegrationofrenewableenergyandelectromobilityshouldbeapriorityfortheenergyand transportationsectors.Inthisdirection,governmentshaveenactedsubsidy programs,supportingtheinstallationofcharginginfrastructure,and havedevelopedregulatoryinitiativestosupportthedeploymentand managementofEVs.Infact,somegovernments includingtheUnited Kingdom haveannouncedthattheywillbanthesaleofnewfossilfueledautomobilesafter2035(Maclellan,2020),5yearsearlierthanoriginallyplanned,inanattempttomitigatetheadverseeffectsofairpollution.Furthermore,thecarmanufacturersthatwereinitiallyskeptical aboutEVsarenowcommittingbillionsofdollarstotheirproduction.Itis estimatedthatby2022therewillbe127differentfullybattery-electriccar modelsavailableforpurchaseintheUnitedStates(LutseyandNicholas, 2019).Moreover,thedeploymentofnewdisruptivetechnologiesenables theexploitationofrenewableenergyasEVscanbechargedusingsolaror windpower.
Inthiscontext,itcanbestatedthatfuturemobilitytrendsaregoingtobe shapedbytechnologicaladvancementsinEVinfrastructureandrelative investmentsfromautomakers,drivingbythiswaythegrowthofEVs.In addition,consumerbehavior,technologicaladvancementsinbatterytechnology,economiesofscaleinEVproduction,nativeEVdesign,aswellascooperationamongoriginalequipmentmanufacturers(OEMs)(aimingtoreduce costs whicharecurrentlystillhigherthanforcomparableinternalcombustionenginevehicles)areofparamountimportancefortheenergytransition tolow-carbonmobility.Duringtheupcomingyearsmarketandcompetition willbeacriticalfactorforthesuccessfuldeploymentofelectromobilityasstakeholdersaregoingtooperateinaneconomicslowdown,butatthesame
timetheywillneedtoreshapetheirbusinessmodelsinatimeofheightened cityregulation,technologydisruptions,andchangingconsumerneeds.
ItshouldbenotedthatdespitethefactthatEVsalesgrewtomore thantwomillionunitsgloballyin2018(increaseof63%onayear-onyearbasis),theystillrepresentafractionoftheoveralllight-vehiclemarket (withapenetrationrateof2.2%)(Hertzkeetal.,2019).Furthertothis, theCOVID-19outbreak,whichresultedinsignificantrestrictionofelectricvehicleproduction,isgoingtoaffecttheglobalelectricvehiclesales inmajormarkets.Theroleofgovernmentstimuluspackages(i.e.,via infrastructurerehabilitation)inthefutureisexpectedtosupportandto boosttheEVmarket.
Inregardtothefutureofmobility,thedecisiveinfluenceofcitiesis highlightedintheenergytransitiontozero-carbonmobility,giventhat theyconstitutethemostimportantstakeholders,astheirgovernmentscan reconstructandremodeltheirmobilitysystems.Thisisespeciallytruefor citiesundertheframeworkofsmartcities,whichentailandintegrateinter aliatheconceptsofsustainableurbanmobility,sustainablebuiltenvironment,infrastructuresandprocessesinenergy,informationandcommunicationtechnologiesandtransportation,policyandregulation,integrated planningandmanagement,standards,aswellasbusinessmodelsand funding.
Inviewoftheabove,manyqueriesareraisedregardingthefutureof mobility.Areconventionalgasoline-poweredcarsgoingtobereplacedby EVs?Willgasolinestationsbesupersededbyfastchargingstations?Will thetransportationsectorofthefuturebeelectrified?AreOEMsandtheir suppliersabletomaketheirEVsupplychainsasefficient,robust,andsustainableasthoseoftheirconventionalvehicles?Andwillthecharging infrastructurekeeppacewiththegrowingEVdemand?Asthesequestions areatthecoreoftheenergyandtransportdebatesthefollowingsections willtrytoshowcasehowthisbookcancontributetothisdebate.
1.3Motivationforthebook
Thisbookisaresponsetothehighdemandofpeople,scholars,academics, industries,policymakers,aswellasallinvolvedstakeholdersthatnowadays wanttohaveknowledgeabout:
• Currenttrendsinelectricvehicletechnology.
• Charginginfrastructurewithintheconceptofsmartcities(smartgrid andsmartenergycharging).
• Electricvehiclemarketpenetrationandrelativebusinessdevelopment opportunities.
• Theclimatechangerisksassociatedwiththepollutantsemittedfrom theuseofconventionalandEVs.IstheusageofEVsbeneficialtothe reductionofgreenhouseemissions,aswellastothereductionof harmfulpollutantsemittedfromtailpipes?
• Thefactorsthathavecontributedtosupportingestablishmentand growthinPEVmarketsindifferentregionsandcitiesaroundthe world.Howthesecitiesandregionshavesuccessfullydevelopedand deployedelectricvehiclemobilitystrategyplansandroadmaps.
Startingfromadeepanalysisoftheabovemainissues,basedonthestatus oftheliteratureandongoingresearchprojects,thisbookpresentsanintegrated pathofnewtechnologiesthatallowthedesignofinnovativesolutionsforEVs. Thisbookaddressestheabovementionedquerieswithinanintegrated approach,takingintoconsiderationnotonlytheelectricvehicletechnologybutalsothetransportsystem’srequirementsinconjunctionwiththe potentialofsmartenergysystemswithintheframeworkofsmartcities (Fig.1.1).ThedeploymentofEVsincitiesisbeinginvestigatedandinformationonbasicresearchandapplicationapproachesisgiven.Thebenefits oftheuseofEVsintermsofreductionofgreenhousegasesarealso assessed.Thisbookalsodiscussesthebusinessmodelsthatwillinitiate changesinthevehiclemarketandinpeople’spersonalchoicesontransportationmeans.CasestudiesareemployedinordertoillustratehowEVs canbeusedtosubstantiallyreducecarbonemissionsandcutdownrelianceonfossilfuels.Thebookalsotracestrends,innovations,challenges, andrelativeopportunitiesforfurtherdevelopment.
Businessmodelsenablingandfacilitatingtheimplementationofelectromobilityinthetransportationfleetfromdifferentviewpoints,including environmental,economic,political,andotheraspects,arepresented.The incentivesforthepurchaseofEVsindifferentdevelopedcountriesincludingEurope,theUnitedStates,China,andJapanhavebeenconsidered andthemostimportantconcernsaboutEVsfromthecustomers’ pointof viewhavebeenhighlighted.Furthermore,thechallengesimposedonthe powersystem,whichareaggravatedbyincreasingthepenetrationofthe EVsintransportationfleet,arealsoexplained.
Keyissues,suchastheassessmentofalternativemarketdeployment approaches,theinteractionbetweengridinfrastructureandvehiclesand theoperationalreliability,theassessmentofelectromobilitydeploymentin urbanareasintermsofGHGemissions,aswellascurrenttrendsof
developmentschemes,areaddressed withinanintegratedframework.In thiscontext,thisbookinvestigatestheroleofEVswithintheurbanarea andespeciallywithintheconceptofthe “smartcity.” Asthereisalackof asystematicandintegrativeapproachtothedeploymentofEVs,this bookcoverstheneedforanintegratedsystemtakingintoaccountthe energysystem,thevehicletechnology,andthetransportsystem(Fig.1.1).
Basedontheabovementioned,themotivationforthisbookliesin:
• Thesignificanceofamultidisciplinaryapproachstartingfromconceptualdesigns(modeling)totheimplementationoflow/zero-carbon strategyplansfortheestablishmentofcarbon-freecities.
• Thepresentationofanintegrated/holisticpointofviewwithregardto thedeploymentofEVsincities,whichdoesnotfocusonlyonthe technicaldetails,butalsoonthesocial,political,andeconomicaspects.
Figure1.1 Integratedapproachforelectricvehiclesforsmartcities.
• Thedeterminationofwhathasbeendoneuntilnowinthemarketof EVsaroundtheworld.
• Thepresentationofanoverviewofkeyconcepts,theories,anddiscoursesinregardstotheimpactoftheautoindustryandvehiclesto climatechange.Thisassessmentandsynthesisoftheexistinginformationisinlinewiththeconceptoflifecycleanalysis(LCA).
• Theinvestigationofthepotentialityofanewenergyeconomybased onrenewablesources,wheretheroleofEVsisofgreatsignificance.
• Theidentificationofthegapsintheexistingresearchthatthisbookis endeavoringtoaddress,positioningthisbookinthecontextofpreviousresearchandcreatingaresearchspaceforit.
• Theproductionofarationaleandtoestablishtheneedforthisstudy andthusjustifyitsoriginality.
• BridgingthegapbetweentheacademicunderstandingofEVsand theirrelativedeploymentwithregardtoacity’sfunctionswiththe municipalplanningoforganizationalstructures.
1.4Aimandobjectivesofthebook
EVswithinthescopeofsmartcitiesaregainingrecognitionasalternative waysthroughwhichalow-zerocarbonsocietycanbepursued. Discussionoftheconceptofelectromobilityanditsinteractionwiththe cityandgridismadeinordertopointouttheneedforanintegrated approach.Inthiscontext,thebooktriestoplottheplethoraofpossible pathwaysbetweenwhathasalreadybeenachievedandwhatisstill needed.Thisisachievedbyexploringandassessingthewaysthrough whichEVscanbeintegratedintoacity’stransportationsystemandhow thismaycreateacompletesetofnewtechnologiesandserviceofferings, offeringatthesametimeabetterqualityoflife.
Thegoalofthisbookistoconstituteavaluabletoolthatcanbehelpfultostakeholdersanddecision-makersintheprocessofregionalandstrategicplanning,withreferencetosustainabletransportdesign.Itaimstobe helpfulalongthewayinpolicy,practical,conceptual,andvisionaryways. Thusitaimstohelpindecision-making,withregardtothenationaland sustainableenergydesigns,andtodemonstratehowEVscanbestbeutilizedwithincities.Thebook’sobjectiveistoprovideusefulinsightto policymakers,urbanplanners,engineeringconsultancies,scientists, researchers,students,aswellascitizensinterestedinsupportingasmooth transitiontothefutureenergylandscape.Furthermore,thebookaimsto
pointoutthatthecombinationofexternalfactors,suchasstringentemissionsregulations,risingfuelprices,financialincentives,intelligentload management,andexploitationoflocalrenewables,cancontributetoa decarbonizedurbanenergyfuture.
1.5Structureofthebook
Thebookdiscussesthechallengesandfuturetrendsofelectromobility withintheconceptofsmartcities encompassingaspectssuchassmart charging,marketdevelopmentandmarketintroduction,climatechange mitigation,aswellassuccessfulcasestudiesofelectricalvehiclecapitals aroundtheworld.Thebookisstructuredintosixsectionsthatarebriefly describedherebelow; Fig.1.2 showsthebook’sflowchart.Itisnotedthat thebookisdesignedinsuchawaythatitallowseachchaptertoberead alone,whileatthesametimeallchapterscanbegroupedtogether,in ordertoaidthereader(Fig.1.2).
Followingthisintroductorychapter, Chapter2,ElectricVehiclespresents thebackgroundofthebasic principlesofelectricvehicletechnologies,the currentstatusofkeyautomotivetechnologies,andabriefpresentationofdifferenttypesofEVs(includingbatteryelectricvehicles BEVs;hybridelectric vehicles HEVs;pluginhybridelectricvehicles PHEVs;andfuelcellelectricvehicles FCEVs);thechargingpowerlevelsandinfrastructurearealso introduced.Thechapterprovidesthenecessarybackgroundforunderstanding theseconcepts,aswellasbasicprinciples,generaldefinitions,andpractical applications.Thescopeofthischapteristoprovidebasicinformationabout currenttechnologies,soastobeabletooutlinethedriversthatwillshape futuredemandandtrends.
Figure1.2 Flowchartofthebook’sstructure.
Chapter3,ElectricVehicleChargingWithinSmartCitieselaborates onthetransitiontoanewageofmobilityandthechallengesofelectromobilitywithintheconceptofthesmartcity.Smartcitiesplayanimportantroletowardthetransitiontoalower-carbonurbanenvironmentby providingallthenecessarytechnologicaladvancementsforadequate recharginginfrastructure.Thischapterreviewstheconcept,framework, advantages,challenges,andoptimizationstrategiesofvehicletogrid (V2G).Thebenefits,services,andpotentialbarriersoftheV2Gtechnologyimplementationarediscussed.Inaddition,variousV2Goptimization techniquesareanalyzed.Inaddition,differentstandardsandvariousapplicationsofthemainresultsofsmartgridprojectsarepresented.
Chapter4,MarketIntroductionofElectricVehiclestoUrbanAreas thendetailsseveralofthemoreinnovativeapproachestomobility,which havethepotentialofdisruptingtraditionalvaluechainsandcouldenable furtheruptakeofEVs.Inaddition,thischapterreviewsthelatestdevelopmentsinnewregistrationsandthestockofEVs,lookingprimarilyatelectriccarsandfocusingonthedevelopmentsthattookplacein2019aswell astrendssince2010.StockandsalesfiguresareassessedagainstpolicysupportschemesandcountrycommitmentsonEVdeployment.Thischapter aimstoprovidereaderswithausefulinsightintothemarketandofthe businessmodelstheyrequiretoexcelintoday’srapidlyshiftingautomotiveindustry anindustryfitforthe21stcentury,whichembracesand embodiestheconceptsofelectrificationandsustainability.Furthertothis, thetermof integratedinnovativebusinessmodelsforEVs (e-IIBMs)isbeing introduced.Finally,manycasestudiesofbusinessmodelsemployed worldwideaswellastheirrelativeimpactsarepresented(carleasing,car sharing,V2G,batterysecondusage,etc.).
Chapter5,ClimateChangeMitigationandElectricVehiclespoints outthesignificantrolethatelectromobilityplaysinmitigatingclimate change basedontheParisDeclarationonElectro-MobilityandClimate ChangeandCalltoAction,whichbringstogetherindividualandcollectivecommitmentstoincreaseelectromobilitytolevelscompatiblewitha less-than2-degreepathway.EmissionsofEVsareassessedbytheemploymentofLCA.Thischapterallowsaresearcher/practitionertoconduct siteanduser-specificLCAswhichreflecttheprevailingconditionsand individualusepatterns.Forthisreason,thebasicsonLCAinregardsto EVsarealsopresented.Thegoalofthechapteristoanalyzeexistingvehicletechnologies(conventionalversusalternative)andhighlighttheirenvironmentalburdens.Relevantguidelinesandstudiesonlifecycle
assessmentofEVsarepresented.Inthisdirection,acase-drivenLCAfor EVsispresentedindetail.Thecorrespondingsolutionsarediscussed;the potentialbenefitsintermsofclimatechangemitigationaswellastherelativeimpactsofeachLCAstageareanalyzed.
Chapter6,ElectricVehicleCapitals CaseStudiesreportssomesuccessfulcasestudiesfromelectricvehicledeploymentincitiesalloverthe world.Thischapterfocusesonandreferstostatisticaldataevidencingthe highpercentagesofalternativevehiclepenetrationaswellascharging infrastructureincitiessuchasLosAngeles,Amsterdam,Oslo,Shanghai, andTokyo.ThechapterdemonstratestheutilizationpatternsofEVsin manycitiesandexploresfleetintegrationaspectsallovertheworld.In additiontoanalyzingtheelectricvehiclesalesandcharginginfrastructure inthesemarkets,thischapteridentifiesanddiscussestheuniquepolicies, actions,andprogramsinplacethathaveenabledthissuccess.
Insummary,thisbookaddresseskeyissuessuchastheassessmentof alternativemarketdeploymentapproaches,theinteractionbetweengrid infrastructureandvehiclesandtheoperationalreliability,theassessmentof electromobilitydeploymentinurbanareas,aswellasthecostsandbenefitsofdevelopmentschemeswithinanintegratedframework.Inthiscontext,thisbookinvestigatestheroleofEVswithintheurbanareaand especiallywithintheconceptofthe “smartcity.” Asthereisalackofa systematicandintegrativeapproachtothedeploymentofEVs,thisbook coverstheneedforanintegratedsystemtakingintoaccounttheenergy system,thevehicletechnology,andthetransportsystem(Fig.1.1).
1.6Concludingremarks
Everythingisconnectedtoeverythingelse;thereforeinordertobringa zero-carbonemissionshiftintransportation,itisimperativetothinkholistically.Citiesarephysicallyformedofandaroundenergyinfrastructure: theyareincreasinglyconnectedandsophisticatedbundlesofgeneration, distribution,networking,andstoragesystemsbridgingpower,thermal energyandmobility,storage,andnetworks.Urbancentersandtheir neighborhoodsanddistricts,butalsotheirwiderregionsareofcrucial importanceintheenergytransition,whichisgoingtodefinethe21st century.Inthismanner,EVsareonlypartofthisequation,assmartcities viaaholisticsystemoperation shouldshapethefuturemobility pathways.
Citiesshouldscaleupgreenpublictransportationandpublictransport ondemand,andincreasethefocusonpedestriansandcyclists,aswellas autonomousvehiclesand “mobilityasaservice”.Increasingfreightby railwayandintroducinggreenfreightdistributioninthecity,zeroemissionheavy-dutyvehiclesandzero-emissiontaxisshouldbepartofa city’sholisticapproachtobecomingfossilfuel-free.Greenpublicprocurement,goodsandservicesdeliveredbyzero-emissionvehicles,andgood parkandridesolutions,incombinationwithEVs,andanincreaseduseof intelligenttrafficsystems(ITS)andartificialintelligence(AI)tomakethe EVuseswift,efficient,anduser-friendly,areequallynecessary. Furthermore,thisenergytransitiontoazero-carbonfuture,shouldbe accompaniedwiththeuseofrenewableelectricity,aswellaswiththe necessaryrightregulatoryframeworkandfinancialincentives,aswellas withthepublic privatecooperationandtheresiliencetosucceed.
Insummary,theglobalenergyfuturedependsonalotofvariables, includingthepoliticalwillingnesstousegreentaxes,regulations,and otherincentivestomaketheshifttozero-carbonenergyalternatives; technologicaldevelopmentsforvehicles,batteries,chargers,autonomous vehicles,AI,andITS;globalpricedevelopmentsforalternativefuelssuch asgasolineanddiesel;nationalandtransnationalcooperation,involving localgovernment,nationalgovernment,andprivatebusinesses;global cooperationandfreeexchangeofexamplesandideas;andsoundbusiness modelsthatcanhelpfinancethegreenshiftintransport.
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