Eco-CitiesandGreen Transport
HuapuLu
TsinghuaUniversity,Beijing,P.R.China
Elsevier
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Notices
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1.6.1Constructionofgreencorridorsforbicycles8 1.6.2“Lifted”bicyclelanes9
1.6.3Dedicatedsignallightsandspecialwaitingareasfor bicycles9
1.6.4Constructionofbicycleparkingspaces10
1.6.5Integrationofbicyclesandbuses11
1.6.6Publicbicyclerentalsystem11
1.7Pedestriantrafficsystemintheoldtown
1.8Explorationandinnovationofthemodernarchitecturaldesign
1.8.18-TALLET13
1.8.2Pursuingtheindividualizeddesignofarchitecture15
1.8.3Emphasisonlandscapeconstructionafter deindustrialization19
1.8.4Protectionofthetraditionalarchitectureandhumanistic landscapeintheoldtown20
1.9Summaryofthegreentransportandeco-cityconstruction
2.1Overviewofthecity
2.3Urbantrafficsystemandtrafficdemandcharacteristics
2.4Publictransportation
2.5Walkingandcyclingtraffic
2.6Casestudyofanewtownconstruction
2.6.1Stockholm’sfirstgenerationofnewtowns—Vallingby communityasarepresentativeexample34
2.6.2Modelofasustainablecommunity—Hammarby community38
2.7Summaryofthecharacteristicsandtransportation experienceinStockholm 43 References 50
3.Singapore,Singapore
3.1Overviewofthecity 53
3.2Urbanstructureandlanduse 53
3.3Urbantrafficsystemandtrafficdemandcharacteristics 56
3.3.1Railtransitsystem56
3.3.2Bussystem58
3.3.3Vehicleownershipandroadnetwork58
3.3.4Travelcharacteristicsofresidents59
3.4Theconceptandmeasuresofthegreensustainable transportationplan 60
3.4.1CompulsoryBusPriorityPlan61
3.4.2Electronicroadpricingsystem(electronicroadpricing)62 3.4.3NationalCyclingPlan63
3.5Gardencityconstruction 63
3.5.1Nationalparkconstruction64
3.5.2Promotingvegetationinhigh-risebuildingsandwallsto createathree-dimensionalgreenspace66
3.5.3Buildingacozywalkingsystem68
3.5.4Creatinganapproached-waterspacetoprovidecitizens withacomfortableleisureenvironment70
3.6Summaryoftheeco-cityandgreentransportdevelopment experienceinSingapore 72 References 76
4.Curitiba,Brazil 77
4.1Overviewofthecity 77
4.2Characteristicsofthecity 77
4.2.1Greencity77 4.2.2Buscity78
4.3SummaryofsuccessfulexperiencesinCuritiba 82
4.3.1Governmentguidesscientificallyandsolvesproblems systematically82
4.3.2Policiesforclassifiedgarbagerecycling82
4.3.3Successfulpracticeofthebusrapidtransitsystem84 Furtherreading 91
5.Tokyo,Japan 93
5.1AnoverviewofTokyo 93
5.2Urbanstructureandlanduse 95
5.3Motorizationandtrafficdemandcharacteristics 97
5.4Railtransitdevelopment 99
5.5Shinjukutransportationhubandsurroundinglandintegration developmentcasestudy 99
5.5.1DevelopmenthistoryofShinjukutransportationhub99
5.5.2OverviewofShinjukutransportationhub103
5.5.3Setupofthree-dimensionalchannelsandclearsigns inthetransportationhub104
5.5.4Integrateddevelopmentofrailtransitstationsand commercialfacilities107
5.5.5High-intensitydevelopmentofShinjukuasthedeputy centerofTokyo—coexistenceofadvantagesand disadvantages109
5.6Publictransportationguidesurbandevelopment:acasestudy ofanewcityconstructionaroundTokyo 111
5.6.1Thetransit-orienteddevelopmentmodeandnewcity constructionintheTokyoMetropolitanArea111
5.6.2TamaNewTown112
5.6.3TachikawacityandHachiojicity115
5.6.4Shinsantownship119
5.7SummaryofthemainTokyocitycharacteristicsandurban transportationdevelopmentexperience 121
5.7.1Fullpracticeoftraffic-guidedurbandevelopment121
5.7.2Integrateddevelopmentofrailtransitstationsandtheir surroundingareas122
5.7.3Vigorouslypromotethebusservicewithrailtransitasthe maintravelmode122
5.7.4Systemdevelopmentofundergroundspaceresources, undergroundcommercial,parking,andsidewalksystems areextremelyimportantglobally124 References 124
6.Paris,France 125
6.1IntroductiontoParis 125
6.2Urbanstructureandlanduse 127
6.3Motorizationandtraveldemands 128
6.4Publictransport 130
6.5Walkingandbicycles 132
6.5.1Bicyclerentalsystem133
6.5.2Builtbicyclelane134
6.6Casestudy 135
6.6.1LaDefensetransferhub135
6.6.2Ecologicalcommunity137
6.6.3TheleftbankofParis142
6.7Successfulexperiences
7.Seoul,Korea
7.1Overviewofthecity
7.2Urbanstructureandlanduse
7.3Motorizationandtrafficdemandcharacteristics 150
7.4Publictransportation 151
7.5Constructionofbicycleandpedestriantransportation systems 151
7.5.1Changeofmotorvehicleroadsbacktowalkingand bicyclespaces151
7.5.2Bicyclerentalsystemtoservethe“lastkilometer”153
7.5.3Buildingasafe,comfortable,andwarmpedestrian transportationsystem154
7.6Buildingagreentransportationsystem:reformofthe Seoulbussystem 158
7.6.1Reformingofthebusnetworklayout161
7.6.2Infrastructureconstruction162
7.6.3Smartcardchargingsystem163
7.6.4Publictransportationmanagementandinformation systemconstruction164
7.7Caseofanecologicalcityconstruction:Cheonggyecheon restorationproject 164
7.8ExperiencefromSeoul’sgreentransportationandeco-city development 171
7.8.1Respectingnature,payingattentiontothecity’staste, andthereturntobeautifulCheonggyecheon171
7.8.2Facingtherapidmotorizationtrend,changingtheconcept, anddecisivelyimplementingpublictransportpriorities171
7.8.3Creatingasafeandcomfortablebicycleandpedestrian transportationsystem172
References 172
8.NewYork,UnitedStates
8.1Introduction
8.2Urbanstructureandlanduse
8.3Motorizationandtraveldemands
8.4Publictransportation
8.5Walkingandbicycleuse
8.6Trafficmanagement
8.7Experiences
9.London,UnitedKingdom 181
9.1Cityprofile 181
9.1.1Geographicalconditions181
9.1.2Administrativedivisions183
9.1.3Populationcharacteristics183
9.2Urbantrafficdevelopmentpolicy 184
9.2.1Londontrafficmanagementsystem184
9.2.2London’spublictransportpolicy185
9.2.3London’strafficmanagementpolicy186
9.3Urbanstructureandlanduse 186
9.4Characteristicsofurbantrafficdemands 188
9.4.1Sharecharacteristicsoftransportationmodes188
9.4.2Motorizedcharacteristics189
9.5London’spublictransportsystem 191
9.5.1Underground191
9.5.2Thegroundrailtransitsystem193 9.5.3Buses198
9.5.4Waterwaysystem198
9.6Walkingandcyclingtraffic 201
9.6.1Bicycletransportationsystem201
9.7DigitalUK
9.7.1Urbanintelligenttransportationsystem207
9.7.2Thecloudcity207
9.7.3PilotapplicationsofintelligentbuildingsinGloucester207 9.8SummaryoftheLondonandurbantransportexperience
12.Madrid,Spain
13.SanFrancisco,UnitedStates
14.St.Petersburg,Russia
17.1.2Conceptanddesignkeypointsofgardencitytheory336 17.2OverviewofthegardencityofLetchworth
17.2.2Presentsituationofthecity339
17.2.3Architecturalandlandscapedesigncharacteristics340
18.3.1Goodurbanplanning360
18.3.2Mixedlanduseandgreentransport361
18.3.3Mixedlivingofdifferenttypesofpeople361
18.3.4Designofbuildingsandstreets362
Preface
Withtherapiddevelopmentofurbanizationandmotorization,Chinahas enteredaneweraofforgingaheadwitheco-cities,newurbanization,and greentransportationsystemconstruction,duringwhichopportunitiesandchallengescoexist.Foramodernsocietywithhighlydevelopedscienceandtechnologyandmaterialprogress,thequestionsaboutwhatkindsofcitiesto build,whatkindsoftransportationsystemstobuild,andwhatkindsofliving environmentstocreatearedirectlyrelatedtouseoftheearth’senergyand resources,maintainingagoodecologicalenvironment,andachievingsustainabledevelopment.Thisisagoldenagewhencitiesandtransportationinfrastructuresareconstructedonalargescale,withtheopportunitytobuild efficientandconvenient,livable,safe,andhealthycities,thatalsohaveexcellentecologicalqualitiesandprovidewelcomingpeople-friendlyenvironments. Howcanthisgoalofgreentransportationandeco-citydevelopmentbe achieved?Thesequestionsabovehavebeenresearchedforalongtime,but theyurgentlyneedtobeansweredandsolvedinthefieldofurbantransportationplanningandconstructioninChina.
Advicefromothersmayhelpinansweringthesequestions.Theauthor andhisteamhavestudiedcasesofforeigncitiesindepthandsystematically foroveradecadewithacademicexchangesandspecialresearch.Bylearning fromanalyticalsummariesandcomparativestudiesofothercountries,they hopetoprovideexperienceandreferencesforeco-citiesandgreentransportationsystemsconstructedinChina.
Sincethefirstcitywascreated,peoplehavebeeninconstantpursuitofa moreconvenient,morecomfortable,safer,morelivable,andbetterurban environment.EbenezerHoward,aBritishsocialactivist,publishedanexcellentbookwithfar-reachinginfluence, To-morrow:APeacefulPathtoReal Reform,in1898,thetitleofwhichwaschangedto GrandeCityof Tomorrow inthesecondeditionpublishedin1902.Howardhadexperienced significantchangestotheurbanlandscapeandurbanlifeduringthecourse ofcapitalistindustrializationintheIndustrialRevolution.What’smore,he sawthemanyproblemsofurbanexpansion,suchasexcessivepopulation concentration,environmentalpollution,awidepovertygap,andurbanslums, hisanswertowhichwasthegardencity.Heenvisagedfuturecitiesthatnot onlyexperiencedprosperityandconvenience,butalsoblueskieswithwhite clouds,freshair,quietwoods,andgreenglass,asfoundinruralareas.The
cityisaplacewherepeoplecanworkefficiently,butwhatismoreimportant isthatitshouldbealivableenvironmentwithanelegantlandscapeandecologicalharmonythatoffersitsinhabitantsahealthyandrelaxinglife.
In1933theAthensCharterproposedthatcitiesshouldbestudiedasa whole,includingtheirsurroundingareas.Itwaspointedoutthatthekeyfor urbanplanningwastobalancethefourfunctionsofthecity:housing,work, recreation,andtransportation.Inaddition,theimportanceofabetterurban livingenvironmentwasemphasizedandtheconceptofurbanplanningconsideringfunctionalzoningwasproposed.
In1978theCharterofMachuPicchucomprehensivelysummarizedthelessonslearnedfromurbandevelopmentsincethepublicationoftheAthens Charter.OnthebasisofconfirmingmostoftheprinciplesoftheAthens Charter,ithighlightedthatitshouldbeendeavoredtocreateacomprehensive multifunctionallivingenvironmentratherthantheexcessivepursuitoffunctionalzoningthatresultedinthesacrificeoftheorganicorganizationofacity. Theideaoftransit-orientedtransportationandpayingattentiontothedevelopmentoftransportationwhileconsideringenvironmentalandenergyissueswas thenproposed.
In1999the20thWorldCongressofArchitectsadoptedtheBeijing Charter,draftedbyProfessorLiangyongWu,amemberoftheChina AcademyofSciencesandChinaAcademyofEngineering,andalsoawinner oftheHighestScienceandTechnologyAward.Basedonthegeneralized architectureandsciencesofhumansettlementstheory,theBeijingCharter advocatedall-rounddevelopmentintegratingarchitecture,landscape,and urbanplanning.TheBeijingCharterisaprogramofactionguidingurban andruralconstructioninthe21stcentury,thusestablishingourarchitects andplanners’leadingpositionsinthefieldofarchitectureandurbanplanningintheworldtoday.
Duetothelargescaleoftheurbansystemandthecomplexinfluencingfactors,itisdifficulttocarryoutlarge-scaleexperimentalresearchinacity. However,thecontinuousexplorationandpracticeofoutstandingcitiesaround theworldhasprovideduswithpracticalexperienceinurbantransportation planningandconstruction.Tosummarize,byreferringtothesecases,clarifying theirdevelopmentbackgroundandexperiencecharacteristics,utilizingtheirfull ideologicalessence,developmentgoals,waysofimplementation,andpolicy orientation,wearebetterabletorealizeourambitionofplanninganewtypeof urbanizationwitheco-citiesandgreentransportationsystems.Thereforethis bookhighlightstheanalysisofforeigncitiesinadevelopmentcontext,includingtheirnaturalenvironments,trafficdemandcharacteristics,planningandconstructionprocesses,andpolicybackgrounds.Thesecanenlightenus,enabling ustothinkdeeplyandthoroughlyunderstandtheimportanceofthedisciplines andgoalsofplanning,theimpactoftrafficplanningtocitydevelopment,and thecorrelationamongcity,transportation,energyandenvironment,ecology, andlivingquality.Ontheonehand,thiscanhelpustodrawfullyon
internationalexperienceandontheother,ithelpsusavoidblindlycopyingor incompleteimitation.Whatshouldbeclarifiedisthatnotallofthesecase studiesareperfectandnotallareeco-citiesfollowingtheconceptofgreen transportation.Thereareadvantagesaswellasdisadvantagesinthese,andthe experiencetobegainedincludeslessonsofwhattoavoidinsomecases. However,asthesecitieshaveaccumulatedexperiencesanddevelopedwith specialfeatures,theycaninspireustobuildupontheirgoodwork.
Inshort,thecasestudiesprovidedinthisbookarenotmerelysourcesfor imitation,theirrelevancemoresignificantlyliesinstimulatingourinnovative thinking,broadeningourhorizons,andhelpingustobuildmoreefficient,convenient,ecological,healthy,livable,andbeautifulcitiesinChina.Itishoped thatthisbookcanbeareferenceformyfriendsandcolleaguesinthefieldof cityplanning,andIinvitereaderstosubmittheircommentsandcriticisms.
Asthisbookisabouttogotopress,Iwouldliketoexpressmysincere gratitudetoMs.WenjieZhaoofBartonWilmore,theUnitedKingdom,who arrangedintensivevisitstosixEuropeancountriestofacilitateourinvestigations,andRambollCompany,theUnitedKingdom,andLetchworthHeritage Foundation,whichprovidedsomeofthecasestudiespresentedherein.
ThanksarealsoexpressedtoProfessorYoshitsuguHayashiofNagoya University,ProfessorBushofMunichTechnicalUniversity,ProfessorRobot CeveroofUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,ProfessorBenAkivaof MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,andLohChowKway,Deanof SingaporeUrbanTransportationInternationalDepartment,andmanycolleagues,whoaretoomanytomention,foryourhelpintheinvestigationand researchintothesecasestudiesovertheyears.
Inaddition,someofthecitydensitydataandtransportationmoderates wereprovidedbyProfessorYoshitsuguHayashiofNagoyaUniversity, ProfessorHaniwaKimofSouthKorea,Dr.IlinaIrinaoftheUniversityof Amsterdam,Dr.RauoftheTechnicalUniversityofMunich,Dr.Douletin France,Dr.NelsonoftheUniversityofPauloSao,Brazil,andDr.Jiangping ZhouoftheStateUniversityofIowa,theUnitedStates,andIexpressmy deepappreciationtoallofyou.ThanksalsotoProfessorLirenDuanforthe invaluablephotosofthechangestoSeoulCityHallSquareandthetraffic spaceconfigurationoftheHanRiverDivingBridge.
FinallyIwouldalsoliketothankDr.JingYang(casesaboutRiodeJaneiro, Carmel,SanCarlos),Dr.YuDing(Paris,Malmo ¨ ,NewYork,LosAngeles),Dr. ZhiyuanSun(London,Letchworth),Dr.HeMa(Copenhagen,Madrid),Mr. WenboKuang(Stockholm,Amsterdam,Seoul,Tokyo),Dr.JinWang(San Francisco),Dr.YangLu(Singapore),Dr.JingWang(Curitiba),andPeiSu(St. Petersburg,Munich),foryourhelpwiththefirstdraftofthisbook.
HuapuLu TsinghuaUniversity,Beijing,P.R.China August1,2019
Copenhagen,Denmark
ChapterOutline
1.1Overviewofthecity1
1.2Urbanmobilitydevelopmentand motorizationpolicy2
1.3Urbanstructureandlanduse4
1.4Characteristicsofthemodesplit4
1.5Urbanroadsandpublictransit5
1.6Bicycletrafficsystemconstruction7
1.6.1Constructionofgreencorridors forbicycles8
1.6.2“Lifted”bicyclelanes9
1.6.3Dedicatedsignallightsand specialwaitingareasfor bicycles9
1.6.4Constructionofbicycle parkingspaces10
1.6.5Integrationofbicyclesand buses11
1.6.6Publicbicyclerentalsystem11
1.1Overviewofthecity
1.7Pedestriantrafficsysteminthe oldtown11
1.8Explorationandinnovationof themodernarchitecturaldesign13
1.8.18-TALLET13
1.8.2Pursuingtheindividualized designofarchitecture15
1.8.3Emphasisonlandscape constructionafter deindustrialization19
1.8.4Protectionofthetraditional architectureandhumanistic landscapeintheoldtown20
1.9Summaryofthegreentransport andeco-cityconstruction experienceinCopenhagen22 References23 Furtherreading23
Copenhagenisthecapital,largestcity,andlargestseaportoftheKingdom ofDenmark,andisalsothelargestcityinNordiccountries.Itisthehomeof thefamousfairy-talewriterAndersen,ahistoricalandculturalcity,andthe political,economic,andculturalcenterofDenmark.Hovedstadenislocated ineasternDenmark,includingCopenhagencity,Copenhagencounty, Frederiksbergcity,Frederiksbergcounty,Roskildecounty,andBarnhdm region,etc.“Copenhagencitycenter”referstothecentralcityof Copenhagen(i.e.,theoldtown),thatis,the“IndreBy”partof Fig.1.1. “Copenhagencity”referstotheareaofCopenhagencitycenteranditssurroundingsuburbs,allofwhichareshownin Fig.1.1.“Copenhagencounty” and“Copenhagencity”bothbelongtotheregionofCopenhagen,butdonot
From http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen
overlapinadministrativedivision.Copenhagencountyisanaggregationof othersmalltowns.Copenhagencityisthemostactiveandrepresentativecity intheregionofCopenhagen.Withoutspecialexplanation,“Copenhagen” refersto“Copenhagencity”inthecommonsenseinthisbook [1]
Theareas,populations,anddensitiesofCopenhagen’sregionsareshown in Table1.1.GDPstatisticsfordifferentyearsintheregionofCopenhagen areshownin Table1.2.
1.2Urbanmobilitydevelopmentandmotorizationpolicy
Statisticaldatain2010showthatthenumberofmotorvehiclesin Copenhagenwas2.1million,withaprivatecarownershiprateof22.3%. AccordingtothelatestdatafromtheCopenhagenPoliceBureauin2012, therewereabout312,600motorvehiclesenteringandleavingCopenhagen daily,accountingforonly14.9%ofthetotalvehicleownershipinthecity, whichshowsthattheusagefrequencyisverylow [2].
From2000to2010,thenumberofmotorvehiclesinCopenhagen increasedby17%andthetrafficvolumeintheregionofCopenhagen increasedby8%,whiletheroadtrafficvolumeinthefivebasinsareainthe
FIGURE1.1 MapofCopenhagencityarea.
Copenhagen,Denmark Chapter|1 3
TABLE1.1 Listofthepopulations,areas,anddensitiesofCopenhagen [2].
Regionof Copenhagen Copenhagen city Copenhagencity center Area(km2)2553.1455.6177.2
Population1,736,8891,230,728562,379
Density(people/ km2) 68027007280
Source:StatBank,Denmark.Datafrom http://www.statistikbanken.dk/BEF1A07.
citycenterdecreasedbynearly10%.ThisisinseparablefromCopenhagen’s
TABLE1.2 ChangestoGDPintheregionofCopenhagen [2].
Year2005200620072008200920102011
advocacyof“GreenTransportation—byBicycles”anditsrestrictivepolicy onmotorvehicles [3].
Intermsofmotorvehiclepolicy,Copenhagenmainlyadoptsarestrictive approach.Despitethesmallmotorvehicletrafficvolume,thegovernment continuestoimpelpeopletoabandonprivatecarsandswitchtogreenmodes oftransportationsuchaspublictransport,bicycles,andwalking.TherestrictionsonmotorvehiclesinCopenhagenaremainlyreflectedintwoaspects: carpurchaseandparking.
AsearlyasWorldWarII,theCopenhagengovernmentimposedabanon carimportsandmaintaineditforquitealongtimeafterthewar.Sincethe late1970s,theCopenhagengovernmenthasliftedthetaxonprivatecarpurchase,withcartaxesroughlythreetimesthecarprice [1]
Forparking,thecitygovernmenthasadoptedaratherinnovativeand politicallywiseparkingpolicy,whichfocusesonreducingparkingspacesin thecentralurbanareas.Inordertoavoidthestrongoppositionofcarowners byreducingtoomanyparkingspacesatonetime,thecitygovernmenthad beentakingagradualstrategyinthepastdecades,insistingonreducing parkingspacesby2% 3%everyyear.Thisapproachaccumulatedsignificantlyreducedparkingspacesandavoidedaggravatingsocialcontradictions. Inaddition,theparkingpriceisdefinedbyzones,sothatthepriceislinked tothesupplyanddemandrelationshipoftheparkingareaandthelevelof
publictransportservice.Furthermore,thecitygovernmenttakesintoaccount boththeincreaseofparkingpriceandthereductionofparkingspaces,soas tomaintaintheparkingvacancyrateinurbancentralareasataround10%, avoidingcomplaintsfromcarowners,andthusreducingtheresistanceto policyimplementation [4]
1.3Urbanstructureandlanduse
Copenhagen’surbanlanduseandtransportcorridorstructureisknownas “FingerPlanning.”The“FingerPlanning”principlewasfirstputforwardin 1947.Thehand-shapedurbanskeletonstructureisformedwithCopenhagen cityasthecenterofthepalm,andfivefinger-shapedaxesextendingtothe north,west,andsouth.Thewedge-shapedzonesbetweenthefingersserveas forest,farmland,andopenleisurespace.Formorethanhalfacentury, Copenhagenhassteadilyimprovedcityplanningandconstructionfollowing the“FingerPlanning”principle.Theformal“FivePlanning”wasformulated in2007,clearlypointingoutthatthedirectionofurbandevelopmentwasto buildrailtransitfromthecentertotheperipheryalongthefingerdirections, toimprovepublictransportfacilities,andtobuildresidentialareasalongthe transportcorridor.Thewedge-shapedzonesbetweenfingersdonotincur constructionanddevelopmentofurbanfacilities,butmaintaintheecological characteristicsofforestsandgreenspaces.Thesupplementaryspacesneeded forurbandevelopmentandconstructionofcitygroupsaretakenfromother areas [5].Theplanningandconstructionofthecitycenter(palmpart) focusesonimprovingurbanpublictransportandnonmotorizedtrafficservice systems,suchaswalkingandbicycles,inordertosatisfyshort-distance travelwithinthecitycenterandtheneedforgreenandenvironmentalprotection.Theurbanperipheryareas(fingerparts)providespaceforurban expansionandconstructionofthenewtown,whilerailtransitisthemain transportationmodetothecitycenter.Theplanningandconstructionof peripheryareasfocusonimprovinginfrastructureconstructionandimprovingthelevelofpublictransportationservices.
1.4Characteristicsofthemodesplit
Duetotheeffectiveimplementationof“FingerPlanning,”mosttravelin Copenhagenreliesongreentransportation:long-distancetravelmainly dependsonrailtransitandbus,whileshort-distancetravelwithinthecity mainlyreliesonwalkingandbicycles.Accordingtothelatestdatafrom StatisticsDenmark,thecitizentravelmodesplitinCopenhagenin2011isas shownin Table1.3.
Basedonthedataabove,itcanbeseenthatgreentransportationisthe mainmodeoftravelinCopenhagen,withprivatecartravelaccountingfor
TABLE1.3
30%.Ahighermodalrateofbicycleuseandwalkinghaspromotedthe healthylifestylesofCopenhagenresidents,andgreatlypromotedtheformationofagreen,ecological,andsustainableurbanenvironment.
1.5Urbanroadsandpublictransit
RailtransitisthedominantmodeoftransportationinCopenhagen.Dueto the“FingerPlanning”landuseprincipleadoptedbyCopenhagen,thetraffic corridorssupportedbytherailtransitradiatefromthecitycentertothe peripheralareasinfivedirections.Intheprocessofthecity’sextensionto theseperipheralareas,thedevelopmentandconstructionofmostinfrastructureisconcentratedneartherailwaystations,suchasresidentialbuildings andmainroadways.Thustheformationofthe“FingerPlanning”isformulated.Inlinewiththis,therailtransitnetworkalsoshowsahand(palmand fingers)shapethatmatchestheurbanlayout,asshownin Fig.1.2.Itshows thattheimplementationof“FingerPlanning”inurbanplanningandconstructionalsopromotedtheintegrateddevelopmentofthetransportationsystemandlanduse.Atpresent,Copenhagenhasnearly200kmofrailway, including85suburbanrailwaystationsand35urbanrailwaystations.Rail transitundertakesabout500,000commutertripsdaily,accountingforabout one-thirdofthetotaldailymotorizedtrips.Itundertakesthetrafficdemand ofthecorridorbetweenthecitycenterandthe“finger”areaswithinaradius of40km [6].
Effectivemixeddevelopmentoflandhasbeenimplementedalongthe railwayandaroundstationsduringtheconstructionoftherailtransitsystem, sothatpeoplecanquicklyenterthebusiness,shopping,andresidentialareas withouttransferringtoothermodesoftransportationafterexitingthestation. Somestationbuildingsthemselvesarecomprehensivehubs,providingpeople withconcentratedareasfortravel,work,shopping,andliving.Thisiswhy peopletendtochooserailtransitforpersonaltrips.CopenhagenCentral RailwayStation,locatedinthecitycenter,isaveryoldbuilding,asshown in Fig.1.3.Thetracklinespassunderthebuildingwithoutaffectingthe
FIGURE1.2 Copenhagensuburbantrainmap(2011). From http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Strain_diagram_%28dec2011%29.svg
landscape.Insidethestation,therearewaitinghallsleadingtotheplatforms aswellasanumberofshopssellingfoodandsmallcommodities,offering convenientsuppliesfortravelersincludingfoodandbasicshoppingneeds. Buses,animportantpartofthepublictransport,alsotakealargeshareof tripsinCopenhagen.Customersusea“swipecard”togetonandoffthebus. Busstationsproviderestbenches,busroutesigns,citybusnetworkmaps, andreal-timearrivaltimeofthenextbus.Mostbusesarelarge,enabling morepeopletoride,includingthosecarryingbicycleswiththem.Thisis convenientforpeoplechoosinggreentransportation.
Copenhagen,Denmark Chapter|1 7
Intermsofoperation,thethreemajornetworksofthesuburbanrailway system,urbanrailtransit,andurbanbusareeffectivelycombined.Unified ticketsareprovidedalthoughthethreenetworksdespitethembelongingto differentcompanies.Thesettingsofbusstationsandrailtransitstationsare alsodesignedasawholetofacilitatethetransferoftravelers.
1.6Bicycletrafficsystemconstruction
Copenhagenhasalwaysbeenknownasthe“cityofbicycles,”whichfirst benefitsfromtheDanishpeople’soveralladvocacyforgreen,environmental,andfitnessconcepts.Denmarkhasapopulationofmorethan 53million,andmorethan3millionbicycles.Copenhagen,asthecapital ofDenmark,isamodelareaforbicycleadvocacy.Aboutone-thirdof commutersinCopenhagentravelbybicycle,includinggovernmentofficials,businesstycoons,andcelebrities.Second,theCopenhagengovernmenthasvigorouslypromotedbicycletrafficforalongtime,increasing thebicyclelaneinfrastructure,andbuildingahugebicyclelanesystem withatotallengthof350km.Inlinewiththeurbanstructureof“Finger Planning,”theregionalbicyclelanesysteminCopenhagenhasbeen formedinthissimilarshape.TheCopenhagengovernmenthasconstantly setnewgoalsforpromotingbicycletransportation.Thegoalfor2015was thatthemodalshareofbicyclewouldachieve50%forworkingcommuters andstudents [7]
Toaggressivelypromotebicycletraffic,theCopenhagengovernmentand relevantagencieshavetakenthefollowingeffectivemeasures.
FIGURE1.3 CopenhagenCentralRailwayStation.
1.6.1Constructionofgreencorridorsforbicycles
Thereare40kmofbicyclegreencorridorsinCopenhagen [8],whichare completelyseparatedfrommotorlanes,asshownin Fig.1.4.Whenthereis abusstopinfrontoftheroad,thebicyclegreenpassageisdesignedtoturn naturallytotheright,thenaroundthebackofthebusstop,finallyarriving backtotheleftdirectionparalleltothemotorvehiclelaneafterthebusstop, asshownin Fig.1.5.Thisalignmentdesignenablesbicyclesonthegreen
Targetandright-turnsignsonthebicyclegreenpassage.
FIGURE1.4
FIGURE1.5 Alignmentdesignofthegreenpassagearoundbusstops.
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passagenotonlytoavoidaffectingbusesstoppingandpassengersgetting on/off,butalsotomaintainthecontinuity,rapidity,andsafetyofbicycle traffic.
1.6.2“Lifted”bicyclelanes
TheconstructionlevelofCopenhagen’sbicyclelanesishighandthemaintenancesystemhasbeenperfectedandiswelldeveloped.Asshownin Fig.1.6,thepavementofbicyclelanesisliftedto7 12cmhigherthanthat ofvehicletravellanes.Theseparationzonebetweenthebicyclelaneand vehiclelaneisbuiltwithacurbstone,andthereisanindependentdrainage system,whichhelpswiththemaintenanceofbicyclelanes.Thespeedof bicyclesonspecialroadscanbecomparabletothatofcars.Pedestriansor othervehiclesarenotallowedtopassorstoponbicyclelanes,whosetraffic priorityisthesameasthatofvehiclelanes.
1.6.3Dedicatedsignallightsandspecialwaitingareasforbicycles
InCopenhagen,bicycleshavethehighesttravelpriority.Specialwaiting areasaresetforbicyclesatintersections.Asshownin Fig.1.7,pedalsare alsosetupinsomeplacestofacilitatecyclistsresting.Intermsofsignal configuration,longergreentimeisdesignedforbicycles:notonlyspecial signallightsaresetforbicycles,butalsobicycle“greenwave”signallinkagecontrolisadoptedforroadswithhigherbicycletraffic.Theroadwaynetworkmakesbicycletrafficfasterandmoreconvenient.
FIGURE1.6 Cyclistsonbicyclelanes.
1.6.4Constructionofbicycleparkingspaces
Inresponsetothegrowingdemandforbicycleparking,theCopenhagengovernmenthasadoptedagradualincreasemethodintheconstructionofparkingfacilities.Forresidentialandofficeareaswherethecontradiction betweensupplyanddemandisprominent,ownersareallowedandencouragedtoreformtheirvehicleparkingspacesintobicycleparkingspaces,as shownin Fig.1.8.Forgeneralstreets,bicycleparkingfacilitiesaredesigned tobeaddedtothecornersofsidewalks.Forcommercialstreets,whereland isscarceandexpensive,street-facingshopkeepersareallowedtousethe remainingspaceofthesidewalktobuildbicycleracks.
FIGURE1.7 Cyclistswaitingforsignalsatintersections.
FIGURE1.8 Bicycleparkinglotneararesidentialarea.
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1.6.5Integrationofbicyclesandbuses
Inordertosupportthemassuseofbicycles,theconnectionbetweenpublic transportandbicyclesisalmostperfectinCopenhagen.Nearthebusstop, bicycleparkinglotsarewellequippedtofacilitatethetransferofcycliststakingbuses.Bicycleplacementdevicesareequippedonbuses,sothatbicycles canbetakenbybusandrailtransit,providingasmuchconvenienceaspossibleforcyclists.
1.6.6Publicbicyclerentalsystem
Bycyklen(TheCityBike),whichhasbeeninoperationsince1995,isthe mainpublicrentalbicycleprojectinCopenhagen.Theprojectisoperated jointlybythegovernmentandtheprivatesector.Itisopentothepublicand touristsfreeofcharge.Thereare110bicyclerentalstationsandmorethan 2000publicbicyclesinoperation,andtheyhaveachievedgoodresults [8].
Forquitealongtime,Copenhagenhasaggressivelypromotedthe advancedconceptofbicycletransport,investedheavilyintheconstruction ofbicycletransportationinfrastructure,andgivenpreferentialpoliciesand high-levelmanagementtobicycletransportation.Alltheseeffortshavemade bicycleridinginCopenhagenfashionable,creatingarich“bicycleculture.” Whetheritissunnyorrainy,cyclists’excellentskills,fastspeed,andsteadfastfigureformabeautifullandscape,whichinspiresotherpeopletoalso engageintheactivity.WalkinginthestreetsofCopenhagen,whenyouaccidentallystrayintoabicyclelane,thecyclistmayroarpastyoujustasyou heartheircrispbellsound,soondisappearingattheendofthestreet. Copenhagendeservesthetitleof“BicycleCity.”
1.7Pedestriantrafficsystemintheoldtown
TheoldtownofCopenhagenhasalonghistoryandrichculturalheritage. Manytraditionalresidentialandcommercialbuildings,andculturalfacilities arecentrallylocatedthere.Itspopulationdensityisabout2.7timestheaveragepopulationdensityofCopenhagen.Inordertosolvethetrafficproblems aswellasmaintainthetraditionalhumanlandscapeandecologicalenvironmentinolddistricts,greentransportationmodessuchaswalking,bicycles, andbusesareactivelypromotedbytheCopenhagengovernment.Pedestrian systemconstructioniscarriedoutintraditionalolddistrictsalso.
In1962,Copenhagenbegantorenovateitspedestrian-onlystreetsand pedestrian-prioritystreets.Vehicletrafficwasbannedinthebusyoldstreets, andtheworld’sfirstcommercialpedestrian-onlystreetwasbuilt,namely, StrøgetStreet,asshownin Figs.1.9and1.10,andGammeltorvSquare (Fig.1.11).Thecommercialpedestrian-onlystreet,whichrunsfromtheCity HalltothecanalconnectingtheBalticSea,islinedwithshopsonbothsides
