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SECOND EDITION

LESTER

CASSARINO • CHIRIEAC • CORNELL • COX • DILLON • FOLKERTH

FRISHBERG • HARRISON • JO • KO • KRANE • KRASNOZHEN-RATUSH • LINDBERG • MASON NOSÉ • QUICK • SNUDERL • SRIVASTAVA • THOMPSON

SECOND EDITION

Breast Pathology Services

Brigham and Women’s Hospital

Assistant Professor

Harvard Medical School

Boston, Massachusetts

1600 John F. Kennedy Blvd.

Ste 1800 Philadelphia, PA 19103-2899

DIAGNOSTIC PATHOLOGY: INTRAOPERATIVE CONSULTATION, SECOND EDITION

Copyright © 2018 by Elsevier. All rights reserved.

ISBN: 978-0-323-57019-0

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/ permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to check the most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of administration, and contraindications. It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying on their own experience and knowledge of their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the best treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Publisher Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Lester, Susan Carole.

Title: Diagnostic pathology. Intraoperative consultation / [edited by] Susan C. Lester.

Other titles: Intraoperative consultation.

Description: Second edition. | Salt Lake City, UT : Elsevier, Inc., [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: ISBN 978-0-323-57019-0

Subjects: LCSH: Pathology, Surgical--Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Medical consultation-Handbooks, manuals, etc. | MESH: Pathology, Surgial--Atlases. | Cytodiagnosis--methods-Atlases. | Frozen Sections--methods--Atlases. | Intraoperative Period--Atlases.

Classification: LCC RD57.D515 2018 | NLM WO 517 | DDC 617.075--dc23

International Standard Book Number: 978-0-323-57019-0

Cover Designer: Tom M. Olson, BA

Printed in Canada by Friesens, Altona, Manitoba, Canada

Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Dedication

This book is dedicated to all the pathologists whose hearts race when alerted by the frozen section pager, to the support staff in the intraoperative consultation room who are always there to assist them, to the surgeons who request essential information to help guide their operations, and most of all, to the patients who have entrusted their care into our hands.

Contributing Authors

David Cassarino, MD, PhD

Consultant Dermatopathologist and Staff Pathologist

Southern California Permanente Medical Group

Los Angeles, California

Clinical Professor

Department of Dermatology

University of California, Irvine Irvine, California

Lucian R. Chirieac, MD

Associate Pathologist

Brigham and Women’s Hospital

Associate Professor of Pathology

Harvard Medical School Boston, Massachusetts

Lynn D. Cornell, MD Consultant

Division of Anatomic Pathology

Associate Professor of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology

Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science Rochester, Minnesota

Roni Michelle Cox, MD

Cleveland Clinic Cleveland, Ohio

Deborah A. Dillon, MD

Director, Breast Tumor Bank and Clinical

Trials Laboratory

Dana Farber Cancer Institute

Associate Pathologist

Brigham and Women’s Hospital

Assistant Professor of Pathology

Harvard Medical School

Boston, Massachusetts

Rebecca D. Folkerth, MD

Department of Forensic Medicine

New York University School of Medicine

New York, New York

David P. Frishberg, MD

Professor of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine

Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

Los Angeles, California

Associate Clinical Professor of Pathology

George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences

Washington, D.C.

Beth T. Harrison, MD

Associate Pathologist

Brigham and Women’s Hospital

Instructor in Pathology

Harvard Medical School

Boston, Massachusetts

Vickie Y. Jo, MD Pathologist

Brigham and Women’s Hospital

Assistant Professor of Pathology

Harvard Medical School

Boston, Massachusetts

Christine J. Ko, MD

Professor of Dermatology and Pathology

Yale University School of Medicine

New Haven, Connecticut

Jeffrey F. Krane, MD, PhD

Associate Director, Cytology Division

Chief, Head and Neck Pathology Service

Brigham and Women’s Hospital

Associate Professor of Pathology

Harvard Medical School

Boston, Massachusetts

Olga Krasnozhen-Ratush, MD

Neuropathology Fellow

Department of Pathology

NYU Langone Medical Center

New York, New York

Matthew R. Lindberg, MD

Assistant Professor Department of Pathology

University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences

Little Rock, Arkansas

Emily F. Mason, MD, PhD

Assistant Professor of Pathology

Vanderbilt University Nashville, Tennessee

Vania Nosé, MD, PhD

Associate Chief of Pathology

Director of Anatomic and Molecular Pathology

Massachusetts General Hospital

Professor of Pathology

Harvard Medical School

Boston, Massachusetts

Charles Matthew Quick, MD

Associate Professor of Pathology

Director of Gynecologic Pathology

Department of Pathology

University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences

Little Rock, Arkansas

Matija Snuderl, MD

Assistant Professor of Pathology

Director of Molecular Pathology and Diagnostics

NYU Langone Medical Center

New York, New York

Amitabh Srivastava, MD

Associate Professor of Pathology

Harvard Medical School

Associate Director, Surgical Pathology

Director, Surgical Pathology Fellowship Program

Brigham and Women’s Hospital Boston, Massachusetts

Karen S. Thompson, MD

Professor and Interim Chair, Department of Pathology

John A. Burns School of Medicine

University of Hawaii

Pan Pacific Pathologists, Clinical Laboratories of Hawaii

Kapiolani Medical Center for Women and Children

Honolulu, Hawaii

Additional Contributing Authors

Stefan Kraft, MD

Rolf Pfannl, MD

Preface

A very memorable event from my first year in residency was a frozen section. A young woman was under anesthesia being prepared to receive a kidney transplant. The surgeon unexpectedly discovered a firm nodule in the peritoneal cavity. If the diagnosis was cancer, the transplant would not be performed. If benign, she would receive the kidney. I was so impressed by the senior pathologist being able to quickly look at the frozen section and call back the surgeon to tell her the diagnosis was endometriosis and, therefore, the operation that would profoundly change this patient’s life could proceed.

Pathology practice has changed in the ensuing years, but the critical importance of intraoperative consultation for patient care has not. In this second edition of Diagnostic Pathology: Intraoperative Consultation, the dedicated team of authors has taken the opportunity to extensively update and expand the information essential for pathologists to have available immediately when faced with a question from a surgeon during an operation. The easily accessible format of the first edition has been maintained. There are new chapters on lung wire localization biopsy, nipple margin evaluation, radioactive seed identification, and evaluation of specimens from patients with epilepsy. Essential techniques to rapidly preserve biomolecules for molecular assays are addressed. I am grateful to Dr. Lynette Sholl and Ms. Vivian M. Chan for allowing us to include a new technique recently developed by them to evaluate the staple margins of lung wedge resections. I am also grateful to Dr. Raphael Bueno and Dr. Ritu R. Gill for including the new technique of T-bar localization for lung biopsies.

Preparing a book spanning so many topics requires the assistance of many people. Ms. Kristen K. Gill, Ms. Vivian M. Chan, and the other members of Brigham and Women’s Hospital “Team Frozen” are treasured colleagues and collaborators. We also must thank and acknowledge our clinical colleagues, including Dr. Esther Rhei, Dr. Catherine S. Giess, Dr. Rajan Jain, Judyth O’Hara, RN and numerous others. We also thank Dr. Danielle Costigan, Dr. Alexander Christakis, Dr. Inga-Marie Schaefer, Dr. Christine E. Gruessner, Dr. David Hicks, Dr. Richard Owings, Dr. Richard H. Hewlett, Dr. William Welch, Dr. Joseph Corson, Dr. Martina Zink, Dr. Rolf Pfannl, Dr. Stefan Kraft, Ms. Alice Sedlak, Mr. Dennis Poliferno, Ms. Lucy Ross, Ms. Lindsey Cheney, and Ms. Deborah O’Leary.

This book would not have been completed without the outstanding assistance of the Elsevier staff. Our lead editor, Megg Morin, headed the project, kept us all on track, and provided invaluable help and enthusiasm all along the way. Lane Bennion, Rich Coombs, and Laura Wissler created excellent new graphic illustrations. Tom Olson designed a beautiful cover for the book. Lisa Steadman and Jeffrey Marmorstone thoroughly edited each image of every chapter. Rebecca Bluth, Angela Terry, and Emily Fassett saw the book to production. And Arthur Gelsinger, Nina Bennett, Terry Ferrell, Lisa Gervais, and Matt Hoecherl edited the book for months before it came to production.

We hope that, like the first edition, this is the book that every pathologist will want at his or her side the next time a page calls them to an intraoperative consultation.

Chief

Brigham and Women’s Hospital

Assistant Professor

Harvard Medical School

Boston, Massachusetts

Acknowledgments

Lead Editor

Megg Morin, BA

Text Editors

Arthur G. Gelsinger, MA

Rebecca L. Bluth, BA

Nina I. Bennett, BA

Terry W. Ferrell, MS

Lisa A. Gervais, BS

Matt W. Hoecherl, BS

Image Editors

Jeffrey J. Marmorstone, BS

Lisa A. M. Steadman, BS

Illustrations

Richard Coombs, MS

Lane R. Bennion, MS

Laura C. Wissler, MA

Art Direction and Design

Tom M. Olson, BA

Laura C. Wissler, MA

Production Coordinators

Angela M. G. Terry, BA

Emily C. Fassett, BA

SECTION 1: General

SECTION 2: Methods

SECTION 3: Contents

TABLEOFCONTENTS

154 CerebralHemispheres:EvaluationforEpilepsy

MatijaSnuderl,MD,OlgaKrasnozhen-Ratush,MD,and RebeccaD.Folkerth,MD

160 Colon:DiagnosisandMargins

AmitabhSrivastava,MD

David

SusanC.

DavidP.Frishberg,MD

SusanC.Lester,MD,

DavidP.Frishberg,

SusanC.Lester,MD,

SusanC.Lester,MD,

AllocationforSpecialStudiesandBanking

DeborahA.Dillon,MD 78

RadioactiveSeedLocalization

BethT.Harrison,MD

LymphNodes:MolecularMethodsforEvaluation

BethT.Harrison,MD SECTION

86 AdrenalandParaganglia:Diagnosis

VaniaNosé,MD,PhD

96 AnteriorMediastinalMass:Diagnosis

MatthewR.Lindberg,MD

102 Appendix:Diagnosis

AmitabhSrivastava,MD

106 BoneLesion/Tumor:DiagnosisandMargins

MatthewR.Lindberg,MD

116 Breast:Diagnosis

BethT.Harrison,MD

122 Breast:ParenchymalMargins

BethT.Harrison,MD

126 Breast:NippleMarginEvaluation

BethT.Harrison,MD

130 BronchusandTrachea:Diagnosis

MatthewR.Lindberg,MD

132 CerebellumandBrainstem:Diagnosis

RebeccaD.Folkerth,MD,OlgaKrasnozhen-Ratush,MD,

andMatijaSnuderl,MD

142 CerebralHemispheres:Diagnosis

MatijaSnuderl,MD,OlgaKrasnozhen-Ratush,MD,and

RebeccaD.Folkerth,MD

164 Colon:EvaluationforHirschsprungDisease

KarenS.Thompson,MD

170 Esophagus:DiagnosisandMargins

AmitabhSrivastava,MD

176 FallopianTube:Diagnosis

CharlesMatthewQuick,MD

182 HeadandNeckMucosa:DiagnosisandMargins

VickieY.Jo,MDandJeffreyF.Krane,MD,PhD

186 Kidney,Adult:DiagnosisandMargins

RoniMichelleCox,MD

198 Kidney:EvaluationofAllograftPriorto Transplantation

LynnD.Cornell,MD

204 KidneyNeedleBiopsy:EvaluationforAdequacy

LynnD.Cornell,MD

208 Kidney,Pediatric:IndicationsandUtility

KarenS.Thompson,MD

216 Larynx:DiagnosisandMargins

VickieY.Jo,MD,StefanKraft,MD,andJeffreyF.Krane, MD,PhD

220 Liver,CapsularMass:Diagnosis

AmitabhSrivastava,MD

222 Liver:EvaluationofAllograftPriorto Transplantation

AmitabhSrivastava,MD

228 Liver,IntrahepaticMass:DiagnosisandMargins

AmitabhSrivastava,MD

232 Lung,Ground-GlassOpacitiesandSmallMasses: Image-GuidedResection

LucienR.Chirieac,MD

240 Lung:Margins

MatthewR.Lindberg,MD

246 Lung,NonneoplasticDiffuseDisease:Diagnosis

MatthewR.Lindberg,MD

250 LungMass:Diagnosis

MatthewR.Lindberg,MD

258 LymphNodes,Axillary:Diagnosis

BethT.Harrison,MD

266 LymphNodesBelowDiaphragm:Diagnosis

DavidP.Frishberg,MD

274 LymphNodes:DiagnosisofSuspected LymphoproliferativeDisease

EmilyF.Mason,MD,PhD

284 LymphNodes,HeadandNeck:Diagnosis

VickieY.Jo,MDandJeffreyF.Krane,MD,PhD

TABLEOFCONTENTS

290 LymphNodes,Mediastinal:Diagnosis

DavidP.Frishberg,MD

298 Meninges:Diagnosis

RebeccaD.Folkerth,MD,OlgaKrasnozhen-Ratush,MD, andMatijaSnuderl,MD

306 Nasal/Sinus:DiagnosisofSuspectedFungal Rhinosinusitis

VickieY.Jo,MD,StefanKraft,MD,andJeffreyF.Krane, MD,PhD

310 Nasal/Sinus:DiagnosisofSuspectedNeoplasia

VickieY.Jo,MDandJeffreyF.Krane,MD,PhD

318 OropharynxandNasopharynx:Diagnosis

VickieY.Jo,MD,StefanKraft,MD,andJeffreyF.Krane, MD,PhD

322 Ovary,Mass:Diagnosis

CharlesMatthewQuick,MD

336 Pancreas,Biopsy:Diagnosis

AmitabhSrivastava,MD

340 PancreasResection:Parenchymal,Retroperitoneal, andBileDuctMargins

AmitabhSrivastava,MD

348 ParathyroidGland:DiagnosisandMargins

VaniaNosé,MD,PhD

358 PeripheralNerveandSkeletalMuscle:Allocationof TissueforSpecialStudies

RebeccaD.Folkerth,MD,RolfPfannl,MD,andMatija Snuderl,MD

360 Peritoneal/OmentalMass:Biopsy

CharlesMatthewQuick,MD

372 Pituitary:Diagnosis

VaniaNosé,MD,PhD

384 Pleura:Diagnosis

MatthewR.Lindberg,MD

388 RevisionArthroplasty:EvaluationofInfection

MatthewR.Lindberg,MD

390 SalivaryGland:DiagnosisandMargins

VickieY.Jo,MDandJeffreyF.Krane,MD,PhD

398 Skin:DiagnosisandMargins

DavidCassarino,MD,PhD

404 Skin:EvaluationforToxicEpidermalNecrolysisvs. StaphylococcalScaldedSkinSyndrome

DavidCassarino,MD,PhD

406 Skin:MohsMicrographicSurgery

ChristineJ.Ko,MDandDavidCassarino,MD,PhD

412 SoftTissue:EvaluationforNecrotizingFasciitis

DavidCassarino,MD,PhD

414 SoftTissueMass:DiagnosisandMargins

DavidCassarino,MD,PhD

418 SpinalCord:Diagnosis

MatijaSnuderl,MD,OlgaKrasnozhen-Ratush,MD,and

RebeccaD.Folkerth,MD

424 Stomach:DiagnosisandMargins

AmitabhSrivastava,MD

428 Thyroid:Diagnosis

VaniaNosé,MD,PhD

438 Ureter:Margins

RoniMichelleCox,MD

446 Uterus,Endometrium:Diagnosis

CharlesMatthewQuick,MD

452 Uterus,Endometrium:DiagnosisofPregnancy

CharlesMatthewQuick,MD

456 Uterus,Myometrium:Diagnosis

CharlesMatthewQuick,MD

462 Vulva:DiagnosisandMargins

CharlesMatthewQuick,MD

SECOND EDITION

LESTER

CASSARINO • CHIRIEAC • CORNELL • COX • DILLON • FOLKERTH

FRISHBERG • HARRISON • JO • KO • KRANE • KRASNOZHEN-RATUSH • LINDBERG • MASON NOSÉ • QUICK • SNUDERL • SRIVASTAVA • THOMPSON

Intraoperative Consultation: Introduction 4

IntraoperativeConsultation:Introduction

THEARTOFINTRAOPERATIVE CONSULTATION

MoreThanPathologyatHighSpeed

•Intraoperativeconsultation(IOC)hassignificantdifferences comparedtogeneralpathologypractice

○Majorpurposeistoansweraspecificquestionrequired fordirectingsurgery

–Diagnosishasimmediateimpactoncareofpatient

○Definitivediagnosisgenerallynotnecessaryoroptimal

–Informationshouldbelimitedtothatessentialfor immediatemanagementofpatient

–Majorityofspecialstudiesnotavailable;diagnosis basedalmostexclusivelyonH&Eslides

–Onlylimitedsamplingoflargespecimenspossible withintimelimits

○Judiciousinterpretationoffindingsoftennecessary givenlimitationoffrozensections

–Conservativeapproach,butnottooconservative,is appropriate

–Degreesofuncertaintywhenadefinitivediagnosisis notpossiblemayneedtobesharedwithsurgeon

○Time-limitedconsultation

–Ideally,ananswerisavailabletosurgeonwithin20 minutes

–Takesprecedenceoverallotheractivities

–Inmostinstitutions,apathologistisavailableoncall forconsultationatalltimes

○Directinteractionbetweenpathologistandsurgeonis preferred

–Preciseoralandwrittencommunicationisessential

○Oftenoccursatasitedistantfrompathology department

–Pathologiststypicallypreferusingtheirown microscopeintheirownworkspace

○Doesnotoccuratpredeterminedtime

–Mayberequestedattimesoutsidenormalworking hours(e.g.,nightsandweekends)

○Referencematerialmaybelimitedordifficulttoaccess (e.g.,booksandjournals)

(Left)Closecooperationand communicationbetween surgicalandpathologyteams (preferablyinperson)is imperativetomakingsurethe patientreceivestheoptimal treatmentintheoperating room.[CourtesyL.Cheney,PA (ASCP)cm,andE.Rhei,MD.]

(Right)Intraoperative consultationhasfeaturesthat setitapartfromgeneral pathologypracticeinmany waysandrequiresa specializedskillsetand diagnosticacumenina challengingandtime-limited professionalsetting.(Courtesy W.Welch,MD.)

○Consultationwithcolleaguesoftennotpossible

○Notsubspecialized;pathologistsmayseespecimens outsidetheirareasofexpertise

•Pathologistplaysimportantroleinadvocatingforpatient duringIOC

○Shouldonlycomplywithrequestsforfrozensection whentheyareinbestinterestofpatient

○Shouldrequestadditionalbiopsieswhenreceived materialisnotsufficientfordiagnosis

○Mustensurethattissueisused1stfordiagnosisand clinicalcareandonly2ndforinvestigationalstudiesand otheruses

•Pearlsofknowledgearesuggestionsandadvice

○Pearlsstartasgrainofsandbutgainvalueovertime

○Knowledgeisgainedafterlongyearsofexperiencewith IOC,manyclosecalls,andafewerrors

○Learningfromerrorsisanexcellentmethodtoimprove practice(especiallywhenerrorsarenotyours)

GoalsofIntraoperativeConsultation

•Thereare3principalreasonsforimmediatemicroscopic evaluationofspecimens

○ Diagnosistoguideintra-orperioperativepatient management

–Identificationorconfirmationofpathologicprocess

–Evaluationofmarginsforknownmalignancy

○ Confirmsufficientlesionaltissueispresentfor diagnosisonpermanentsections&/orafterspecial studies

–Definitivediagnosisisnotnecessaryintraoperative

–Pathologistconfirmstosurgeonthereisnoneedto removeadditionaltissue,resultinginpossible additionalmorbidity

○ Optimallyprocesstissueforancillarystudiestobe usedfordiagnosis,treatment,orresearch

–Lymphomas

–Sarcomas

–Pediatrictumors

–Othertumorsrequiringspecialhandling

IntraoperativeConsultation:Gross Findings

IntraoperativeConsultation:Microscopic Findings

IntraoperativeConsultation:Introduction

MostCommonDiagnosticQuestions

• Diagnosisofprimarylesion(~20%)

○Inmanycases,preoperativediagnosisispossibleusing needleorendoscopicbiopsies

–Insomecases,priorattempttodiagnosemayhave beenunsuccessfulorcontraindicatedduetolocation ortypeoflesion

○Definitivediagnosisneedonlybeprovidedwhen relevanttoimmediatepatientmanagement

–Oftenbenignvs.malignantissufficientfor intraoperativemanagement

–Provisionaldiagnosiscanaidinallocationoftissuefor ancillarystudies

–Inmanycases(e.g.,lymphomas,smallroundbluecell tumors,andsofttissuetumors),ancillarystudiesare oftencritical;definitivediagnosisattimeofIOCis unnecessary

• Evaluationofmarginsforknownmalignanttumor(~ 40%)

○Additionaltissuemaybetakentoachievenegative marginsinasingleprocedure

○Accuracyisgenerallyveryhigh

• Identificationoflymphnodemetastasis(~20%)

○Resectionwithcurativeintentmaybecanceledif metastaticdiseaseisidentified

–Additionalnodesmaynotneedtobesampled

–Patientsmaybetreatedwithsystemictherapypriorto definitiveresection

○Ifapositivesentinelnodeisidentified,additionalnodes maybeexcised

• Adequacyoftissueforfuturediagnosis(~5%)

○Presurgicaltreatmentisbecomingmorewidelyusedto reducetumorburdenandasameasureoftumor response

○Tumorsmustbediagnosedwithcertaintypriorto treatment

–Freshtissuemayalsobedesirableforancillarystudies toidentifycellularconstituentsvulnerabletotargeted therapy

–Patientsmayalsoconsenttohavetissuetakenfor tumorbanks

○Pathologistmustrequestadditionaltissuewhen appropriate

• Evaluationoforganpriortotransplant(<5%)

○Scarcityoforganshasresultedindonorpoolbeing expandedtoincludedonorswithpossiblymarginally functionalorgans

○Intraoperativeassessmentisimportanttoavoid transplantationoforganswithhighlikelihoodoffailure

ChangesinIntraoperativeConsultationOverTime

•NeedforIOCchangesastreatmentofpatientschanges

• Consultationsbecomingmorecommon

○Evaluationoflunglesionsdetectedbyscreening

–UnitedStatesPreventativeServicesTaskForceissued recommendationsforscreeningforlungcancerusing annuallow-dosecomputedtomographyfor individualsbetweentheagesof55-80with30-year historyofsmokingandwhocurrentlysmokeorhave quitsmokingwithinlast15years

–Lesionsdetectedbyscreeningaretypicallysmallorof lowdensity(groundglass)

–Lesionscanbedifficultorimpossibleforsurgeonto palpate

□Speciallocalizationtechniquesmayberequired

–Morelimitedsurgerymaybeconsideredfor adenocarcinomainsituorminimallyinvasive adenocarcinoma

○Evaluationofmarginsofpartialnephrectomies

–Smallrenaltumorsaredetectedbyimaging

–Increasedeffortisbeingmadetopreserverenal functiontoavoidneedfordialysis

○Radioactiveseedretrieval

–Theuseofradioactiveseedsratherthanwirestomark breastlesionshasmanyadvantagesforpatientsand surgeons

–RetrievaloftheseedintheIOCroommaybe preferredtoensureallseedsareidentified, documented,andstoreduntiltheycanbedisposedof safely

○Nipplemarginofmastectomies

–Nipple-andskin-sparingmastectomiesoffer cosmeticallysuperiorprocedureforcarefullyselected women

–Thebaseofthenipplemaybeexamined intraoperativelywithremovalofnipplewhen carcinomaisdetected

○Evaluationoforganspriortotransplant

○Evaluationofsmallbiopsiesforadequacy

• Consultationscurrentlyrarelyperformed

○Identificationofparathyroidadenomas

–Intraoperativemeasurementofparathyroidhormone levelisausefulfunctionalassaythatisusedtoguide surgery

○Sentinelnodeevaluationforbreastcarcinoma

–Studieshaveshowngoodoutcomesforcarefully selectedwomenwithpositivesentinelnodeswithout axillarydissection

–Theneedtodetermineifmetastaticcarcinomaisin sentinelnodeintraoperativelyhasdiminished

○Primarydiagnosisofbreastlesions

–Coreneedlebiopsiesarehighlyaccurateandallow decisionstobemadeconcerningchoiceofsurgery andsystemictherapy(neoadjuvantoradjuvant)

–Definitivesurgerycanbeplannedbasedonthecore needlebiopsydiagnosis

Limitations

•Frozensectionsarenotequivalenttoevaluationof specimensonpermanentsections

○Diagnosesonfrozensectionshouldbelimitedto informationneededforintraoperativemanagementof patient

• Sampling

○Tissuesectionsmustbesmalltofreezewellandquickly

○Amountoftissueexaminedislessthanthatexaminedby permanentsections

○ Pearlofknowledge:Thepathologistevaluating microscopicslidesshouldalwaysperform,orbeaware of,thegrossfindings

–Ifmacroscopicandmicroscopicfindingsarenot compatible,pathologistshouldsuspecterror

IntraoperativeConsultation:Introduction

□Agoodgrossexaminationisoftenmoreaccurate thanasuboptimalmicroscopicsection

□Inkcanoftenleakintospecimensorsmear,making itdifficulttoidentifytruemargin

• Icecrystalartifact

○Freezingintroducespermanentchangesintissuesby disruptingcellmembranesandotherstructures

○Althoughartifactcanbeminimizedbyrapidfreezingof smallsamples,itisusuallypresent

○Artifactscanmakediagnosisdifficultorevenimpossible inextremecases

–Nucleicanlooklargerandmorevariableinsizeand shape

–Holesintissuecanmimicintracellularvacuolesorfat

○Tissueshouldonlybefrozenifbenefittopatient outweighsriskofcompromisingeventualdiagnosis

○ Pearlofknowledge:Nonpathologistsoftendonot understandthatpatientscanbeharmedby inappropriatefreezingoftissueduetoartifacts permanentlyintroduced

–Thisfactcanbehelpfulaspartofexplanationasto whyfrozensectionshouldnotbeperformed

• Technicalissues

○Sometissues(e.g.,adiposetissue)donotfreezewell

○Tissuesmaybecutthickly

○Tissuefoldscancomplicateinterpretation

• Absenceofspecialstudies

○Histochemicalandimmunohistochemicalstudiesare generallynotavailable

○Somediagnosesrequireadditionalstudies

InappropriateIntraoperativeConsultations

•IfIOCisrequestedbuttheinformationisnotneededfor intraoperativeorimmediateperioperativepatient management,therequestmaybeinappropriate

○InappropriateIOCcansquandervaluableresourcesand time

–CoulddelayappropriateIOCforotherpatients

–Generatesunnecessarymedicalcost

○Maycompromiseultimatediagnosis

• Unnecessaryandpotentiallyharmfultopatient

○Completelyfreezinganylesionmayprecludeultimate definitivediagnosis

–Freezingartifactcanobscurediagnosticfeatures

–Tissuelosscanoccurduringsectioningincryostat

○Pigmentedlesionsofskinandsmallbreastlesionsshould notbeentirelyfrozen

–Theselesionsshouldbediagnosedandfeatures evaluatedonoptimalpermanentsections

–Freezingartifactandpotentiallossoftissuecan precludemakingadefinitivediagnosis

○Pathologistmustbeadvocateforpatient

–Surgeonmustbeinformedastowhyfreezingentire lesioncouldbeharmfultopatient

–Alternativescanbediscussed,suchasexpedited processingofpermanentsections

○ Pearlofknowledge:Therearerareoccasionsinwhich unusualrequestsforfrozensectionexaminationare appropriate

–Ratherthanrefusingtoperformexamination,itcan bemorehelpfultoasksurgeonhowexaminationwill benefitpatient

–Pathologistandsurgeoncanreachanagreement aboutbestcourseofaction

–Ultimately,pathologistmustactinthebestinterestof patient

• Unnecessarybutnotharmfultopatient

○Thereisusuallynoneedforfrozensectiondiagnosison largetumorthathasbeencompletelyexcised

–However,performingafrozensectiononasmall portionoftumorwillnotinterferewitheventual diagnosis

–SurgeonmayrequestIOCtoprovideinformationto thepatientorfamily

○Requestshouldbediscussedwithsurgeontodetermine howintraoperativeorimmediatepostoperative managementwouldbechangedbydiagnosis

–Iftherewouldbenochange,thendiscusswhyfrozen sectionisunnecessary

–Insomecases,theremaybeclinicalindicationsfor diagnosisofwhichthepathologistisnotaware

○ Pearlofknowledge:Itcanbedifficulttodiscuss departmentalpolicywithasurgeonwhilethepatientis underanesthesia

–Ifinappropriaterequestsarerecurringproblem, departmentalandinstitutionalpoliciesshouldbe developedbysurgeonsandpathologistsand discussedinamultidisciplinarysetting

• IOCsknowntohavelowsensitivityorspecificity

○Valueofperformingfrozensectionmaybeverylowin somesituations

–Evaluationoffollicularthyroidlesionsforcapsular invasion

–Evaluationofmarginsoflargebreastexcisions

○Surgeonshouldbeawareoflikelihoodofachangein diagnosisonpermanentsections

○Departmentalandinstitutionalpoliciesshouldbe developedforevaluatingthesetypesofspecimens

PATIENTHISTORY

PriortoIntraoperativeConsultation

•Knowledgeaboutclinicalsettinghelpsestablishasafety netforpatient

○Substantialnumberoferrorsoccurbecausepathologist interpretsspecimenwithoutadequateinformation(e.g., notknowingpatienthasreceivedradiationor chemotherapy)

○Especiallyhelpfulinsomesituations

–Biopsiesofmediastinallymphnodes(importantto knowiffortumorstagingortoevaluate lymphadenopathy)

□Determinesifentirespecimenshouldbefrozenor onlyarepresentativeportion

–Resectionsafterneoadjuvantchemotherapyor radiationtherapy

□Changesinnormalcellsduetotreatmentcanbe mistakenformalignancy

–Raretumortypes

IntraoperativeConsultation:Introduction

–Tumorsforwhichimagingappearanceiscriticalfor finaldiagnosis(centralnervoussystemtumors,bone tumors)

○ Pearlofknowledge:Reviewingclinicalhistoriespriorto IOCleadstofasterandmoreconfidentdiagnosesand considerablylessanxiety

–Somepeoplebelievethatpathologistsshouldbeable todivineallclinicalinformationfromsurgical specimensastheharuspicesinancientRomewere abletodivineinformationfromexamining organs—thisisnottrue

•IOCrequiringtheallocationoftissueforpurposesbeyond diagnosismustbeidentified

○Tissuerequiredforpatienttreatmentshouldbe distinguishedfromtissuerequestedforresearch

–Patientsmayrequiretissuesamplingtobeeligiblefor clinicaltrials

○Specialproceduresmayberequired

–Steriletissueisnecessaryforcellcultures(e.g.,vaccine studies)

–Warmischemiatime(inoperatingroom)andcold ischemiatime(untiltissueisfrozenorplacedin fixativeshouldbeminimized)

○ Patientcaremustalwaystakeprecedenceoveruseof tissueforresearchthatdoesnotdirectlyimpactpatient

•ObtaininginformationpriortoIOCispreferable,when possible

○DoesnotextendthetimeoftheIOCwhilepatientis underanesthesia

○Allowstimetoreviewpriorpathologyorimagingstudies whenavailable

•Well-designedelectronicmedicalrecordscanfacilitate obtainingkeyinformationpriortotheoperation

ImportantInformationforPathologicInterpretation

•Age:Likelihoodofdiagnosiscanbehighlydependenton age

•Gender:Sometumorshavegender-specificfrequencies

•Priorhistoryofmalignancy

○Metastaticdiseasemustalwaysbeconsidered

○Typeofmalignancy,stage,andpriortreatmentareall importantfactors

○Treatment-relatedchangescanbemistakenfor malignancy

○Tumorswithtreatmenteffectmaybedifficultto recognize

•Priorhistoryofsurgery

○Surgicalchangescanbemistakenformalignancy

•Druguseortherapy

○Drugusecancausechanges(e.g.,increasedmitoses)that canbemistakenformalignancy

•Currentpregnancyorlactation

○Benignbreastlesionscanhaveincreasedmitoticrate &/ornecrosis

–Thesechangescanmimicmalignancy

•Knownorsuspectedinfection

○Somediseasesmayrequiremodificationstoprotect pathologypersonnel

–Specialrespiratorymasksarerequiredtoprotectfrom Mycobacteriumtuberculosis

–SpecimensfrompatientswithsuspectedCreutzfeldtJakobdiseaseshouldnotbeexamined

○Specimensshouldbekeptsterileinordertoobtain cultures

•Imagingfindings

○Insomesettings,appearanceonimagingiscritical

–Essentialtodevelopdifferentialdiagnosis

–Particularlyimportantforbrainlesions,bonetumors, andlunglesions

–Maybenecessarytolocatelesioninlargeresections

InformationProvidedatTimeofIntraoperative

Consultation

• Requisitionform

○Patientidentification,surgeonname,operatingroom number(includingphonenumber)areallessential information

–Knownorsuspectedinfectiousdiseasesshouldbe specified

○Typeofspecimensubmitted

–Location

–Biopsyorcompleteexcision

–Orientation

○Purposeofconsultation

–Inmanycases,willbeclearfromtypeofspecimen submittedandoperativeprocedure

–Ifpurposeisnotclear,pathologistshoulddiscusswith surgeon

– Pearlofknowledge:Ifthereasonforexamining specimenisnotimmediatelyclear,itisanunusualcase andbestcourseofactionistocontactsurgeon

• InformationobtainedduringIOC

○Ifinformationisobtainedfromsurgeonthatishelpful forinterpretationoffrozensection,thiswillalsobe helpfulforfinaldiagnosis

○Informationshouldberecordedonrequisitionformand availabletopathologistreviewingcaseforfinalsignout

• Informationobtainedinoperatingroom

○Insomeinstitutions,itmaybepossibleforthe pathologisttodirectlyobserveoperativefieldandto discussthecasefacetofacewiththesurgeon

REPORTINGRESULTS

WrittenReport

•Diagnosisiswrittenandsignedbyattendingpathologist

○Mostlaboratorieshaveaspecificformforthispurpose

○Formshouldbelabeledwithpatientname,medical recordnumber,andsurgicalpathologynumber

○Specificspecimenandsubdesignationforfrozensection areincluded

•Thediagnosisshoulddirectlyaddressthequestionposed bythesurgeontosuccessfullycompletetheoperation

○ Pearlofknowledge:Diagnosesshouldbebriefand includeonlytheinformationnecessary(e.g.,"notumor present"or"metastaticcancerpresent")

–Longandwordyreportsaredifficulttocommunicate orallyandmorelikelytobemisunderstood

○Avoidusingabbreviations

–Anabbreviationsavestimefor1personand aggravateseveryoneelse

IntraoperativeConsultation:Introduction

HistoryofIntraoperativeConsultations

Era ClinicalSetting Surgery

Pre-1800s Cancerlesscommonaspatientsoften dieduetootherdiseasesatearlyages

1800s Patientscometomedicalattentionlate indiseasewhencancersarelocally advanced

1891

Firstrecordedintraoperative consultation

Early1900s Awarenessofutilityofearlydiagnosis andnewimagingtechniquesresultsin patientspresentingwithsmallertumors

Usually,rapidbrutalprocedures performedlateincourseofdisease; doesnotchangeultimateoutcome

Anesthesiaandaseptictechniqueallow earliersurgeryandbetteroutcomes; malignanttumorseasilyidentifiedby grossfeatures;radicalsurgical proceduresperformed

WilliamS.Halstedrequests intraoperativeconsultationon mastectomyspecimen

Grossexaminationnotsufficientto identifysmallertumorsasbenignor malignant;growingimpetusformore limitedsurgery;"Whencancerbecomes amicroscopicdisease,theremustbe tissuediagnosisintheoperatingroom"

(JosephColtBloodgood,1927)

Pathology

Capacitytoevaluatetumorsby microscopicexaminationnotavailable

Advancesinmicroscopy,microtomes, formalin,andtissuedyesallow identificationandclassificationoftumors

WilliamH.Welchperformsfrozen section,butprocedurerequiresanhour andresultsarenotavailableuntilafter operationhasbeencompleted

In1905,LouisB.Wilsonpublishesfrozen sectiontechniquethatcanbeperformed inafewminutes

Current Screeningandmodernimaging modalitiesdetectmanycancersatearly stage;canceristrulymicroscopic diseaseformanypatients

Modernsurgeryminimizestissue removedtomaintainfunctionand optimizecosmesis

–Abbreviationsmayvaryamongspecialtiesandmaybe misunderstood

□Forexample,pathologistsunderstand"c/w"to mean"consistentwith,"whereasradiologists understand"c/w"tomean"comparedwith"

○Superfluousinformation(typicallyhistologictypeor grade)isunnecessaryandcancreatepotential discrepancieswiththefinaldiagnosis

○ Pearlofknowledge:Itiscriticaltoknowthe consequencesofadiagnosis(e.g.surgeryforpotential cureterminatedorcontinued)whenmakingdiagnostic judgementcallswhenadefinitivediagnosisisnot obvious

–Theharmofafalse-negativevs.afalse-positive diagnosisforapatientisoftennotequivalent

•Copyofreportismadeandprovidedforpatient'smedical record

•WrittenreportsofIOCmaynotbeavailabletopatient's caregiversforhourstodays

○Whenpossible,documentationofIOCinmannerthatis availableinpatient'srecordispreferable

○Inelectronicmedicalrecords,thismaybepossibleusing holdnote

OralReport

•Finaldiagnosisiscalledbacktooperatingroom

○Itispreferabletoreadwrittenreportexactly

•Whenpossible,informationshouldberelayeddirectlyto surgeon

○ Pearlofknowledge:Complexorunusualdiagnosesare bestcommunicateddirectlybetweenpathologistand surgeon

–Thereishighrateofmiscommunicationwhen diagnosisisotherthan"benign"or"malignant"

Intraoperativediagnosisplaysimportant roleinprovidinginformationsurgeon needstoensuretumorshavebeen removedandmarginsareclear

–Reportsincludingtermsindicatingdegreesof certainty("suspiciousfor,""cannotexclude," "atypical")canbeinterpreteddifferentlyby pathologistandsurgeon

–Similarterms(e.g.,"carcinoid"and"carcinoma")must beclearlydistinguished

•Thepersonreceivinginformationshouldwritedown informationandreaddiagnosisbacktopathologist

○ThisisrequirementofTheJointCommission(TJC), formerly,TheJointCommissiononAccreditationof HealthcareOrganizations(JCAHO)

SELECTEDREFERENCES

1. NorganAPetal:Implementationofasoftwareapplicationforpresurgical casehistoryreviewoffrozensectionpathologycases.JPatholInform.8:3, 2017

2. SamsSBetal:Discordancebetweenintraoperativeconsultationbyfrozen sectionandfinaldiagnosis.IntJSurgPathol.25(1):41-50,2017

3. McIntoshERetal:Frozensection:guidingthehandsofsurgeons?AnnDiagn Pathol.19(5):326-9,2015

4. RoySetal:Frozensectiondiagnosis:istherediscordancebetweenwhat pathologistssayandwhatsurgeonshear?AmJClinPathol.140(3):363-9, 2013

5. WintherCetal:Accuracyoffrozensectiondiagnosis:aretrospectiveanalysis of4785cases.APMIS.119(4-5):259-62,2011

6. TaxyJB:Frozensectionandthesurgicalpathologist:apointofview.Arch PatholLabMed.133(7):1135-8,2009

7. GalAAetal:The100-yearanniversaryofthedescriptionofthefrozen sectionprocedure.JAMA.294(24):3135-7,2005

8. LechagoJ:Thefrozensection:pathologyinthetrenches.ArchPatholLab Med.129(12):1529-31,2005

9. AcsGetal:Intraoperativeconsultation:anhistoricalperspective.Semin DiagnPathol.19(4):190-1,2002

10.WrightJRJr:Thedevelopmentofthefrozensectiontechnique,the evolutionofsurgicalbiopsy,andtheoriginsofsurgicalpathology.BullHist Med.59(3):295-326,1985

IntraoperativeConsultation:Introduction

SpecimenDeliverytoIntraoperative ConsultationRoom

RequisitionForm

(Left)Aconsultationbegins whenaspecimenarrivesfrom anoperatingroomandis enteredintothelogbookof theintraoperative consultationroom.(Courtesy J.O'Hara,RN.)(Right)The surgeonmustinformthe pathologistaboutthesurgical settingandtheneedfor consultation.Inthiscase,the surgeonhaspalpatedan unexpectedhardnoduleinthe peritoneumandneedsto knowthediagnosis.If malignant,thesurgeonwill canceltheprocedureandnot continuewiththekidney transplantation.

(Left)Carefulgross examinationisessentialforall consultationstodeterminethe typeoftissuepresentandto selectthebestareaforfrozen section.(CourtesyD.C. Costigan,MBBCh.)(Right) Goodfrozensectiontechnique isessentialtocreatinghighqualityslidesthatcanbeused fordiagnosis.(CourtesyV. Chan,BS.)

(Left)Amicroscopicdiagnosis canbeprovidedwithin minutesduetotheabilityto hardentissuebyfreezingto createthinsections.(Courtesy B.T.Harrison,MD.)(Right) Clearcommunicationwiththe operatingteamisessential. Ideally,thepathologistspeaks directlywiththesurgeonby phoneorinperson.Inthis case,thereisgoodnews.A peritonealmassdiscovered duringanoperationis endometriosis.Thesurgeon canproceedtocompletinga kidneytransplant.(CourtesyB. T.Harrison,MD.)

GrossExamination
FrozenSection
MicroscopicEvaluation
CommunicationWithSurgeon

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