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Developmentin WastewaterTreatment Researchand Processes

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Developmentin WastewaterTreatment Researchand Processes

MicrobialDegradationof XenobioticsThroughBacterial andFungalApproach

Editedby

SusanaRodriguez-Couto

DepartmentofSeparationScience,LUTSchoolof EngineeringScience,LUTUniversity,Mikkeli,Finland

EnvironmentalMicrobiologyLab,Bharuch,Gujarat,India

MaulinP.Shah

Elsevier

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TypesetbyTNQTechnologies

2.6

2.5.1Purebacterialculturesfordyedegradation.................................................28

2.5.2Mixedculturesandcoculturesfordegradation...........................................29

2.5.3Immobilizedcellsfordegradation...............................................................29

2.5.4Microbialfuelcellsfordegradation............................................................30

2.6.2Degradationviamediation...........................................................................32

2.6.3Decolorizationviaorganicandinorganiccompounds................................32

2.7 Factorsaffectingbacterialdegradationofdyes.....................................................32

2.7.1Aerationandagitation..................................................................................32

4.3.3Biodegradation................................................................................................64

4.3.4Bioconversion.................................................................................................65

4.4 Kindsofbioremediators...........................................................................................65

4.4.1White-rotfungi...............................................................................................65

4.4.2Marinefungi...................................................................................................68

4.4.3Extremophilicfungi........................................................................................69

4.4.4Symbioticfungi..............................................................................................69

4.4.5Otherkindsofmushrooms.............................................................................69

4.5 Factorsaffectingmycoremediation..........................................................................70

4.5.1Temperatureeffectonmycoremediation.......................................................70

4.5.2pHeffectonmycoremediation.......................................................................70

4.5.3Relativehumidityeffectonmycoremediation..............................................71

4.5.4Effectofoxygen,light,traceelements,andaerationon

4.6 Differenttypesoftargetedcontaminants.................................................................71

4.6.1Volatileorganiccompounds...........................................................................71

4.7 Enzymesinvolvedinbioremediation.......................................................................75

5.1

5.1.1Hydrocarbon(petroleum)contaminationofsurfacewaterand

5.1.2Managementofhydrocarboncontaminatedwater........................................92

5.2 Microbialbioremediationofhydrocarbon(petroleum)contaminatedwater..........94

5.2.1Advantagesofmicrobialbioremediationtechnique......................................96

5.2.2Currentadvancesinmicrobialbioremediationtechnique.............................97

5.2.3Mechanismsofbioremediatingactivitybymicroorganisms.......................102

5.2.4Currentadvancesinapplicationofmicrobialbioremediation....................105

5.3 Challengesandrecommendations..........................................................................109

5.3.1Challenges....................................................................................................109

6.1

6.2

7.4

7.3.12Vanadium....................................................................................................151

7.3.13Zinc.............................................................................................................152

CHAPTER8Microbialdegradationofdye-containingwastewater

8.1

8.5

8.6

8.7

8.8

8.12

CHAPTER9MicrobialbioremediationofheavymetalsbyMarinebacteria

RajaHusain,NitinVikram,GarimaYadav,DeepakKumar, SonikaPandey,MonikaPatel,N.A.KhanandTouseefHussain

9.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................177

9.2 Typesofmarinebacteriainvolvedinmetalbioremediation...............................179 9.2.1Diversityofmarinebacteria.......................................................................180

9.3 Mechanismofmicrobialbioremediationofmetals.............................................181 9.3.1Remediationandmetals.............................................................................181

9.4 Microbialbioremediationanditsmechanism......................................................182

9.5 Microbialremediationofheavymetalsfromthesoil.........................................183

9.6 Microbialbioremediationofmetalsfromwater..................................................184

9.7 Advantagesanddisadvantagesofmicrobialbioremediation..............................185

9.14 Factorsaffectingheavymetalbioremediationbyalgae......................................194

9.15 Factorsaffectingthemicrobialbioremediationofheavymetals........................195

9.15.1Physiochemicalfactorsaffectingbioremediation....................................196

9.15.2Biologicalfactorsaffectingbioremediationprocesses............................196

9.15.3Climatechangeandbioremediationprocesses........................................196

10.2.1Chemistryofcyanideandtheirvariousforms........................................206 10.2.2Sourcesofcyanide...................................................................................208

10.2.3Cyanidedischargefromindustriesandpollution....................................209

10.2.4Toxicologicaleffectsofcyanide..............................................................211

10.2.5Efﬂuentdisposalstandardsofcyanide.....................................................213

10.3 Factorsresponsibleforthebiodegradationofcyanides......................................213

10.3.1Concentrationofcyanides........................................................................214

10.3.2Availabilityofnutrients............................................................................214

10.3.3Availabilityofoxygen..............................................................................214

10.4.1Hydrolyticpathway..................................................................................216

10.4.2Oxidativepathway....................................................................................217

10.4.3Reductivepathway...................................................................................218

10.4.4Substitution/transferpathway...................................................................219

10.4.5Synthasespathways..................................................................................219

10.5 Advancesincyanidebiodegradationtechnologies..............................................220

10.6 Conclusionandfutureprospects..........................................................................221

CHAPTER11Microbial-mediatedexplosivesremovalanditsimpact onTNT,RDX,andHMX ...................................................................

11.1

KomalAgrawalandPradeepVerma

11.4

11.5 Anoverviewoftheenvironmentalfateofexplosives.........................................228

11.6

CHAPTER12Advancementinmicrobialbioremediation

DixitaChettri,BhaskarSharmaandAnilKumarVerma

12.1

12.2

12.3

12.3.1Microbialstructure...................................................................................246

12.3.2Environmentalfactors..............................................................................247

12.3.3Physiochemicalcharacteristicofthecontaminant..................................247

12.4

12.6

12.7

12.5.2Biosurfactants...........................................................................................254

12.5.3Chemotaxisandtransport.........................................................................254

CHAPTER13Counterbalancingcommonexplosivepollutants(TNT,RDX,

14.5.6Enzymes-basedbiodegradationofvariousindustrialpollutants...........324

14.5.7Enzymeoxidoreductases........................................................................324

14.5.8Enzymeperoxidases...............................................................................325

14.5.9Enzymelaccases.....................................................................................327

14.5.10Enzymehydrolases.................................................................................327

14.5.11Limitationsandrecentadvances............................................................328

14.6 Conclusion............................................................................................................330

CHAPTER15Cyanoremediation:acleanandgreenapproachtowardthe sustainableenvironment ................................................................

SubhasishDutta,DebojitGhosh,ArunimaLahiri, SourishChakrabortyandSoumyaPandit

15.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................335

15.2 Cyanobacteriaataglance.....................................................................................338

15.2.1Microbiologyofcyanobacteria................................................................338

15.3 Cyanobacteriaaspotentialfood,feed,andbioenergysource.............................338

15.4 Cyanoremediation acleanandgreentechnologytowardsustainable

15.4.1Characteristicsofcyanobacteria..............................................................340

15.4.2Differentcyanoremediationapproaches..................................................340

LucianaPortodeSouzaVandenberghe,NelsonLibardiJunior, KimKleyValladares-Diestra,SusanGraceKarp, JoyceGueirosWanderleySiqueira,CristineRodriguesand CarlosRicardoSoccol

16.6.2Classiﬁcationofnanozymes.....................................................................372

16.6.3Nanozymesappliedinbioremediationprocesses....................................373 16.6.4Futureprospects.......................................................................................374

CHAPTER17AnapproachtowardthebiodegradationofPAHsbymicrobial

SubhasishDuttaandSayanLaha

17.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................383

17.2 PAH-degradingpathwaysbydifferentbacteriaandfungi...................................385

17.3 RemovalofPAHsfromthesoilbybacteria........................................................395

18.2.3Asphaltenesandwaxes.............................................................................413

18.3 Impactofpetroleumhydrocarbononsoil............................................................415

18.3.1Soilfertility...............................................................................................415

18.3.2Soilmicroﬂora..........................................................................................415

18.4 Removalofpetroleumhydrocarbon.....................................................................417

18.4.1Bacterialbiodegradationofpetroleumhydrocarbon...............................417

18.4.2Fungalbiodegradationofpetroleumhydrocarbons.................................419

18.5 Conclusions...........................................................................................................421

CHAPTER19Deep-marinebacteria

19.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................429

19.2 Sourcesofheavymetals.......................................................................................431

19.2.1Toxiceffectsofheavymetalsonsealife................................................432

19.3 Characteristicsanddiversityofdeep-marinebacteria.........................................433

19.4 Deep-marinebacteriaadaptationconcerningchangingenvironmental conditions..............................................................................................................434

19.4.1Factorsaffectingbioremediationprocess................................................435

19.4.2Mechanismofremediationprocesses......................................................436

19.5 Heavymetalremovalbydeep-marinebacteria...................................................439

19.6 Applicationofdeep-marinebacteriainbioremediation......................................440

19.7 Bioremediationenhancementviageneticallymodiﬁeddeep-marine bacteria..................................................................................................................441

19.7.1Nickel........................................................................................................443

19.7.2Cadmium..................................................................................................443

19.7.3Arsenic......................................................................................................443

19.7.4Mercury....................................................................................................444

19.8 Futureprospectivealsoprosandconsofusingdeep-marinebacteria................444

19.9 Conclusion............................................................................................................446

20.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................451

20.2 Bioﬁlmsinbioremediation...................................................................................452

Contributors

ElijahAdegokeAdebayo

DepartmentofPureandAppliedBiology,MicrobiologyUnit,LadokeAkintola UniversityofTechnology,Ogbomoso,Oyo,Nigeria

KomalAgrawal

BioprocessandBioenergyLaboratory,DepartmentofMicrobiology,Central UniversityofRajasthan,Ajmer,Rajasthan,India

MichealBukolaAlao

DepartmentofPureandAppliedBiology,MicrobiologyUnit,LadokeAkintola UniversityofTechnology,Ogbomoso,Oyo,Nigeria

VanditaAnand

DepartmentofBiotechnology,MotilalNehruNationalInstituteofTechnology (MNNIT)Allahabad,Prayagraj,UttarPradesh,India

SomdiptaBagchi

SchoolofInfrastructure,IndianInstituteofTechnologyBhubaneswar, Bhubaneswar,Odisha,India

SanchayitaBasu

DepartmentofMicrobiology,TripuraUniversity(ACentralUniversity),Agartala, Tripura,India

PakizaBegum

DepartmentofChemistry,GargaonCollege,Gargaon,Assam,India

ManaswiniBehera

SchoolofInfrastructure,IndianInstituteofTechnologyBhubaneswar, Bhubaneswar,Odisha,India

NavneetaBharadvaja

DepartmentofBiotechnology,DelhiTechnologicalUniversity,Delhi,India

ArunimaBhattacharjee

DepartmentofMicrobiology,TripuraUniversity(ACentralUniversity),Agartala, Tripura,India

JoorieBhattacharya

GeneticGains,InternationalCropsResearchInstitutefortheSemi-AridTropics, Hyderabad,Telangana,India

GayatriBrahmandam

SreenidhiInstituteofScienceandTechnology,Hyderabad,Telangana,India

NikitaChakraborty

DepartmentofChemistry,IndianInstituteofTechnologyGuwahati,North Guwahati,Assam,India

SourishChakraborty

DepartmentofBiotechnology,HaldiaInstituteofTechnology(HIT),ICARE Complex,Haldia,WestBengal,India

DixitaChettri

DepartmentofMicrobiology,SikkimUniversity,Gangtok,Sikkim,India

MohitaChugh

DepartmentofBiotechnology,DelhiTechnologicalUniversity,Delhi,India

PraveenDahiya

AmityInstituteofBiotechnology,AmityUniversityUttarPradesh(AUUP),Noida, India

SubhasishDutta

DepartmentofBiotechnology,HaldiaInstituteofTechnology(HIT),ICARE Complex,Haldia,WestBengal,India;ChemicalEngineeringDivision,Centerof InnovativeandAppliedBioprocessing(CIAB),Mohali,Punjab,India

VivekKumarGaur

EnvironmentalBiotechnologyLaboratory,EnvironmentalToxicologyGroup,CSIRIndianInstituteofToxicologyResearch,Lucknow,UttarPradesh,India;Amity InstituteofBiotechnology,AmityUniversityUttarPradesh,LucknowCampus, Lucknow,UttarPradesh,India

DebojitGhosh

DepartmentofBiotechnology,HaldiaInstituteofTechnology(HIT),ICARE Complex,Haldia,WestBengal,India

MrinmoyGhosh

KIIT-TechnologyBusinessIncubator,KalingaInstituteofIndustrialTechnology University,Bhubaneswar,Orissa,India

SougataGhosh

DepartmentofMicrobiology,SchoolofScience,RKUniversity,Rajkot,Gujarat, India;DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,NortheasternUniversity,Boston, MA,UnitedStates

UmeshGoutam

DepartmentofGeneticsEngineeringandMolecularBiology,Schoolof BioengineeringandBiosciences,LovelyProfessionalUniversity,Phagwara, Punjab,India

KumariGuddi

NationalInstituteofTechnology,Rourkela,Odisha,India

RajaHusain

DepartmentofAgriculture,HimalayanUniversity,Itanagar,ArunachalPradesh, India;ICAR-IndianInstituteofPulsesResearch,Kanpur,UttarPradesh,India; DepartmentofPlantMolecularBiologyandGeneticEngineering,NarendraDeva UniversityofAgricultureandTechnology,Ayodhya,UttarPradesh,India

TouseefHussain

DepartmentofBotany,AligarhMuslimUniversity,Aligarh,UttarPradesh,India; DivisionofPlantPathology,ICAR-IndianAgriculturalResearchInstitute,New Delhi,Delhi,India

NelsonLibardiJunior

DepartamentodeEngenhariadeBioprocessoseBiotecnologia,Universidade FederaldoParana ´ UFPR,Curitiba,Parana,Brazil

SusanGraceKarp

DepartamentodeEngenhariadeBioprocessoseBiotecnologia,Universidade FederaldoParana ´ UFPR,Curitiba,Parana,Brazil

PriyaKhadgawat

DepartmentofGenetics,UniversityofDelhi,NewDelhi,Delhi,India

N.A.Khan

DepartmentofPlantMolecularBiologyandGeneticEngineering,NarendraDeva UniversityofAgricultureandTechnology,Ayodhya,UttarPradesh,India

AshutoshKumar

DepartmentofMicrobiology,TripuraUniversity(ACentralUniversity),Agartala, Tripura,India

DeepakKumar

DepartmentofManufacturing&Development,NextnodeBiosciencePvt.Ltd., Kadi,Gujarat,India;DepartmentofPlantMolecularBiologyandGenetic Engineering,NarendraDevaUniversityofAgricultureandTechnology,Ayodhya, UttarPradesh,India

LakhanKumar

DepartmentofBiotechnology,DelhiTechnologicalUniversity,Delhi,India

SayanLaha

DepartmentofBiotechnology,HaldiaInstituteofTechnology(HIT),ICARE Complex,Haldia,WestBengal,India

ArunimaLahiri

DepartmentofBiotechnology,HaldiaInstituteofTechnology(HIT),ICARE Complex,Haldia,WestBengal,India

NatesanManickam

EnvironmentalBiotechnologyLaboratory,EnvironmentalToxicologyGroup, CSIR-IndianInstituteofToxicologyResearch,Lucknow,UttarPradesh,India

SomaNag

DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,NationalInstituteofTechnologyAgartala, Tripura,India

RahulNitnavare

DivisionofPlantandCropSciences,SchoolofBiosciences,Universityof Nottingham,Nottingham,UnitedKingdom;DepartmentofPlantSciences, RothamstedResearch,Harpenden,UnitedKingdom

AnjanaPandey

DepartmentofBiotechnology,MotilalNehruNationalInstituteofTechnology (MNNIT)Allahabad,Prayagraj,UttarPradesh,India

SonikaPandey

ICAR-IndianInstituteofPulsesResearch,Kanpur,UttarPradesh,India

SoumyaPandit

DepartmentofLifeSciences,SchoolofBasicSciencesandResearch,Sharda University,GreaterNoida,UttarPradesh,India

BhismaKumarPatel

DepartmentofChemistry,IndianInstituteofTechnologyGuwahati,North Guwahati,Assam,India

MonikaPatel

CSIR-CentralDrugResearchInstitute,Sector-10JankipuramExtension, Lucknow,UttarPradesh,India

BhumikaRajoria

DepartmentofPharmacology,UniversityofMinnesota,Minneapolis,MN,United States

CristineRodrigues

DepartamentodeEngenhariadeBioprocessoseBiotecnologia,Universidade FederaldoParana ´ UFPR,Curitiba,Parana,Brazil

ArpitaRoy

DepartmentofBiotechnology,SchoolofEngineering&Technology,Sharda University,GreaterNoida,UttarPradesh,India

RahulSaha

DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,NationalInstituteofTechnologyAgartala, Tripura,India

AnganaSarkar

NationalInstituteofTechnology,Rourkela,Odisha,India

AveepsaSengupta

DepartmentofMicrobiology,TripuraUniversity(ACentralUniversity),Agartala, Tripura,India

BhaskarSharma

SchoolofLifeandEnvironmentalSciences,FacultyofScience,Engineering,and BuiltEnvironment,DeakinUniversity,Geelong,Australia;TERISchoolof AdvancedStudies,NewDelhi,Delhi,India

NahidMasoodSiddiqui

AmityInstituteofBiotechnology,AmityUniversityUttarPradesh(AUUP),Noida, India

NehaSingh

DepartmentofGeneticsEngineeringandMolecularBiology,Schoolof BioengineeringandBiosciences,LovelyProfessionalUniversity,Phagwara, Punjab,India

PragatiSingh

DepartmentofMicrobiology,TripuraUniversity(ACentralUniversity),Agartala, Tripura,India

JoyceGueirosWanderleySiqueira

DepartamentodeEngenhariadeBioprocessoseBiotecnologia,Universidade FederaldoParana ´ UFPR,Curitiba,Parana,Brazil

CarlosRicardoSoccol

DepartamentodeEngenhariadeBioprocessoseBiotecnologia,Universidade FederaldoParana ´ UFPR,Curitiba,Parana,Brazil

AbhinavSuresh

DepartmentofBiotechnology,RajalakshmiEngineeringCollege,Thandalam, TamilNadu,India

JollyThomas

CenterforNanosciencesandMolecularMedicine,AmritaInstituteofMedical SciencesandResearchCenter(AIMS),Kochi,Kerala,India

VarshaTripathi

EnvironmentalBiotechnologyLaboratory,EnvironmentalToxicologyGroup, CSIR-IndianInstituteofToxicologyResearch,Lucknow,UttarPradesh,India; AcademyofScientiﬁcandInnovativeResearch(AcSIR),Ghaziabad,Uttar Pradesh,India

KimKleyValladares-Diestra

DepartamentodeEngenhariadeBioprocessoseBiotecnologia,Universidade FederaldoParana ´ UFPR,Curitiba,Parana,Brazil

LucianaPortodeSouzaVandenberghe

DepartamentodeEngenhariadeBioprocessoseBiotecnologia,Universidade FederaldoParana ´ UFPR,Curitiba,Parana,Brazil

AnilKumarVerma

DepartmentofMicrobiology,SikkimUniversity,Gangtok,Sikkim,India

PradeepVerma

BioprocessandBioenergyLaboratory,DepartmentofMicrobiology,Central UniversityofRajasthan,Ajmer,Rajasthan,India

NitinVikram

DepartmentofAgriculture,ZilaParishadAgricultureCollege,Banda,Uttar Pradesh,India

ThomasJ.Webster

DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,NortheasternUniversity,Boston,MA, UnitedStates

GarimaYadav

ICAR-IndianInstituteofPulsesResearch,Kanpur,UttarPradesh,India; DepartmentofPlantMolecularBiologyandGeneticEngineering,NarendraDeva UniversityofAgricultureandTechnology,Ayodhya,UttarPradesh,India

Microbialdegradationof xenobioticsin bioelectrochemical systems

SomdiptaBagchi,ManaswiniBehera SchoolofInfrastructure,IndianInstituteofTechnologyBhubaneswar,Bhubaneswar,Odisha,India

1.1 Introductiontoxenobiotics

The“xeno”in“xenobiotics”isaGreekworkmeaningguest,friend,orforeignerand “bio”meanslife.Hence,xenobioticsarechemicalcompoundsforeigntoorganisms orenvironment.Xenobioticsareusuallyproducedfromhumanactivities.However, naturecanalsocontributetotheproductiononthesecompounds.Endobiotic (naturallyoccurringchemicals)whenpresentinhighconcentrationintheenvironmentbecomesxenobiotics.Thesearealsoproducedbysomeorganismsasapartof theirdefensemechanism,forexample,mycotoxin,bacterialandherbaltoxin.These havetheabilitytointeractwithenvironmentbyenteringthefoodchain.Xenobiotics canbechieflyclassifiedintopesticides,polycyclicaromatichydrocarbon(PAHs), polychlorinatedaromatics,solvents,surfactants,silicones,andplastics.Someof theexamplesofnature’scontributiontoformationofxenobioticsareseepingof petroleumhydrocarbonsthroughnaturalprocesses,productionofvolatileterpenes andotherhalogenatedcompoundsbyplants,fungi,algae,bacteria,andotherorganisms.Theyarealsoreleasedintotheenvironmentfromhousehold,municipal, agricultural,andindustrialfacilities.Althoughtheyarepresentinlowconcentrations,thesehavebecomeaconcernbecauseoftheirbiorefractorynature.Totalof 200,000xenobioticcompoundshavebeenidentifiedsofar.Xenobioticshaveunnaturalstructuralfeatures,makingthemnonbiodegradableorpartiallybiodegradable. Therecalcitranceofthexenobioticcompoundscanbeattributedto (i)nonrecognizableassubstratetodegradablemicroorganisms,(ii)highstability inwater,(iii)insolubilityinwater,(iv)toxicityortoxicby-productsgenerationas aresultofmicrobialdegradation,(v)highmolecularweightpreventingentryto microbialcells,and(vi)theunphysiologicalchemicalbondswhichblocktheattack bymicroorganisms.

Humanexposuretoxenobioticsisunavoidable,astheyareusedasdrugs, antibiotics,dietarysupplementslikeantioxidants.Theyarealsousedasfoodingredients(dyes,stabilizers,preservatives,emulsiﬁer,saltcompounds),cosmetics,and personalcareandhouseholdproducts(makeup,perfumes,soaps,bleach,sprays,

andcleaners)onadailybasis.Theindustrial,domestic,andagriculturalwastesrun offintorivers,lakes,andgroundwaterandareconsumedbyhumanbeings,animals, andusedforagriculturalpurposes.Themodeofcontaminationisclassifiedinto directandindirect.Directcontaminationisfromwatercollectedfrompollutedwater reserves,whereasindirectcontaminationisfromconsumptionofvegetables, cereals,andfruitsraisedusingfertilizersludgefromsewagewatertreatmentunit ornoncompostedhumanoranimaldung.Consumptionofmeat,fish,shrimps,or snailsfedwithorcollectedfrompollutedwaterbodiesalsoleadstoindirect consumption.Thesexenobioticspresentlydonothaveanyregulatorystandardsin mostofthecountriesastheyareusuallypresentatanextremelylowconcentration intheaquaticenvironment.Thexenobioticsafterconsumptioncausesbiotoxicity, bioassimilation,geneticmutationsandchronicdiseases,etc.,inalllifeforms. Becauseofitsbiorefractorynature,xenobioticsareoftenemittednondegradedin conventionalprimaryphysicaloperationsandbiologicalsecondarywastewater treatmentprocessesandappearintheeffluentsofwastewatertreatmentplantsin theabsenceofanefficienttertiarytreatmentunit.Thevarioustertiarytreatment processes,suchasmembranefiltration,adsorption,advancedoxidation,etc.,can efficientlyremovexenobioticsbuttheyrequirehugeamountofenergy,economy, maintenance,andgeneratetoxicby-productsandsludge,hencearenot recommended.

Bioelectrochemicalsystem(BES)isastate-of-the-arttechnology,whichrecently hasgainedalotofattentioninthelightofdegradationofxenobiotics.TheBESare devicesthatcanconvertchemicalenergyintoelectricalenergyemployingmicroorganismsascatalystsorutilizeselectricalenergytoproducehydrogen,methane,or manyothercompoundsofinterestfromorganicmatterwhicharecalledmicrobial fuelcell(MFC)andmicrobialelectrolysiscell(MEC),respectively.Atypical double-chamberedMFCconsistsofananodeandcathodechamberseparated mostcommonlybyaprotonexchangemembrane(PEM).Acurrentcollectorwith anexternalloadconnectstheanodeandcathode.TheanodechamberoftheMFC isusuallyinoculatedwithanaerobicsludge.Thesubstrateaddedintheanode undergoesanaerobicdigestionbyexoelectrogensproducingprotons,electrons, andCO2.Theelectronsreleasedaretransferredthroughmediator,conductivepilli, ornanowirestotheanode,whichthenﬂowstothecathodeviathecurrentcollector. Theprotonsgeneratedintheanodicchambermigratetothecathodicchamber crossingthePEMtomaintainchargeequilibriuminthesystem.Whereasin MEC,electricityissuppliedtothesystemtoobtainhydrogen,methane,oranyother value-addedproductsfromtheorganicmatterpresentinthewastewater.Inmicrobialdesalinationcell(MDC),athirdchamberisintroducedbetweentheanode andcathodechambers.Thismiddlechamberiscalledadesalinationchamberwhere salinewaterisadded.Anionexchangemembrane(AEM)nexttotheanodeanda cationexchangemembrane(CEM)nexttothecathodeareplacedinboththesides ofthedesalinationchamber.Whenthebacteriadegradetheorganicmatteratthe anode,transferringfreeelectronsthroughtheexternalcircuit,apositivelycharged mediumintheanodeiscreatedalongwithcreationofanegativelychargedmedium

inthecathodechamber.Thispotentialdifferencebetweenanodeandcathodechamberdrivestheﬂowofanions(Cl )fromthedesalinationchamberthroughtheAEM intotheanodeandtheﬂowofcations(Naþ)throughtheCEMintothecathode therebyresultinginthedesalinationofwaterinthedesalinationchamber.

ThecombinationofoxidizingaswellasreducingenvironmentinBESandthe robustmicrobialconsortiaintheformofinoculummakesBESasuitablechoice forxenobioticsdegradationincomparisontootherconventionalprocesses. Furthermore,thegenerationofhighlyreactivespeciessuchas OOH, OH,etc., viaatwo-electronpathwayandsuitablemodiﬁcationssuchasutilizationofcathode catalystleadstoincreasedproductionofreactiveoxygenspeciesimprovingthe degradationefﬁciencyofxenobiotics(Chakrabortyetal.,2020).

Hence,inthischapter,thethreeBES,namelyMFC,MEC,andMDC,havebeen discussedtounderstandthefeasibilityxenobioticsdegradationandpower generationusingthesethreetechnologies.

1.2 Conventionalprocessesofxenobioticsdegradationand theirdrawbacks

Xenobioticsarereleaseduntreatedorpartiallytreatedfromtheprimarytreatment unitsandowingtotheirrecalcitrancetheycanonlybetreatedcompletelyin advancedprocesses.Thedifferentxenobioticcompoundssuchaspharmaceuticals andpersonalcareproducts,contrastmedia,plasticizers,foodadditives,wood preservatives,laundrydetergents,surfactants,disinfectants,flameretardants,pesticides,naturalandsynthetichormones,andafewdisinfectionby-products,etc.,are usuallydischargedbyhouseholdsandindustries.Becauseoftheirrecalcitrance, thesexenobioticcompoundsortheirmetabolitesendupintheenvironment,due towhichtheawarenessregardingtheinfluenceofthesepollutantsonenvironmental waterbodiesarerisingandtheirtreatmentisconsideredimportant.Thepresenceof thexenobioticsinaquaticbodiescanhavealotofecotoxicologicaleffectsandhigh riskstohumanhealthduetoitsbioaccumulationandmicrobialdrugresistance.It wasreportedthatthecompoundsbromoform,chloroform,diclofenac,caffeine, ibuprofen,naproxen,methyldihydrojasmonate,galaxolide,butylatedhydroxytoluene,andbutylatedhydroxyanisolewerefoundinirrigationwaterandlaterin theplants.Hormones,whichactasendocrinedisruptionagents,werereportedto affectthereproductivehealthandsurvivalofseveralspeciesoffishes.Thefollowing conventionaltreatmentprocesseshavebeentilldateusedforthetreatmentof xenobioticsinwastewater(Fetzner,2002).

1.2.1 Adsorption

Theprocessofadsorptionhasbeenusedalotrecentlytodegradexenobiotics becauseofitsadvantagesofsimplicityinoperationanddesigning,capabilityto handlemicrolevelofpollutants,toxicityremoval,lowinvestmentcost,