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CropManagement,IndustrialUsages,andFunctionalPurposes
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CurrentApplications, Approaches,and PotentialPerspectives forHemp
CropManagement,IndustrialUsages,and FunctionalPurposes
Editedby
Iv´anFranciscoGarc´ıa-Tejero
IFAPACentro“LasTorres”,CAPADR-JuntadeAndaluc´ıa,Seville,Spain
V´ıctorHugoDur´an-Zuazo
IFAPACentro“CaminodePurchil”,CAPADR-JuntadeAndaluc´ıa, Granada,Spain
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1.Suitabilityandopportunitiesfor Cannabissativa L. asanalternativecropforMediterranean environments
2.Linkingagronomicalpracticesfor Cannabissativa L. productionanditspotentialusages:fiber,seeds, essentialoilsandcannabinoidsproduction 49
Iv ´ anFranciscoGarc´ıa-Tejero,Bele ´ nC ´ arcelesand V´ıctorHugoDur ´ an-Zuazo
2.1Introduction 49
2.1.1Traditionalandpotentialusagesofhemp50
2.2Agronomicalstrategiesforfiberandseedsproduction 52
2.2.1Environmentalconditions52
2.2.2Sowingtimeandplantdensity53
2.2.3 Cannabis waterrequirements55
2.2.4Fertilizingstrategiesandcropnutrientsdemand59
2.2.5Theimportanceofhempcultivarforfiberandseeds production61
2.3Newinsightsforcannabinoidsproductionby usingtraditionalcultivars 64
2.3.1Metabolicpathwaysforcannabinoidssynthesis65
2.3.2Agronomicalstrategiesforcannabinoidsproductions byusingfibercultivars66
2.4Conclusionsandfutureperspectives 68
3.Strategiestoimprove Cannabis cultivation:optimizing plantgrowthandphytocannabinoidbiosynthesis 77 PedroPe ´ rez-Bermu ´ dezandAlejandroRognoniMart´ınez
3.1Introduction 77
3.2Anoverviewof cannabis taxonomy,phytocannabinoids andtheendocannabinoidsystem 78
3.2.1Botanicalaspectsof Cannabis 78
3.2.2Phytocannabinoidsecondarymetabolism79
3.2.3Theendocannabinoidsystem82
3.2.4Mainphytocannabinoids84
3.3EnvironmentalfactorsaffectingCannabisgrowthand phytocannabinoidbiosynthesis 85
3.3.1Light85
3.3.2Temperatureandairhumidity90
3.3.3CO2 92
3.4Strategiestoenhancegrowthandsecondarymetabolismin Cannabis 92
3.4.1Irrigation92
3.4.2Phytohormones95
3.4.3Othersupplements97
3.5Conclusions
Section2
Currentandpotentialapplicationsofhempproducts: fiber,seeds,andessentialoils
4.Roleof Cannabissativa L.inenergyproduction: residuesasapotentiallignocellulosicbiomassin anaerobicdigestionplants 111
E.Melis,CarlaAsquer,GianlucaCarboniandEfisioAntonioScano
4.1 Cannabissativa L.asabiomassforenergy 111
4.1.1Generalconsiderationsonindustrialhemp111
4.1.2Bioenergypathwaysofhempbiomass116
4.2Anaerobicdigestionoflignocellulosicbiomass:anoverview 122
4.2.1Anaerobicdigestionoutlines122
4.2.2Typesanddistributionoflignocellulosicbiomass123
4.2.3Mainfactorsaffectingbiogasproduction126
4.2.4Anaerobicdigestionoflignocellulosicfeedstock: generalconsiderationsfromlabscaletofullscale136
4.3Anaerobicdigestionofhempstrawresidues: acasestudyonapilotscale 139
4.3.1Fromlaboratorytofullscale:testinghempstrawona pilotscale139
4.3.2Bioenhancers’use147
4.3.3Reactormanagementandprocessstability158 4.3.4Energyperformance170
4.4Conclusionsandperspectives 184 References 186
5.Hempessentialoil:aninnovativeproductwith potentialindustrialapplications 201
EugeniaMazzara,RiccardoPetrelli,JacopoTorresi, RenatoRicciardi,GiovanniBenelliandFilippoMaggi
5.1Introduction
5.2Glandulartrichomes
5.3Hempvarieties
5.4Essentialoilanditsmainconstituents
5.4.1Pharmacologicalactivitiesofessentialoilchemical constituents217
5.5Chemicalcompositionsofessentialoilsfrom hempvarieties 225
5.6Biologicalactivitiesofhempessentialoil 229
5.6.1Insecticidal,acaricidalandrepellentactivityof hempessentialoil229
5.6.2Insecticidal,acaricidalandrepellentactivityofthe majorconstituentsofhempessentialoil235
5.6.3Antimicrobialactivityofhempessentialoil251
5.6.4Otherbiologicalactivities264
5.7Conclusionsandremarks 266 References 267
6.Newchemicalinsightsinindustrialhempand itsby-productsforinnovativeandsustainable application-orientedprojects 281
MarialuisaFormato,MariaT.Pecoraro,GiuseppinaCrescente, SimonaPiccolellaandSeverinaPacifico
6.1Introduction 281
6.2Materialsandmethods 284
6.2.1Plantextractionandfractionation284
6.2.2Ultra-high-performanceliquidchromatography coupledwithelectrosprayionizationquadrupole time-of-flightmassspectrometryandMS/MS analyses285
6.2.3Radicalscavengingcapacity:1,1-diphenyl-2picrylhydrazyland2,2’-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazolin6-sulfonicacid)tests286
6.2.4Fe(III)reducingpower286
6.2.5Statisticalanalysis287
6.3Resultsanddiscussion 287
6.3.1Ultra-high-performanceliquidchromatography coupled-high-resolutionMs/MSbasedchemical compositionanalysis289
6.3.2Phenolsandpolyphenolsaredifferentlyrecoverable inhempwastematerials306
6.4Conclusions 310
7.Slowpyrolysisprocessingofindustrialhemp by-products 315
LauraTomppo,JormaHeikkinen,AyobamiSalami, NooraJokinenandReijoLappalainen
7.1Introduction 315
7.2Slowpyrolysis 315
7.2.1Reactortypesforslowpyrolysis317
7.3Hempasarawmaterial 319
7.4Experimentalslowpyrolysisofhemp 320
7.4.1Materials320
7.4.2Methods322
7.4.3Productyieldsfromtheslowpyrolysisprocess326 7.4.4Discussion326
7.5Selectedapplications
8.Thecustomer’spreferenceinlightcannabis: anItalianperspective
RobertoMancinelli,AmbraAltimari,PatriziaPapettiand EmanueleRadicetti
8.1Introduction
8.2Evolutionofthelegalframework
8.2.1Productionanddistributionofmedicalcannabis342
8.2.2Productionanddistributionofcannabidiolcannabis343 8.2.3Stateofthemarket344
8.3KeyaspectsofindustrialhempcultivationinItaly
8.4Thebasesandthecomponentstoapproachand applythestudy
8.4.1Costofhempcultivation348
8.4.2Customers’preferenceinItalyandothersixEuropean Countries350
8.5Lighthempconsumer’scharacteristics
8.5.1Cannabisandtobaccoconsumptionfrequencies357 8.6Generalandfinalconsiderations
9.Currentandfutureapplicationsfor hempessentialoils:areview
Bele ´ nC ´ arcelesRodr´ıguez,V´ıctorHugoDur ´ an-Zuazo, Iv ´ anFranciscoGarc´ıa-TejeroandBaltasarG ´ alvezRuiz
9.1Introduction
9.2Essentialoilsproductionandtrade
9.3Hemp’sessentialoils
9.3.1Factorsinfluencingyieldandcomposition370
9.3.2Methodsofextractionandrawmaterialpretreatment372
9.4Mainapplicationsofhempessentialoil
9.4.1Biopesticide376
9.4.2Antimicrobial377
10.Hempseedproductsandbyproducts:amineof bioactivecompoundstoimprovefunctionalityof
LorenzoNissen,FlaviaCasciano,ElenaBabiniand AndreaGianotti
11.Therapeuticusesof
arez
11.3.2Epilepsy413 11.3.3Nauseaandvomiting415 11.3.4Pain419 11.3.5Appetitestimulation420 11.4Medicalcannabis:moderate-lowqualityevidence 421 11.4.1Neurodegenerativedisorders421 11.4.2Cancerdisease423 11.4.3Psychiatricdisorders424 11.4.4Alcoholism425 11.4.5Skindisorders425
11.5Cannabissideeffectsandcannabisabusedisorder
12.Anoverviewonsensoryevaluation,volatile compounds,andlegalregulationsof Cannabissativa 447
LeontinaLipan,Han ´ anIssa-Issa,EstherSendra, LuisNoguera-Artiaga,Aaro ´ nA ´ ngelCarbonell-Pedroand A ´ ngelA.Carbonell-Barrachina
12.1Synopsisof Cannabissativa,sensoryanalysis,and volatilecompounds 447
12.1.1 Cannabissativa 447
12.1.2Sensoryanalysis—history,definition,andmethods449
12.1.3Sensoryanalysisapplicationinherbs451
12.1.4Volatileorganiccompounds—concepts, biosynthesis,andchemicalfamiliesof Cannabissativa 454
12.2Instrumentalanalysisofcolorandvolatileorganic compoundsof Cannabissativa 456
12.2.1Instrumentalanalysisofcolor457
12.2.2Instrumentalanalysisofvolatileorganiccompounds458
12.3Scientificproduction 459
12.3.1Scientificproductionforhempingeneral459
12.3.2Scientificproductionforsensoryanalysisofhemp461
12.3.3Scientificproductionforthevolatilecompounds ofthehemp464
12.4Consumptionregulations,legalstatus,andcurrenttrends 466
12.4.1EUregulations467
12.4.2UnitedStatesofAmericaregulationsand perspectives471
12.4.3Worldregulationsstatus, Cannabissativa,food relationship,andacutereferencedose472
12.5Sensorylexiconandmainfindingsof Cannabis sativa sensoryanalysis 474
12.5.1Sensorylexicon474
12.5.2Mainfindingsontheappearanceof Cannabissativa 474
12.5.3Mainfindingsontheodorof Cannabissativa 480
12.6Mainfindingsofvolatilecompoundsprofileand contentin Cannabissativa 483
12.10Conclusions 484 References 485
13.By-productsofhempfromanutritional pointofview:newperspectivesandopportunities 493 AntoniSzumnyandAnnaK. Zołnierczyk
13.1Introduction 493
13.2Nutritionalpropertiesofhempseeds 495
13.2.1Chemicalcomposition495
13.3Essentialoilofhemp/cannabis
14.Assessmentofhempcropadaptationandeconomic sustainabilitythroughmodelingandfieldtrials 519 FrancescoDanuso,MarioBaldini,GaiaDorigo, FedericoNassiveraandLucaIseppi
14.1Introduction 519
14.1.1Thehempcrop520
14.1.2Economicalaspectsofhempproducts521
14.1.3Producttypes526
14.1.4Cropproductionandharvest528
14.1.5On-farmseedprocessing533
14.2Proceduretoassesshempcropadaptation 533
14.2.1Fieldexperiments535
14.2.2On-farmexperimentaltrials536
14.2.3Modelinghempproduction542
14.2.4Modelinputs547
14.2.5Modeloutputs553
14.2.6Softwareapplication553
14.2.7Modelparametrization557 14.2.8Validation563
14.2.9Optimization563
14.3Assessmentofeconomicsustainability 564
14.3.1Scenariodefinitionforsustainabilityevaluation564
14.3.2Implementingscenarios566
14.3.3Meteorologicalconditions566
14.4Evaluationofproductionscenarios:casestudies 567
14.4.1Farmdecisionexperiment567
14.4.2Productionuncertaintyexperiment573
14.5Conclusionsandfutureperspectives 579
Listofcontributors
AmbraAltimari DepartmentofEconomicsandLaw,UniversityofCassinoand SouthernLazio,Cassino,Italy
CarlaAsquer SardegnaRicerche,RenewableEnergyCentre,Cagliari,Italy
ElenaBabini DepartmentofAgriculturalandFoodSciences(DISTAL),AlmaMater Studiorum-UniversityofBologna,Bologna,Italy;InterdepartmentalCentreof Agri-FoodIndustrialResearch(CIRI),AlmaMaterStudiorum-Universityof Bologna,Cesena,Italy
MarioBaldini DipartimentodiScienzeAgroAlimentari,AmbientalieAnimali (DI4A),UniversityofUdine,Udine,Italy
GiovanniBenelli DepartmentofAgriculture,FoodandEnvironment,Universityof Pisa,Pisa,Italy
A ´ ngelA.Carbonell-Barrachina DepartmentofAgro-FoodTechnology,Research Group“FoodQualityandSafety,”Agro-FoodandAgro-EnvironmentalResearch andInnovationCenter,MiguelHerna ´ ndezUniversity,Orihuela,Alicante,Spain
Aaro ´ nA ´ ngelCarbonell-Pedro DepartmentofAgro-FoodTechnology,Research Group“FoodQualityandSafety,”Agro-FoodandAgro-EnvironmentalResearch andInnovationCenter,MiguelHerna ´ ndezUniversity,Orihuela,Alicante,Spain
GianlucaCarboni AgrisSardegna,ServicefortheResearchonHerbaceous CroppingSystems,Cagliari,Italy
Bele ´ nCa ´ rceles AndalusianInstituteofTrainingandFarmingResearch(IFAPA)Center“CaminodePurchil”,CaminodePurchil,Granada,Spain
FlaviaCasciano DepartmentofAgriculturalandFoodSciences(DISTAL),Alma MaterStudiorum-UniversityofBologna,Bologna,Italy
GiuseppinaCrescente DepartmentofEnvironmental,BiologicalandPharmaceutical SciencesandTechnologies,UniversityofCampania“LuigiVanvitelli”,Caserta, Italy
FrancescoDanuso DipartimentodiScienzeAgroAlimentari,AmbientalieAnimali (DI4A),UniversityofUdine,Udine,Italy
GaiaDorigo Agenziaregionaleperlosvilupporurale(ERSA),Serviziofitosanitarioe chimico,ricerca,sperimentazioneeassistenzatecnica,PozzuolodelFriuli,Udine, Italy
Vı´ctorHugoDura ´ n-Zuazo IFAPACentro“CaminodePurchil”,CAPADR-Junta deAndalucı´a,Granada,Spain
MarialuisaFormato DepartmentofEnvironmental,BiologicalandPharmaceutical SciencesandTechnologies,UniversityofCampania“LuigiVanvitelli”,Caserta, Italy
AnaIFraguas-Sa ´ nchez DepartmentofPharmaceuticsandFoodTechnology, FacultyofPharmacy,ComplutenseUniversityofMadrid,Madrid,Spain
Iva ´ nFranciscoGarcı´a-Tejero IFAPACentro“LasTorres”,CAPADR-Juntade Andalucı´a,Seville,Spain
AndreaGianotti DepartmentofAgriculturalandFoodSciences(DISTAL),Alma MaterStudiorum-UniversityofBologna,Bologna,Italy;Interdepartmental CentreofAgri-FoodIndustrialResearch(CIRI),AlmaMaterStudiorumUniversityofBologna,Cesena,Italy
JormaHeikkinen DepartmentofAppliedPhysics,UniversityofEasternFinland, Kuopio,Finland
Vı´ctorHugoDura ´ n-Zuazo IFAPACentro“CaminodePurchil”,CAPADR-Junta deAndalucı´a,Granada,Spain
LucaIseppi DipartimentodiScienzeAgroAlimentari,AmbientalieAnimali(DI4A), UniversityofUdine,Udine,Italy
Hana ´ nIssa-Issa DepartmentofAgro-FoodTechnology,ResearchGroup“Food QualityandSafety,”Agro-FoodandAgro-EnvironmentalResearchand InnovationCenter,MiguelHerna ´ ndezUniversity,Orihuela,Alicante,Spain
NooraJokinen DepartmentofAppliedPhysics,UniversityofEasternFinland, Kuopio,Finland
ReijoLappalainen DepartmentofAppliedPhysics,UniversityofEasternFinland, Kuopio,Finland
LeontinaLipan DepartmentofAgro-FoodTechnology,ResearchGroup“Food QualityandSafety,”Agro-FoodandAgro-EnvironmentalResearchand InnovationCenter,MiguelHerna ´ ndezUniversity,Orihuela,Alicante,Spain
FilippoMaggi ChemistryInterdisciplinaryProject(ChIP),SchoolofPharmacy, UniversityofCamerino,Camerino,Italy
RobertoMancinelli DepartmentofAgriculturalandForestrySciences(DAFNE), UniversityofTuscia,Viterbo,Italy
EugeniaMazzara ChemistryInterdisciplinaryProject(ChIP),SchoolofPharmacy, UniversityofCamerino,Camerino,Italy
E.Melis SardegnaRicerche,RenewableEnergyCentre,Cagliari,Italy
FedericoNassivera DipartimentodiScienzeAgroAlimentari,AmbientalieAnimali (DI4A),UniversityofUdine,Udine,Italy
LorenzoNissen DepartmentofAgriculturalandFoodSciences(DISTAL),Alma MaterStudiorum-UniversityofBologna,Bologna,Italy;Interdepartmental CentreofAgri-FoodIndustrialResearch(CIRI),AlmaMaterStudiorumUniversityofBologna,Cesena,Italy
Listofcontributors xv
LuisNoguera-Artiaga DepartmentofAgro-FoodTechnology,ResearchGroup “FoodQualityandSafety,”Agro-FoodandAgro-EnvironmentalResearchand InnovationCenter,MiguelHerna ´ ndezUniversity,Orihuela,Alicante,Spain
SeverinaPacifico DepartmentofEnvironmental,BiologicalandPharmaceutical SciencesandTechnologies,UniversityofCampania“LuigiVanvitelli”,Caserta, Italy
PatriziaPapetti DepartmentofEconomicsandLaw,TerritorialandProducts AnalysisLaboratory(LAMeT),UniversityofCassinoandSouthernLazio, Cassino,Italy
MariaT.Pecoraro DepartmentofEnvironmental,BiologicalandPharmaceutical SciencesandTechnologies,UniversityofCampania“LuigiVanvitelli”,Caserta, Italy
PedroPe ´ rez-Bermu ´ dez DepartmentofPlantBiology,FacultyofPharmacy, UniversityofValencia,Burjasot,Valencia,Spain
RiccardoPetrelli ChemistryInterdisciplinaryProject(ChIP),SchoolofPharmacy, UniversityofCamerino,Camerino,Italy
SimonaPiccolella DepartmentofEnvironmental,BiologicalandPharmaceutical SciencesandTechnologies,UniversityofCampania“LuigiVanvitelli”,Caserta, Italy
EmanueleRadicetti DepartmentofChemical,PharmaceuticalandAgricultural Sciences(DOCPAS),UniversityofFerrara,Ferrara,Italy
RenatoRicciardi DepartmentofAgriculture,FoodandEnvironment,Universityof Pisa,Pisa,Italy
Bele ´ nCa ´ rcelesRodrı ´ guez AndalusianInstituteofTrainingandFarmingResearch (IFAPA)-Center“CaminodePurchil”,Granada,Spain;AndalusianInstituteof TrainingandFarmingResearch(IFAPA)-Center“CaminodePurchil”,Camino dePurchils/n.18,004.Granada,Spain
AlejandroRognoniMartı´nez DepartmentofPlantBiology,FacultyofPharmacy, UniversityofValencia,Burjasot,Valencia,Spain
BaltasarGa ´ lvezRuiz AndalusianInstituteofTrainingandFarmingResearch (IFAPA)-Center“CaminodePurchil”,Granada,Spain;AndalusianInstituteof TrainingandFarmingResearch(IFAPA)-Center“CaminodePurchil”,Camino dePurchils/n.18,004.Granada,Spain
AyobamiSalami DepartmentofAppliedPhysics,UniversityofEasternFinland, Kuopio,Finland
EfisioAntonioScano SardegnaRicerche,RenewableEnergyCentre,Cagliari,Italy
EstherSendra DepartmentofAgro-FoodTechnology,ResearchGroup“FoodQuality andSafety,”Agro-FoodandAgro-EnvironmentalResearchandInnovationCenter, MiguelHerna ´ ndezUniversity,Orihuela,Alicante,Spain
AntoniSzumny FacultyofBiotechnologyandFoodScience,DepartmentofFood ChemistryandBiocatalysis,WrocławUniversityofEnvironmentalandLife Sciences,Wrocław,Poland
xvi Listofcontributors
LauraTomppo DepartmentofAppliedPhysics,UniversityofEasternFinland, Kuopio,Finland;SIBLabsInfrastructureUnit,UniversityofEasternFinland, Kuopio,Finland
JacopoTorresi ChemistryInterdisciplinaryProject(ChIP),SchoolofPharmacy, UniversityofCamerino,Camerino,Italy
AnaI.Torres-Sua ´ rez DepartmentofPharmaceuticsandFoodTechnology,Faculty ofPharmacy,ComplutenseUniversityofMadrid,Madrid,Spain
AnnaK.Z ˙ ołnierczyk FacultyofBiotechnologyandFoodScience,Departmentof FoodChemistryandBiocatalysis,WrocławUniversityofEnvironmentalandLife Sciences,Wrocław,Poland
Preface
Theworldischanging.Manyunexpectedcircumstancesaresurroundingour presentandnearfuture;butunfortunately,humanshavenotbeenableto internalizethefactthatonlyscience,criticalknowledge,andtoleranceare thefundamentalfoundationsthatcanhelpestablishaprosperous,fair,united, anddemocraticsociety.Awell-knownexampleofthedetrimentaleffects thatleadtoignoranceandfearcanbefoundinthehistory,development,virtualdisappearance,andrecentresurgenceof Cannabissativa L.Itisamultifacetedcropwithseveralpotentialapplicationsthatareextensivelyknown worldwide;however,duetolessinterestandemergenceofalternatives,the cropwasvilifiedanddisplacedinlessthanhalfacentury.However,and thankstotheadvancesinscienceandknowledge,newemerginglines regardingtraditionalandalternativeusagesofthiscroparebeingdeveloped, providingconsiderablepossibilitiesofofferingresponsestodifferentrequirementsandneeds.Thiseditionofthebook CurrentApplications,Approaches, andPotentialPerspectivesforHemp:CropManagement,IndustrialUsages, andFunctionalPurposes hasthreefoldobjectives:Contributingtothe improvementintheknowledgeaboutthecroppingpracticesdependingon thefinalpotentialproduct;unifyingandhomogenizingthelastmostrelevant scientificpapers;promotingpotentialapplicationsofhempproducts;differingamongfibers,seeds,andessentialoils,andfinally,updatingtheknowledgewithrespecttonewalternativeusesofhempbyproducts,suchasthose withbiomedicalandnutritionalapplications;focusingonthestrengths, weakness,andchallenges.
Evidently,thisbookcannotandisnotintendedtobetheultimateliteraturereferencetoprovideallanswersinthefieldofhemp;andevenlessto presentthiscropasthesolutiontoalltheenvironmentalproblems,resources scarcity,andlimitingcrops,butitappearswiththemodestyofcontributing toofferideasaboutthepotentialhempusages.Thus,thefurtherchallengeis addressingtheresearcheffortsthatencouragetheimprovementofhemp farmingprofitabilitythroughbreedingandtechnologicaldevelopments,such astheirsustainableimplementationandlowercultivationbarriers.Fromthis perspectiveandintryingtoboostthecurrentscientificknowledgeofhemp, wewanttopresentthisbookwithhopeandexpectationsofemergenceof newqueriesanddoubtsthat,obviously,willbeproperlyaddressedwiththe applicationofscienceandcriticalknowledge.
xviii Preface
Duringthewrittingofthisbook,mysons“El´ıasandNoel”werebornonly with27weeksofgestation.Theyfoughttosurvive,andthankstoGod,Science, andCriticalKnowledge,theyarewithus.
TomywifeAna,andourlovelyanddesiredsonsEl´ıasandNoel.
Iv ´ anFranciscoGarc´ıa-Tejero
Section1
Agronomicalpurposesfor fiberandbiomedical cultivars
Thispageintentionallyleftblank
Suitabilityandopportunitiesfor Cannabissativa L.asan alternativecropfor Mediterraneanenvironments
V´ıctorHugoDur´an-Zuazo1,Bele´nC´arcelesRodr´ıguez2,Iv´anFrancisco Garc´ıa-Tejero3 andBaltasarG´alvezRuiz2
1IFAPACentro“CaminodePurchil”,CAPADR-JuntadeAndaluc´ıa,Granada,Spain, 2AndalusianInstituteofTrainingandFarmingResearch(IFAPA)-Center“Caminode Purchil”,CaminodePurchils/n.18,004.Granada,Spain, 3IFAPACentro“LasTorres”, CAPADR-JuntadeAndaluc´ıa.Seville,Spain
1.1Introduction
Sinceancienttimes,hemp(Cannabissativa L.)hasbeenakeycropfor food,fibers,andmedicine.Theuseofhempbyhumansdatessofarback thatitsappearanceinliteraturecannotbetracedexactly.Additionally,the propertiesofhemphavebeenusedtoaidintreatingandpreventingailments forthousandsofyearsintraditionalChinesemedicine.Thisplantoriginated inCentralAsia,anditscultivationoffiberwasdatedinChinatoasearlyas 2800BCE,andwasimplantedintheEuropeanMediterraneancountriesearly intheChristianera,spreadingthroughouttherestofEuropeduringthe MiddleAges(Allegret,2013).Europeanhempfiberproductionincreasedin the15thcenturyAD,firstinItalyandthenintheNetherlands,mainlytoprovidematerialsforthenavalindustry.ItwascultivatedinSouthAmericain the1500sandacenturylaterinNorthAmerica(Conrad,1994;Dempsey, 1975).Duringthemiddleofthe19thcentury,hempcultivationwasreduced withtheextinctionofthesailingnavyandcompetitionwithotherfibers, suchascottonandjute,andlaterduetotheintensivedevelopmentofsyntheticfibers(Milanovicetal.,2012;Ranalli&Venturi,2004)Inthe1930s, inmostWesterncountriesandintheUnitedStates,cultivationwasprohibitedduetothefactthatbothhempandmarijuanacomefromthesamegenus, andthisprovokedalargeamountofconfusionandsocial,politicalandmoral
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-89867-6.00011-1
polemics(Boulocetal.,2013;Cherney&Small,2016;Johnson,2018; Sawleretal.,2015).
Inthe1990s,therenewalofhempcultivationbecamepatentfroman agricultural,industrialandscientificperspectiveworldwide(Fike,2016; Karus&Vogt,2004;Small&Marcus,2002;Thomasetal.,2011). Additionally,throughoutthisdecade,agrowinginterestinthecommercial cultivationofhempandother“forgottenfibers”inEuropeandtheUnited Stateswasrenewed,principallyduetotheincreasingconsiderationofnatural resources,energyconservationandbiomassconversiontobioproductsand biofuels(Ranalli&Venturi,2004;Roulac,1997;Thomasetal.,2011).
Hemp,alsocalledindustrialhemp,belongstothe Cannabinaceae family cultivatedworldwideforitsfibers(bastfiber)andedibleseeds.Duetoits beneficialcharacteristics,hempiscarriedonmanytraderoutes,anddispersedfarawayfromitsnativelocation.Duringthe1930s,Russia’shemp cultivationareawasalmost700,000ha,providing40%ofEurope’sneeds, contrastingwithItalyandYugoslavia,withupto100,000haeach.Since 1992,France,theNetherlands,theUK,Spain,andGermanyhavepassedlegislationallowingforthecommercialcultivationoflow-delta-9tetrahydrocannabinol(THC)hemp.
Hemphasbeenemergingasacropthatisgreatlyversatiletomostofthe Europeanclimateandgeographicalconditions(Pavlovicetal.,2019; Salentijnetal.,2015).Themanyecological,agronomical,andpharmaceuticalpropertiesofthismultifunctionalcropmakeitasuitablerawmaterialfor varioustraditionalorinnovativeindustrialapplications(Amaduccietal., 2015;Boninietal.,2018;Karche&Singh,2019).AccordingtoBaldini etal.(2020),theclimaticconditionsinsouthernEuropearesuitablefor hempcultivation,althoughthereisscarceknowledgeregardingtheproductivityoftherecentlyregisteredhempvarietiesduetotheinterruptionofits productioninthesecondhalfofthelastcentury.
SmallandCronquist(1976) dividedhempintotwosubspecies:subsp. indica,withcomparativelyhighcontentsofthepsychoactiveconstituent THC,andsubsp. sativa,withlowcontentsofTHC.Thesetwosubspecies canbefurtherbrokendownintowildanddomesticatedvarieties;under subsp. sativa,thesativavarietyisdomesticatedandthespontaneavarietyis wild,andundersubsp. indica,theindicavarietyisdomesticated,andthe kafiristanicavarietyiswild.Therefore,accordingtothissystem,modern industrialhempvarietieswouldbelongtosubsp. sativa,andmostmedical Cannabis(alsocalled“marijuana”)varietieswouldbelongtosubsp. indica (Small&Cronquist,1976).
Thereforemarijuanaandindustrialhempbelongtothesameplantspecies (C.sativa L.);however,thelatterisgeneticallydifferentandalsodistinguishedbyitsuseandchemicalcomposition.Morethan100differentchemicalcompoundscalledcannabinoidscanbeextractedfromhempplants.Two majorcannabinoidsareTHCandcannabidiol(CBD).HempcontainsTHC 4 SECTION|1
of0.3%orless,whilemarijuanacan containupto20%THC,asitsprimary psychoactivechemical.Accordingto Johnson(2018),certainhempcultivars havehigherlevelsofCBD,thenonpsychoactivepart,whichhasmedicinalproperties.AhighratioCBD/THCwouldmakehemphighlyrelevantasamedical prescriptionforillness,butconsiderationsremainvariableregardinghowCBD levelsmightinfluencethepsychoactiveeffectsofTHC(Johnson,2018).
Accordingto Allegret(2013),duringthe20thcentury,duetothecompetitionfromotherprofitablefeedstocks,suchascottonandsyntheticfibers, hempcultivationprogressivelydecreased,withtheexceptionofFrance, wheretheproductionofhemppulpandpaperhasallowedthemaintenance ofplantations.Nowadays,arenewedinterestinhempcultivationformultipurposeproductionisevident,particularlyforthecombinationoffiberand seed,whichisusualpracticeinmanyEuropeancountries(Carus& Sarmento,2016;Tangetal.,2016).
TheEUhasregulatedthecommercialproductionanddistributionof approximately70hempvarieties(PlantVarietyCatalogs,Databases& InformationSystems,1995).AsclaimedbytheEuropeanIndustrialHemp Association(EIHA,2021),theareadevotedtoindustrialhempcultivationin Europeamountedto56,196hain2019,whichincreasedsignificantlyby 614%comparedwiththecultivatedareain1993.ThelargesthempcultivationareaislocatedinFrance(17,900ha),followedbyLithuania(9,182ha), Estonia(4,555ha),Italy(4,000ha),theNetherlands(3,833ha),Romania (3,400ha),Germany(3,114ha),Austria(1,583ha)andLatvia(875ha), amongothers.Nowadays,hempisgrownexpresslyfortheproductionofan assortmentofindustrialproducts,includingtextiles,food,paperandbiofuel, andFranceisthecountrywiththehighestproductionwithapproximately 150,000tyear 1 followedbyChina(FAOSTAT,2020).Thecurrent Europeanupperlegallimitforhempforfiberandseedproductionis0.2% THC(Frassinettietal.,2018;Russo&Reggiani,2013).Thislimitationhas reducedthenumberofhempvarietiesthataresuitableforcultivation,with hempbeingcurrentlysubsidizedbytheEUfornonfoodagricultureand researchpurposes.Thus,thehempindustrywilldependonthepoliticaland economicframeworkintheEU,anditsfuturedevelopmentisstrongly relatedtomarketdemandforproductsthatarebothbeneficialtohuman healthandhavenoimpactontheenvironment(Giupponietal.,2020).
AccordingtoCAPStrategicPlans,theallowablevarietiesgrownin EuropehavetobeplantedfromseedswithaTHCcontentofbelow0.2%d. w.(EURegulation,2013).Duringtheperiodfrom1976to1999,hempproducerswerepermittedtoplantseedswith0.3%THC,whichaimedtodistinguishbetween“hemp”(nondrugCannabis)and“marijuana”(drug Cannabis),andthislimitvalueforindustrialhemphasbeenusedinternationally(EIHA,2021).However,thelimitwasloweredfrom0.3%to0.2%to preventthecultivationofillicitdrug-typeCannabisinindustrialhempfields. Havingalow-THClimit(0.2%)considerablyrestrictsthechoiceofvarieties
forEuropeanfarmers.Thisrestrictionplacesthematasignificantcompetitivedisadvantagewithrespecttotheotherproductioncountriesworldwide, wherelimitsrangefrom0.3%upto1.0%.Inthiscontext,Europeanhemp producerscanonlychoosefrom60 1 varieties;however,increasingthe THClevelto0.3%allowsproducerstoselectfromover500varieties.Inthis line,theEIHAactivelycontributedtotheprocesstorestoretheformer0.3% THClimitattheEuropeanlevel.
TheUSAisthemainimporterofhempproducts;explicitly,mostofthe seedsandfibersarederivedfromCanadaandChina,andingeneral,thelatteristhelargestproducerandexporterofhempworldwide.ThemainlydieciousindustrialhempcultivarsregisteredinEuropeincreasedfrom12to69 duringtheperiodbetween1995and2018,whicharesuitableforfiberproductionduetohighstemyieldsandahigherfiberquality(Amaduccietal., 2015;Tangetal.,2016).Inthiscontext,accordingto Salentijnetal.(2015), mostmoneciousindustrialhempcultivarsareconsideredparticularlyappropriateduetotheirhigherpotentialinseedandfiberproductivityaswellas intermsofquality.
Nowadays,theCommonAgriculturePolicyisresponsiblefordeterminingthemaximumTHClevelallowedforindustrialhemp.ManyEuropean countriesstillprohibitorhaveunclearregulationsabouttheuseandmarketingofflowers,eveniftheTHClevelisbelowtheestablishedthresholdsin theEUregulation.Inprofitabletermsforfarmers,theuseofthewholehemp plantisessential,particularlytheflowersandleaves.AlthoughEuropehas notunlockedthefullpotentialofhemp,theindustryisrapidlygrowingdue totheincrease(70%)inthecultivatedareaofindustrialhempinthelast decade.
Thischapterreviewstheapplicationofhempandpresentsitsoutstanding qualitiesregardingenvironmentalandhealthissues,consideringtheknowledgegainedfromdifferentscientificsources,anditsindustrialandagriculturalpotential,tohighlightthesuitabilityandopportunitiesofhemp cultivationintheMediterraneanarea.
1.2Hempcultivation
Today,hempiscultivatedworldwideandisoneoftheoldestplantsources forawiderangeofproducts,includingfoodsandbeverages,cosmeticsand personalcareproducts,nutritionalsupplements,fabricsandtextiles,yarns andspunfibers,paper,constructionandinsulationmaterials,andothermanufacturedmaterials(Clarke&Merlin,2016).
Fig.1.1 showsthemultiple hempapplicationsofeachpartoftheplantformanysectors.Accordingto SchluttenhoferandYuan(2017),industrialhempcansupplymorethan 25,000productsthatcouldbeusedinnewapplicationsandemergingmarkets,improvingtheenvironmentalandeconomicsustainabilityofthiscrop. Inthiscontext,agronomyprovidesknowledgeonhowtogrowandcarefor
plantsandsoilsincertainenvironments,andfactorssuchasclimate,roots, moisture,weeds,pestsanddiseasecanallposeimportantchallengeswhen farmersattempttoproduceaplentifulharvest.
Recently,inItaly, Baldinietal.(2020) studiedsixhempvarietiesfor dual-purposeproduction(seedandstem)andreportedthatadailymaximum temperatureover30 Cduringthegrain-fillingphasewasthemainfactor affectingseedqualityandlimitingseedoilaccumulation.Theseauthors pointedoutthatevaluatingthehempcrop’ssuitabilityinagivenenvironmentiscrucialtotakeintoconsiderationtheirrigationrequirementsofgenotype,soilandclimatefactorsaswellastheircombinations.
Asstatedby MontfordandSmall(1999),properlymanagedindustrial hemphasthepotentialtobeanenvironmentallyfriendlyandhighlysustainablecrop.Hemphasbeendemonstratedtobeabletoremediatecontaminatedsoils(Angelovaetal.,2004;Citterioetal.,2003),hasthepotentialto suppressweeds,andcanfitwellinacroprotation(vanderWerf,1994). Therefore,accordingto Desanlisetal.(2013),itisconsideredasacropthat couldbegrownwithoutanypesticidesforcertaincultivars(Struiketal., 2000).Inthisline,somehempresiduescanbeusedasinsecticides,miticides,orrepellentswithinprogramsofpestmanagementinorganicfarming systems,asclaimedby Benellietal.(2018)
Ontheotherhand,interestinindustrialhemphasgainedmomentum worldwide,suggestingthatthedemandfornaturalfiberswillcontinuetorise inthecomingyears.Marketsegmentationandgrowingdemandforbiodegradableandnaturalproductshasledtoawiderangeofnewhempproducts beingdeveloped.Moreover,interesthasincreasedduetoclimatechangeand theneedtobemoreenvironmentallyfriendly.Accordingto Tsalikietal. (2021),themainconstraintsfacedbytherenewalofindustrialhempcultivationinEuropeareasfollows:(1)theselectionofthemostsuitablevarieties forEuropeanconditions,(2)thelackofagronomicdataforMediterranean
FIGURE1.1 Multifunctionalindustrialhempapplications.
