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AbouttheContributors Acknowledgments Nearlyeveryacademicbookeverpublishedhasacknowledgedindividualswhoinsomewayplayedimportant rolesinthebook’sdevelopment Inthisbookwedepartfromtheusualcustomandacknowledgethosewho, ononehand,wereimportantinorganizing,editing,andproducingthebook,aswellasthosewho,onthe otherhand,playedimportantrolesinthelivesofthefivecoeditors Theformercanbeconsideredgeneral acknowledgmentsthatweallshare Thelatterarenecessarilydifferentforeachofus Thuswehaveagreedto contributeindividually.
InthegeneralcategorywewanttothankSAGEPublicationsfortheconfidenceithasshowninus throughouttheyears ThetwokeySAGEpeoplewithwhomwehaveworkedareKassieGraves,whohas beenpartofthiseffortformanyyears,andherassistant,CarrieBaarnes.Althougharelativenewcomerto SAGE,Carriewasabighelpinthelatterstages.WewereflatteredthatClaudiaHoffman,SAGE’sdirector ofUS bookproduction,pointedlyselectedCounselingAcrossCulturesasabookshewantedtousherthrough itsfinalcopyeditingandproductionstages.Incharacteristicgoodjudgment,ClaudiachoseJudySelhorsttobe copyeditorforthebook.ItisremarkablehowcarefulandefficientJudywasduringthelatterpartofthe process,whenitissoimportanttobecompleteandprecise CandaceHarmanandhercrewinthegraphics departmentdidanexcellentjobwiththecover.Furthernorth,onthecampusofWesternWashington University,isGenaveeBrown.AgraduatestudentintheDepartmentofPsychologyandamostpromising youngscholar,Genaveewas“theorganizer”incrucialstages Whenthebookispublished,thefirstcopywill gotoPaulPedersenandthesecondwillgotoGenavee.
Onthepersonalside,weofferthefollowinghighlyindividualizedacknowledgments:
PaulB Pedersen Iwouldliketoacknowledgeandtodedicatemyroleinthepreparationofthisbookto AnthonyJ “Tony”Marsella,professoremeritusoftheUniversityofHawaii Tonywasmyprimeteacheratso manydifferentlevels.HewasascomfortableinthevillagecouncilofaBorneocommunityashewas,for example,duringaWorldHealthOrganizationcommitteemeetingmanyyearsago,orashewasinhislectures throughouthisillustriouscareer Theclasseshetaughtwouldfrequentlyendwithstandingovationsbyhis students.Heoriginatedtheawareness,knowledge,andskillmodel,whichbecamethebasisofthemeasures forcompetencewithinthefieldofmulticulturalcounseling Manyotherexamplesofhisinfluencecometo mind Mostimportant,hehasinrecentyearsbecomeafirst-classfriendandco-travelerinlife’sjourney In themetaphoroffamily,Tonyhasfatheredmanychildrenamonghisstudents,hiscolleagues,andhisother brothersandsisters Forallthatyouhavegiven,Tony,Isendyoumythanks
WalterJ Lonner AboveallelseIwanttothankmyimmediatefamily,consistingofmanypeople,bothliving anddead Amongthelivingaremyeverything-and-then-somewife,Marilyn,andourthreegreatchildren (Jay,Alyssa,andAndrea),eachofwhomhastwodaughterswithterrificspouses.Theworldhadbetterwatch outforthosesixlittledynamos BynameandcurrentagetheyareSika(14)andBrenna(11)Lonner,Sophia (11)andAlena(8)Naviaux,andNina(7)andSage(4)Howards Iwasblessedwithgreatparentsandtwo
brothers:Terry,theyoungestofus,whoisabeaconofhonoranddependabilityandajack-of-all-trades;and George,theoldest WegrewupinbeautifulandgenerouswesternMontana GeorgediedOctober8,2012, aboutmidwaythroughtheworkonthisbook Georgewasthefamily’sDonQuixote,dreamingbigthingsand imaginingtheimpossible.Itishe,notI,whoshouldhavebeenauniversityprofessor,forhewouldhave dazzledthousandsofstudentswithhistalentofmixingfactwithfantasy.Theencouragementandpraisethat TerryandGeorgeandtherestofmyfamilypileduponme,throughthickandthin,hasalwayskeptmegoing Ialsowanttoacknowledgethemultidimensionalinfluencethataninternationalnetworkofscholarshashad onmy50-plusyearsoftryingtounderstandthenatureofculture’sinfluenceoneverythingwesay,think,and do Partofthisnetworkconsistsofthemanytalentedpeople,includingthecurrentslateofcoeditors,who havecontributedtooneormoreoftheseveneditionsofCounselingAcrossCultures.
JurisG Draguns ThroughouttheseveneditionsofCounselingAcrossCultures,Ihaveenjoyedmarvelous support,encouragement,andunderstandingfrommywife,Marie Wehaveshared52wonderfulyears,and Marie’sloveandempathyhavehelpedmeovercomewhateverobstacleshavestoodinmyway,sometimes tangible,moreoftensubjective AsIthoughtabout,wrote,andeditedCounselingAcrossCultures,Iwould temporallydisappearintothebook,andMariewasalwaystheretowelcomemewhenIreemergedfromits pages.Mytwochildren,JulieandGeorge,wereyoungwhenCounselingAcrossCulturesfirstappeared.They grewupasthebookevolvedthroughitsseveraltransformations,andthetwoprocessesintertwined Whathas remainedconstantisourmutualloveandmyvicariousenjoymentofandprideoverJulie’sandGeorge’s families,careers,andachievements.Thinkingbackonmyearlyyears,Igratefullyremembermyparents, especiallymymother,whoinstilledinmeacuriosityandloveoflearningandprotectedmefromthe dangerousworldoutsideourhome ItisthankstoherthatIsurvivedandwasabletoworktowardthe realizationofmyversionoftheAmericanDream.AndinthecourseoftheensuingmultipletransitionsI benefitedfromahostofcultureteacherswhohelpedmebecomemoreempatheticandperhapsmorehelpful acrossculturalbarriers Theyaretoonumeroustomention,butmysincerestthanksgotothemall
JosephE Trimble IowePaulPedersenaspecialmeasureofpersonalgratitudeandappreciation.InAugust 1972Paulmetwithmeandmywife,Molly,atalanaiinHonolulu Overalate-morningbreakfasthevividly describedhisnewtriadtheoryofcounselingtrainingtounderscorehisstronggrowinginterestincultureand psychologicalcounseling.Itwasamemorableoccasionforthethreeofus.Afewyearslater,Paulinvitedme togiveasymposiumpaperoncounselingAmericanIndiansandlaterpublishachapterinthefirsteditionof CounselingAcrossCultures MollywasextremelyhelpfulwhenIwrotethatfirstchapterandcontinuestobe insightfulandhelpfulinalmostallofmywritingactivities.Shehasakeeneyefordetailandaspiritedmind fornovelconceptsandideas.ThroughoutthecourseofeachoftheCounselingAcrossCultureseditionsour threelovelyandtalenteddaughters,Genevieve,LeeErin,andCaseyAnn,havebeenwithmewheneach editionarrivedhomefortheirreviewandcomment,andithasalwaysbeenaproudmomentformewhenthey readtheirnamesintheacknowledgmentsandcommentedonit.Also,Iamdeeplygratefulforallofthe peoplewhohaveprovidedmewithguidance,advice,andcollaborationonthecontentsofthevariouschapters puttogetherfortheseveneditions.ThankyouespeciallytoCandaceFleming,FredBeauvais,PamelaJumper Thurman,andJohnGonzales.
MaríaR Scharrón-delRío Iamverygratefulforthelove,guidance,andsupportofmifamilia Mymother, Rosarito,andmysisterMariliahousedandfedmeinPuertoRicoasIwasfinishingthefinaleditingprocess forthisbook.MysisterMarichialsoassistedmewithhercommentaryduringthistime,andmyfather, Rafael,accompaniedmeonacoupleofhour-longmentalhealthescapadestotheocean.Iamalsogratefulto mypartner,Yvonne,forherlove,support,andunderstanding,andforprovidingahomeformeinGermany duringpartofmysabbatical.ManythanksalsotomychosenfamilyinNewYorkCity Cody,Mara,Barb, Wayne,Paul,andFlo whohelpedintoomanywaystocount.IoweaspecialthankstoJosephTrimbleand GuillermoBernal,whohavebeenoutstandingmentorsandfriendssinceIwasanundergraduatestudentin theCareerOpportunitiesinResearch(NIMH-COR)programattheUniversityofPuertoRico.Ialsowant tothankElizaAdaDragowskiforherexceptionalworkandsupportinthecompletionofthisbook.Finally, mythankstothewonderfulgroupofpeoplewhoprovidedadditionalguidanceonthecontentofvarious chaptersofthebook:PriscillaDass-Brailsford,StuartChen-Hayes,HollyceGiles,VicMuñoz,Delida Sánchez,andAviSkolnik.
PaulB Pedersen
WalterJ Lonner
JurisG Draguns
JosephE.Trimble
MaríaR Scharrón-delRío
Afourthinfluenceonthelivesofpeopleisregionalculture Inmanycountries,individualsidentifynotjust withthenationalculturebutalsowiththeculturesofspecificpartsoftheircountries Forexample,Americans wholivealongtheU.S.–MexicobordermayfeelasMexicanastheydoAmerican.Manysuchresidentsspeak Spanishandenjoythefood,music,andwayoflifecommontoMexico.Regionalculturesareevidentinmany Africancountries InthenorthofNigeria,wherethecountrybordersNiger,theHousas,oneofthecountry’s largestethnicgroups,straddletheborderthatseparatesthetwocountries,therebycausingthesameregional culturetoexistinbothcountries.
Thefinallayerisracio-ethnicculture Itisbasedontherecognitionthatraciallyorethnicallydifferentgroups oftenresideinareasseparatefromthoseinwhichacountry’sdominantracialorethnicgrouplive People inhabitingsuchracialorethnicenclavesusuallydevelopandmaintainculturesthatareuniquetothe communitiesinwhichtheylive Althoughcitizensofandparticipantsinthenationalculture,theymayalso identifystronglywiththeirracialorethnicgroupanditswayoflife Forexample,becauseoftheirslave heritage,AfricanAmericanshavedevelopedandcontinuetomaintainaculturethatisinmanywaysdifferent fromthenationalculture Manyinstitutions,suchastheBlackchurch,whichdatesbacktoslavery,contribute tothecontinuationofa“Blackculture”insomecommunities
Thefivefoldconcentricconceptionofcultureindicatesthatpeoplearetheproductsofseveralinfluencesover whichtheyhavelittleornocontrol Noindividualshouldbeconsideredonlyamemberofasinglenational, racial,orethnicculture Peopleareoftensimultaneouslymembersofseveralcultures theyareindividually multicultural.Evenso,acrossallcultures,peoplearemorealikethantheyaredifferent.Counselorswho recognizethecommonalitiesthathumansshareareapttobemoreeffectiveinhelpingallclientsthanthose whofocusonperceivedculturaldifferences Universalandecologicalculturesunifythehumangroupmore thanregional,national,orracio-ethnicdifferencesseparatethespecies.
ReaderswhocomparethisseventheditionofCounselingAcrossCultureswiththeearliereditionswillbeableto appreciatehowmuchthestudyofcultureandcounselinghasevolvedovertheyears OnethingthatInoticeis howmanymoreclientelesdescribedasneedingcross-culturalinterventionexisttodaythanin1973 Cultureis nolongerjustanesotericconceptdiscussedinsociologyclassesandtexts.Ithasnowbecomeanidea appreciated,espoused,expanded,andexploitedbymostcounselorsandcounseloreducators Ingraduate school,Imentionedtomymajorprofessoraninterestinwritingmydissertationonatopicrelatedtothe effectofcultureontheoutcomesofcounseling.Hediscouragedmefrompursuingthatresearchtopicand added,“Everybodyknowsthatcounselingiscounseling”Feelingdownhearted,Ipursuedadissertationtopic moreinkeepingwithhisviewofwhatwasanappropriateresearchidea However,sincereceivingthePhDin 1965,Ihavewrittencountlessarticles,chapters,andbooksonhowcultureinfluencesthecounselingprocess. Culturehasbecomethelinchpinofcounselingthroughouttheworld
Havingdevotedmycareertostudyingtherelationshipofcultureandcounseling,Iamunderstandablypleased towritetheforewordtothissignificantcontributiontotheincreasinglylargeliteratureoncross-cultural counseling TheseventheditionofCounselingAcrossCulturesisahistoricallandmark Itisnoteworthybecause it,alongwiththepreviouseditions,providesalongviewofcultureandcounselingastheyhaveevolvedina
InternationalStudentOffice.DrawingmainlyonhisexperiencesinIndonesia,Malaysia,andTaiwanandhis dailycounselingsessionswithinternationalstudentsatMinnesota,Paulbecameincreasinglyconcernedabout therelevanceofconventionalcounselingapproachesandbegantoconsidermoreculturallysensitive counselingstrategies.Asanalternativetotheuseofconventionalcounselingeducationapproaches,Paul devisedandimplementedhisaforementionedtriadtrainingmodel
In1975,PaulbecameaSeniorFellowattheCultureLearningInstituteattheEast-WestCenterin Honolulu,Hawaii.In1978–1981,hewasdirectorofalargepredoctoraltraininggrantfromtheU.S.National InstituteofMentalHealthtitledDevelopingInterculturallySkilledCounselors Witheightpredoctoral trainees,Paulconductedtrainingprogramsthatemphasizedcross-culturalcounselingapproachesthroughuse ofthetriadtrainingmodel.PaulcloselymaintainedhisHawaiianappointmentsandtiesfortherestofhis illustriouscareerbyservingasaVisitingProfessorofPsychologyattheUniversityofHawaii,Manoa,andasa FellowattheEast-WestCenter
In1982,PaulacceptedanappointmentatSyracuseUniversityasProfessorandChairoftheDepartmentof CounselorEducation In1995,heearnedthetitleofProfessorEmeritusatSyracuseandsubsequentlybecame aProfessorintheDepartmentofHumanStudiesattheUniversityofAlabama,Birmingham In2001,aftera yearasaSeniorFulbrightScholaratTaiwanNationalUniversity,Paulformallyretiredfromacademiclifeand movedbacktohismuchbelovedHawaiitocontinuehiswriting,traveling,andscholarlyinterests He retainedhisappointmentasaVisitingProfessorintheDepartmentofPsychologyattheUniversityofHawaii, Manoa.
Paul’sremarkablecareerincludesthepublicationofmorethan40booksandmorethan150bookchaptersand journalarticles;theconceptofcultureisthecommonthreadthatrunsthroughallofthem InreviewingPaul’s extraordinaryaccomplishments,onequicklyrealizesthatheisimaginative,farsighted,andtrulyapioneerin thefieldofmulticulturalcounseling.
ScholarsinthecounselingandpsychotherapyfieldsgenerallyconsiderPaul’seditedbookMulticulturalismasa FourthForce,publishedin1999,tobeamilestoneinthehistoryofpsychology Thebooksurveyedthe prospectthatwearemovingtowardauniversaltheoryofmulticulturalismthatrecognizesthepsychological consequencesofeachculturalcontext Paulandhiscolleaguesarguedthatthefourthforcesupplementsthe threeforcesofhumanism,behaviorism,andpsychodynamismforpsychology
ServicetotheprofessionalcommunityisanimportantvalueforPaul,andthushehasfoundtimetoserveon numerousboardsandcommittees.Hisactivitieshaveincluded3yearsasPresidentoftheSocietyfor InterculturalEducation,TrainingandResearch(SIETAR),SeniorEditorfortheSAGEPublicationsbook seriesMulticulturalAspectsofCounseling(MAC),andAdvisingEditorforaGreenwoodPressbookseries ineducationandpsychology.Additionally,PaulisaBoardMemberoftheMicronesianInstitute,locatedin Washington,DC,andanExternalExaminerforUniversitiPutraMalaysia,UniversityKebangsaan,and UniversitiMalaysiaSabahinpsychology.IntheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,Paulwasamemberof theCommitteeforInternationalRelationsinPsychology(CIRP)from2001to2003.In2010hewasthe recipientofCIRP’sDistinguishedContributionstotheInternationalAdvancementofPsychologyAward In
1994hewasinvitedtogiveamasterlectureattheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation’sannualmeetingin LosAngeles PaulalsoisaFellowinDivisions9,17,45,and52oftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation
AboutadecadeagoPaulwasunfortunatelystrickenwithParkinson’sdisease Hismentalabilitiesandallof hisfinepersonalqualitiesremainintact,buttheafflictionhasaffectedhisvisionandabilitytotypeoruse computerseffectively WithPaul’spermission,wewantallwhodonotyetknowabouthisconditionto understandwhyhisworkonthiseditionofCounselingAcrossCultureshasbeensomewhatcurtailed In discussingthiswithPaulwelamentedthefactthatinthiseditionthereisnochapterthatdealsdirectlywith whatcouldbecalledsomethinglikethe“cultureoftheafflicted”Chapters19and20getintosomeofthese concernsandmatters,dealingastheydowithhealthissues However,Paulremindedusofanintuitively insightfulfact:Whenoneisburdenedwithaphysicalconditionthathasnoknowncure Parkinson’sisan excellentandtragicexample oneentersanewandentirelyunexpectedculture Adjustmentsmustbemade, oldandfamiliarabilitiesmustbereplacedbynewones,andone’sinterpersonalnetworkcanberadically changed.Inaveryrealsense,then,Paul’sconditionhasgivenhim,throughus,theopportunitytoseize another“teachingmoment”Paul,amagnificentteacherandadviserthroughouthiscareerandthisproject, wouldappreciatethatcharacterization
Byallprofessionalandpersonalstandards,Paulisavisionary.Hehascontributedsignificantlytothe emergenceofmulticulturalisminpsychologyandinrelateddisciplines Hiscommitmenttomulticulturalism extendswellbeyondthementalhealthprofessions Inthinkingaboutthefutureofmulticulturalcounseling andsocialjustice,Paulfirmlybelievesthatthemulticulturalperspectivewillevolveintoaperspectivethat acknowledgeshowpeoplemaysharethesamecommon-groundexpectations,positiveintentions,and constructivevalueseventhoughtheyexpressthoseexpectationsandpositiveintentionsthroughdifferentand seeminglyunacceptablebehaviors.Healsomaintainsthatwemustgenerateabalancedperspectiveinwhich bothsimilaritiesanddifferencesofpeoplearevaluedandatthesametimehopewecanavoidpartisan quarrelingamongourselvesandgetonwiththeimportanttaskoffindingsocialjusticeacrosscultures
WededicatethisseventheditionofCounselingAcrossCulturestoourdearfriendandcolleaguePaulBodholdt Pedersen,atruetrailblazer,mentor,andleaderinmakingcounselingcultural.
WalterJ Lonner
JurisG Draguns
JosephE Trimble
MaríaR.Scharrón-delRío
IntroductionLearningFromOur“CultureTeachers” ThisseventheditionofCounselingAcrossCulturesislargelyguidedbythefundamentalpremisethatitshares withmostbooksattheinterfaceofsocialrealitiesandpsychologicalprinciples:Allbehaviorsandthoughtsare learnedinspecificculturalcontexts.Ifyoucanacceptthatsimplepremiseyouarereadytotackleonethatis muchmorecomplex:Whilepeoplearemuchmoresimilarthantheyaredifferent,thedifferencesare fascinatingandsometimesdifficulttounderstandwithoutconsiderableexposuretoandinteractionwith peoplefromdifferentculturesandethnicgroups.
Howdothesesimilaritiesand,especially,differencescomeabout?PaulPedersenhasusedacolorfulimage thatisbasedontheideathatallhumanshave“cultureteachers,”andwhilesomeoftheseteachershavesimilar characteristics,eachisalsototallyunique Capture,suggestsPedersen,apanoramaofathousandpersons sittingaroundyou.Thelargegatheringconsistsofsomepeopleyouhavechosen,orwhohavechosenyou, overalifetimeofmanyinteractions Thisgatheringofpeopleincludesparents,siblings,grandparents,close friends,teachers,enemies,heroes,heroines,scientificpioneers,religiousfigures,politicalleaders, revolutionaries,poets,entertainers,athletes,individualswithdisabilities,andmanyotherswhohave influencedyouinsometimessubtlebutoftenprofoundways Eitherdirectlyorindirectly,theyhaveallhelped toshapewhoyouare.Theywilllikelycontinuetodoso,eventhosewhohavebeendeadforyears.Gettingto knowanotherpersonwellisariveting,complex,andexhaustingprocess,butitcanalsobeexhilaratingand fulfilling
Webelieve,therefore,thatbeforewecanmakeaccurateassessments,providemeaningfulunderstanding,and offerappropriateinterventions,wemustlearnmoreaboutourownculturalcontextsandthecultureteachers whoshapedourlives Reciprocally,ininteractionswithothers andespeciallyincounselingandtherapeutic relationships itisimperativethatwelearnasmuchaswecanabouteachpersonwithwhomweinteract To ignoreanindividual’s“cultureteachers”andtheculturalcontextthatshapedhisorherlifeistoinvitelittleor noprogressinprofessionalinterventions Youareprobablyreadingthisbookbecause,eitherintuitivelyor fromdirectexperience,youalreadyknowthistobetrue Moreover,youprobablyagreewithusthatitwould beimpossibleforacounselortoknow,indepthandingreatdetail,everythingaboutallclientswithwhomhe orsheinteracts However,byusingthepreceptsofinclusiveculturalempathy(ICE),whichisatheme runningthroughthisbookandaconceptexplainedinChapter1,wecanemphaticallyendorsetheideathat wetrytounderstandeachandeveryclient.Suchunderstandingdoesnotnecessarilyhavetobeingreatdepth. Inmanycasesitmaybeclosetoimpossibletounderstandtheworldviews,values,andbackgroundofaclient inashortperiodoftime Itmaybedifficulttofathomtheplightofahomelessperson,oranimmigrantfrom Vietnam,oratransvestite,orareligiouszealot.Despitethesescenariosandhundredsotherslikethem,itis imperativethatweemployICEandmakeasincereattempttoknowtheotherperson,evenifitis“througha glass,darkly”Consistentwiththedemandsofwhatcanbeachallengingtask,itisourjobastheeditorsof thisvolume,aswellasthejobofthechapterauthors,tohelphoneyourskillsandtalentsinourshared kaleidoscopicmulticulturalworld Allthechaptersinthisbookhavebeenwrittenbydedicatedprofessionals whocaninformandadviseyou Welcomethemallasnewcomerstoyourcircleof“cultureteachers”Covet
theiradvice.
SincethefirsteditionofCounselingAcrossCultureswaspublishedin1976,thousandsofpublicationsand researchprojectshaveincreasedourunderstandingoftherolesofcultureteachers Manyofthesesourcesare listedinthereferencesectionsofthechaptersinthisbook.Weoweagreatdebttoourcultureteachersforthe wisdomwehavegainedfromthem,andwearepleasedtointroducethemtoyou Asrecentlyas1973,when wepresentedaseminalsymposiumattheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationtitled“CounselingAcross Cultures”andsubsequentlyplannedthefirsteditionofthisbook,thetermscross-culturalandmulticulturalism werelargelyneglectedorunknowntocounselingprofessionals TheUniversityofHawaiiPressagreedto publishthatinitialbook,providedwewaivedroyalties Thebookwentthroughfiveprintingsthefirstyear andthenthroughfivemoreeditions in1981,1989,1996,2002,and2008.This,theseventhedition,gives testimonytothecontinuedpopularityofcounselingacrosscultures,whichhasevolvedintoaburgeoningand multifacetedenterprise
Theculture-centeredormulticulturalperspectiveprovidesuswithatleast12uniquelyvaluablegoalsand outcomes:
1 Accuracy:Allbehaviorsarelearnedanddisplayedinspecificculturalcontexts
2 Commonground:Thebasicvaluesinwhichwebelieveareexpressedthroughdifferentattitudes, behaviors,andworldviewsacrossculturesandethnicgroups.
3 Identity:Welearnwhowearefromthethousandsofcultureteachersinourlivesasweintegratethese multiplethreadsofexperience
4. Health:Oursocio-ecosystemsrequireadiversifiedgenepool.
5 Protection:Psychologyhasbeenculturallyencapsulatedthroughmuchofitshistory,andweneedto identifyourownbiasestoprotectourselvesfromfailure
6. Survival:Ourbestpreparationforlifeintheglobalvillageistolearnfrompersonswhoareculturally differentfromourselves
7 Socialjustice:Historydocumentsthatinjusticescanbeexpectedwhenamonocultural,dominantgroupis allowedtodefinetherulesoflivingforeveryone;shiftingtoamulticulturalorientationcurbsthis tendency
8 “Outofthebox”thinking:Progressinunderstandingtheproblemsofothersisoftenconstrainedby traditionallinearthinking;weshouldfrequentlyconsidernontraditional,nonlinearalternatives.A multitudeofinsiders’andoutsiders’perspectivescanhelpusdevelopamoredifferentiatedandflexible viewoftheworld
9. Learning:Effectivelearningthatresultsinchangeisalsolikelytoresultinourbothexperiencingand overcomingcultureshockandadaptingtoinnovationandtransformation
10 Spirituality:AllhumansexperiencethesameUltimateRealityindifferentways;thereisnosingle“right” way,anditisethnocentricfollytoassumethatthereis.
11 Politicalstability:Someformofculturalpluralismistheonlyalternativetoeitheranarchyoroppression
12 Competence:Multiculturalismisgenerictoagenuineandrealisticunderstandingofhumanbehaviorin allcounselingandcommunication.
Aboveandbeyondthese12points,culturallyinformedcounselingcanbelikenedtoabridgethathelps transcendthegulforchasmofdifferencesinpractices,expectations,andmodesofcommunicationthat separatepersonswhosebackgroundsandoutlookshavebeenmoldedbytheirrespectivecultures.Thatisthe reasonaphotoofabridgeadornsthecoverofthisbook.Effectivemulticulturalcounselingwilllikelynot obliteratetheneedforthebridge,butitmayshortenthejourneysubstantially
Thepresenteditionincludesmanynewauthorsandanewcoeditor 52individualsinall andoffersideas thathaveemergedsincetheappearanceofthesixthedition,whichwaspublishedin2008.Likethesixth,this editionisdividedintofivepartsandatotalof24chapters Eachpartopeningfeaturesanintroductionthat brieflysurveysthecontentofthechapterswithinthepart Allchaptersbeginbyidentifyingprimaryand secondaryobjectives,andall(withtheexceptionsofChapters1and2)include“criticalincident”discussions toillustratekeypointsatthehypotheticalcaselevel Mostofthecriticalincidentsarehighlightedattheends ofthechapters,butsomeareintegratedintothetextinotherways Discussionquestionsarealsoincluded Weconcedethatnotalloftheincidentspresentedarecriticalinthestrictsenseoftheterm.Allare,however, designedtomakeabstractconceptsconcreteandtoexemplify,ofteninavividway,theinterfacebetween cultureandcounseling Inadditiontothisfeature,thecontributorstothepresenteditionhavebeenliberalin describinginstancesandofferingvignettesofculturallydistinctivewaysofpresentingpersonaldilemmas, seekingrelieffromdistress,and,intheoptimalcase,reducingsufferingandresolvingquandariesand problemsofliving Onthetheoreticalplane,theauthorsofthesechaptershavecontributedseveralexplicit modelsofculturallysensitiveinterventioninavarietyofcontexts.Moreover,theresultsofseveralmajor multinationalresearchprojectshavebeenbroughttobearonthecurrentmulticulturalcounselingenterprise Inthismanner,thecontributorstothisvolumehaveendeavoredtonarrowthegapbetweenbasiccrossculturalresearchfindingsandculturallyappropriateinterventionatthecaselevel.
Inwhatwaysisthecurrenteditiondifferentfromitspredecessors?Forone,itismorecasecentered As alreadyalludedtoabove,severalofthechapterauthorshavegonewellbeyondcriticalorillustrativeincidents tobuildtheircontributionsaroundalimitednumberofdetailedcasestudies,anapproachthathasenabled themtoexploreculturalissuesincounselingindepth Forexample,Chapter20includesadetailedaccountof aclientovercomingclinicalproblemsbyrecapturingthethemesandvaluesofhisoriginalculture Inthe processofpresentingthisaccount,theauthorsbridgethegapbetweencultureteachingandtherapy.Chapter 23highlightsthetraumaticeffectofcultureloss,ordeculturation,and,conversely,demonstrateshowthe previouslysuppressedstrandsofculturalexperiencemayhelpacounseleeachievemoreeffectivefunctioning andmorerewardingexperience.Chapter14relatestheexperiencesoftwointernationalstudentsastheyseek andfindtheirwaythroughthemazeofthehostculture,illustratingthevicissitudesofculturelearningandthe impactofamultiplicityofcultureteachers
Thesecondthemethatreceivesincreasedemphasisinthecurrenteditionisthatofpromotionofsocialjustice Therewasatimewhenmanycounselingandmentalhealthprofessionalsconsideredtheirinterventionstobe sharplydistinct,orevenmutuallyexclusive,fromtheworkoftheadvocatesforpersonsinvarious disadvantaged,oppressed,orpoorlyunderstoodculturalcategories Therecognitionthatthereformistandthe therapeuticthrustsofimprovingthelivesofculturallydistinctivecounseleesarecompatibleandmutually
7. Thelessfamiliartheclientiswiththecounselingprocess,themorethecounselororthecounseling programwillneedtoinstructtheclientinwhatcounselingisandintheroleoftheclient
8. Culture-specificmodesofcounselingwillbefoundthatworkmoreeffectivelywithcertainculturaland ethnicgroupsthanwithothers.
9 Ethnicsimilaritybetweencounselorandclientincreasestheprobabilityofapositiveoutcome
10. Within-groupdifferencesonvariablessuchasacculturationandstageofracialidentitymayinfluence receptivitytocounseling.
11 Credibilitycanbeenhancedthroughacknowledgmentofculturalfactorsincross-culturalencounters
12. Ingeneral,womenrespondmorepositivelythanmentoWestern-stylecounseling.
13. Personswhoactwithintentionalityhaveasenseofcapabilityandcangeneratealternativebehaviorsina givensituationtoapproachaproblemfromdifferentvantagepoints
14. Identity-relatedcharacteristicsofWhitecounselorscaninfluencetheirreactiontoethnicminority clients.
15 Despitegreatdifferencesinculturalcontextsinlanguageandtheimplicittheoryofthecounseling process,amajorityoftheimportantelementsofinterculturalcounselingarecommonacrossculturesand clients.
Theinfusionofmulticulturalismintothetheoryandpracticeofcounselingisalongprocessthatrequiresthe understandingof“newrules”Clientsincounselingandpsychotherapycomefromamultitudeofculturesand ethnicities,eachwithhisorherownuniqueassortmentofcultureteachers.Theimpositionofaone-size-fitsallapproachtocounselingisnolongeracceptableforclientswhorepresentasubstantialnumberofdiverse culturalcontexts Thecounselorwhothinksthereareonlytwopeopleinvolvedinatransaction theclient andthecounselor isalreadyingreatdifficulty.
Inaddressingthesewide-rangingandkeyissues,weseektoarticulateinthisvolumethepositivecontributions thatcanberealizedwhenmulticulturalawarenessisincorporatedintothetrainingofcounselors Properly understoodandapplied,thisawarenessofourcultureteacherswillmakeourworkascounselorseasierrather thanharder,moresatisfyingratherthanfrustrating,andmoreefficientratherthaninefficientand cumbersome
PaulB Pedersen
WalterJ.Lonner
JurisG.Draguns
JosephA Trimble
MaríaR Scharrón-delRío
Westernconceptualizationsofself,values,andotherpopularconstructsthatmakeuppersonhood,toalevel madepossiblebythecontributionsofthousandsofpsychologistsandcounselorsthroughouttheworld
PedersenandPopenotethat“inclusion”comesfromresearchinthehardsciences,wheresomething“canbe bothrightandwrong,goodandbad,trueandfalseatthesametimethrough‘both/and’thinking.”This supplantstherulesof“exclusion,”which,astheypointout,havedependedon“either/or”thinking,wherein onealternativeexplanationisentirelyexcludedanditsoppositeisentirelyaccepted Thus,“fromthisquantum perspective,empathyisbothapatternandaprocessatthesametime.”Itiselegantlyclear,therefore,thatin counselingacrosscultures,takingboththeperspectiveofthecounselorandthatoftheclient,muchmorecan begainedbyadoptingatwo-wayattitudethanbyacceptingatraditional“either/or”perspective Psychotherapyisnotalaboratoryexperimentinwhichanullhypothesisiseitheracceptedorrejected.This dichotomywouldmeanthatacceptingoneperspective(usuallythecounselor’s)overtheotherwouldblock progress Nodoubtthousandsofcounselingsessionshaveendedabruptlywhenoneinthedyad(usuallythe counselor)lookedattheproblemthroughculture-coloredglasses.Itwasoutoftheseproceduralconcernsthat Pedersendevelopedhiswell-knowntriadtrainingmodel ICEisalsocentraltoPedersen’sideathat multiculturalismisa“fourthforce”inpsychotherapyand,assuch,isasinfluentialasbehaviorism,humanism, andpsychodynamicapproaches.ThesepioneeringviewpointsarebrieflydiscussedinChapter1.
TheintentofChapter2istoexaminethebasicelementsofcounselingandtoexplainhowcounselinginany culturalsettingcanbeeffective Inthechapter,JurisG Dragunsgivesexamplesofclassicdefinitionsof counseling,allofwhichcanreadilybeappliedtocounselingacrosscultures.Theideathat“counselingis principallyconcernedwithfacilitating,ratherthanmoredirectivelybringingabout,adaptivecopinginorder toalleviatedistress,eliminatedysfunction,andpromoteeffectiveproblemsolvingandoptimaldecision making”issufficientlytranscendenttobeusedinanyrelationshipthatcanbedescribedas“counseling.”An additionalcommentDragunsmakes,that“counselingproceedsbetweentwo(orsometimesmorethantwo) individualsandisembeddedindistinctivesocioculturalmilieus,”correctasitis,mustbeconsideredin connectionwithICE,fortwo,andnotjustone,culturalmilieuswillinevitablybeinvolved.Thisisthesauce thatgivesmeaningtothenotionof“cross”incross-culturalcounseling,fortheserelationshipscutbothways DragunsgivescogentexamplesofwhatPedersenhastoldus:thatamultitudeof“cultureteachers”have stronglyinfluenced,andcontinuetoinfluence,allculture-orientedcounselors Likehomunculisittingona counselor’sshoulderduringcounselingsessions,theseteachersaffectwhatissaidanddoneineachandevery encounter ThisanalogyisinlinewiththebroadsweepofICE Themoreinfluencetheseteachershaveina counselingsession,themorelikelyitistheywillcontributetoasuccessfuloutcome Anotherconsiderationof empathyisthatitworksbestifunderstoodasaconstantlyreciprocatingrelationship.Thecounselorwillhave tobeattunedtothemanywaysthattheclienthaslearnedhisorherownculture,andtheclientwillhaveto payattentiontowhatthecounselorsaysanddoes,forjustasthecounselorhas“cultureteachers,”sodoesthe client.Thisispartofwhatthetherapeuticallianceisallabout.
Chapter2alsocoversarangeofotherconsiderationsthattovaryingdegreescutacrossalltheotherchapters inthetext Culturallyadaptedcognitive-behavioraltherapyanditspossibleconvergencewithevidence-based
counseling.Astheynote,researchinthisareahasincreasedexponentiallyoverthepastseveraldecades. Clearly,evenasrecentlyas1976,whenthefirsteditionofthisbookappeared,verylittleresearchhadbeen conductedbearingontheeffectivenessofcounselingacrosscultures.Thisisespeciallytruewithrespectto evidence-basedpsychologicaltreatments,whicharecurrentlyatapremium.
Focusingprimarilyonthepowerfulmethodofmeta-analysis,inwhichthefindingsofnumerousindividual studiesareintegratedpriortoanalysisinanefforttomakesenseoftheeffectiveness(orlackthereof)of counselingacrosscultures,Smithetal.lookintothecharacteristicsofcounselorswhodemonstrate competenceinthefield Interculturalcompetenceisclearlythesilverchaliceforanyonewhoaspirestoreacha recognizedlevelofeffectivenessinmulticulturalcompetence Anincreasingarrayofresearchandliteratureon thetopiciscoalescingtoanextentnotheretoforereached.Forinstance,in2013theJournalofCross-Cultural Psychologypublishedaspecialissuecontainingninearticlesthatarefineexamplesofcurrentthinkinginthis area(Chiu,Lonner,Matsumoto,&Ward,2013) Theissuefocusesoncross-culturalcompetenceingeneral, withadecidednodinthedirectionofcross-culturalcompetenceintheinternationalworkplace(among managers,consultants,negotiators,andsoon),andnotspecificallymulticulturalcounselingcompetence However,sensitivity,open-mindedness,socialinitiative,flexibility,culturalempathy(whichinthisbookis essentiallyequivalenttoICE),criticalthinking,emotionalstability,emotionregulation,awareness,abilities, knowledge,andskillsaredescriptorsthatoftensurfaceinattemptstopinpointthecomponentsofcrossculturalcompetence Itseemstousthatifapersoniscross-culturallycompetent,thatcompetenceshould transferwellacrossalldomainsofinterpersonalinteraction.Thepackageoftheabovedescriptorsaperson possesseswould,ifrealizedinsufficientquantities,defineICE Numerousattemptstomeasuretheconcept havebeenattempted(Deardorff,2009;Matsumoto&Hwang,2013)
Whileallchaptersinthisbookcanbeenhancedandinformedbythisfoundationalchapter,perhapsthe contributionthatisclosesttoChapter4conceptuallyandpracticallyisChapter18,whichfocusesexclusively onacculturation,atopicthatbydefinitionissaturatedwithanassortmentofcounselingneeds Thisis especiallytrueinNorthAmerica,whichforgenerationshasbeenthe“promisedland”formany.Smithetal. mentionthisaswell Ahighpercentageoftheworkscitedintheabove-mentionedspecialissuecomefrom journalssuchastheInternationalJournalofInterculturalRelations;justahandfularejournalarticlesandbooks thattypicallyarereadbycounselorsandclinicians.Withsomuchtooffereachother,readersofthistextare encouragedtodosomethingaboutthisunfortunateterritorialbifurcation.ThelatterpagesofChapter4 discussanumberoffactorsthathavebeenresearchedbyculture-orientedpractitioners Theyincluderacial andethnicmatchingofclientandcultureandwaysinwhichgeneraltheoriesofcounselinghavebeenadapted formulticulturalcounseling.
