Dedication
Iwouldliketodedicatethisbookto MybelovedGOD “MerayPyareyAllah”
Contributors
KanthaDeiviArunachalam
DepartmentofBiotechnology,SchoolofBioengineering;CenterforEnvironmentalNuclearResearch, DirectorateofResearch,SRMInstituteofScienceandTechnology,Kattankulathur,TamilNadu,India
V.Deepankara
CenterforEnvironmentalNuclearResearch,DirectorateofResearch,SRMInstituteofScienceand Technology,Kattankulathur,TamilNadu,India
MohammedJunaidHussainDowlath
CenterforEnvironmentalNuclearResearch,DirectorateofResearch,SRMInstituteofScienceand Technology,Kattankulathur,TamilNadu,India
ChaudheryMustansarHussain
DepartmentofChemistry&EnvironmentalScience,NewJerseyInstituteofTechnology,Newark,NJ, UnitedStates
SathishKumarKaruppannan
CenterforEnvironmentalNuclearResearch,DirectorateofResearch,SRMInstituteofScienceand Technology,Kattankulathur,TamilNadu,India
S.B.MohamedKhalith
CenterforEnvironmentalNuclearResearch,DirectorateofResearch,SRMInstituteofScienceand Technology,Kattankulathur,TamilNadu,India
G.I.DarulRaiyaan
CenterforEnvironmentalNuclearResearch,DirectorateofResearch,SRMInstituteofScienceand Technology,Kattankulathur,TamilNadu,India
SuriyaprakashRajadesingu
CenterforEnvironmentalNuclearResearch,DirectorateofResearch,SRMInstituteofScienceand Technology,Kattankulathur,TamilNadu,India
PratheekaRajan PGandResearchDepartmentofBiotechnology,Women’sChristianCollege,Chennai,India
SeeramRamakrishna MechanicalEngineering,NationalUniversityofSingapore,Singapore,Singapore
AntonioSantosSa ´ nchez FederalUniversityofOuroPreto,OuroPreto,Brazil
KailashShwetaPal DepartmentofBiotechnology,SchoolofBioengineering,SRMInstituteofScienceandTechnology, Kattankulathur,TamilNadu,India
SunpreetSingh MechanicalEngineering,NationalUniversityofSingapore,Singapore,Singapore
S.Subhashini DepartmentofBiotechnology,SchoolofBioengineering,SRMInstituteofScienceandTechnology, Kattankulathur,TamilNadu,India
K.S.Vignesh
SchoolofPublicHealth,SRMInstituteofScienceandTechnology,Chennai,India
Seriesprefacetofirstedition
Recentlytheconceptofzerowastehasbecomeatopicofconsiderable importance.Itissignificantnotonlytoenvironmentalmanagersbutalso toenvironmentalengineersandscientist,chemists,toxicologist,biotechnologist,pharmacists,forensicscientist,andenvironmentalregulatorswhoneed toreduce/eliminatetheirwasteandhasevolvedasatruedisciplinethroughouttheworld.Zerowasteisbasicallyaphilosophythatencouragestheredesignofresourcelifecyclessothatallproductsarereused.Thegoalisthatno trashshouldbesenttolandfills,incinerators,ortheocean.Theprocessrecommendedisonesimilartothewaythatresourcesarereusedinnature.Itis perhapsthemostpowerfulandversatileconceptavailabletodateforan environmentalist.
Everydaythenewdevelopmentsinenvironmentalsciencesandengineering,spreadofindustrialization,andgrowingglobalpopulationincrease thewasteproduction.Theincreaseinwasteproductionincreasestheneed formoreareastodisposeandnewtechnologytodesignwhichislimitingour resourcesfromtheenvironment.Torelievethepressuresplacedonthe finiteresourcesavailable,ithasbecomemoreimportanttopreventwaste. Zerowastepromotesnotonlyreuseandrecyclingbutalso,moreimportantly,itpromotespreventionandproductdesignsthatconsidertheentire productlifecycle.Zerowastedesignsstriveforreducedmaterialsuse,useof recycledmaterials,useofmorebenignmaterials,longerproductlives,reparability,andeaseofdisassemblyatendoflife.Ingeneral,zerowastestrongly advocatesthesustainabilitybyprotectingtheenvironment,reducingcosts, andusageofwastesbackintotheindustrialcycle.However,untiltoday,the advancecomprehensiveunderstandingandrealworldconceptzerowaste toolsarestillachallenge.Thisseriesaddressesthesechallengesofimplementationofzerowastetoolsatbothrealandconceptualmodelscales.
Overall,conceptofzerowasteisagoal,aprocess,awayofthinkingthat stronglychangesourapproachtoresourcesandproduction.Itisnotabout recyclinganddiversionfromlandfillsbutaboutrestructuringproduction anddistributionsystemstopreventwastefrombeingmanufacturedinthe firstplace.Thematerialsthatarestillrequiredintheseredesigned resource-efficientsystemswillbereusedmanytimesastheproductsthat incorporatethemarereused.Thisseriessummarizepresentandemerging conceptzerowastetools,atbothexperimentalandtheoreticalmodelsscales.
Moreover,economical,toxicological,andregulatoryissueswillbepresentedindetail.Intheend,theresearchtrendsandprospectiveinthefuture willbebrieflydebated.
ChaudheryMustansarHussain SeriesEditor
Seriesvolumes
Volume1:ConceptofAdvancedZeroWasteTools
Volume2:SourceReduction&WasteMinimization
Volume3:Waste-to-Energy:ApproachesTowardsZeroWaste
Volume4:EmergingTrendstoApproachZeroWaste
Volume5:Bio-BasedMaterials&TechnologiestoApproach ZeroWaste
Preface
Zerowastetools(ZWT)isaconceptualapproachtoacquireashiftfromthe commontraditionalwastemanagementmodeltointegratedsystemsin whicheverythinghasitsvalueandusageinenvironment.Itadvocatesan urbanizedtransformationthatcanminimizeitsimpactonthenatural resources.Zerowastecanbecategorizedintosubsystemssuchaszerowaste inadministrationandmanufacturing,zerowasteofresources,zeroemissions,zerowasteinproductlife,andzerouseoftoxics.Althoughithasbeen longsincetheemphasisontheZWThasstarted,however,onlyafewimplicationhavebeenbroughtinpracticeatthegroundlevel,especiallywithin micro-andsmall-scaleindustries.Zerowastemanufacturingisatheoretical wordthatisindemandamongallthetop-notchmanufacturingdomains acrosstheworld.Themanufacturingwastesareabundantandversatilein termoftheircategoryinvolvingplastics,metals,ceramics,andothers.Hierarchyofzerowasteconceptthroughacomprehensiveemphasisontheassociatedsustainabilityrequisites.Themajorfocushasbeenmadeonpresenting hierarchy,asaconcept,topromotewasteavoidanceaheadofrecyclingand disposal.Inparticularthe6R’s,suchasreconsider,reuse,reduce,recycle, recover,andretain,havebeenwellexplainedwithrespecttotheirphysical, social,andeconomicrelationshipsthroughthemediumofestablishedtheoriesandpracticesavailableintheliterature.OveralltheZWTisbothan inspirationandaresourceterminologytohelpindustriesandsocietiestocollaborateontheadoptionofsustainablepractices,whichcanreducethewaste andworkforthecirculareconomyusingin-processmaterialwastages.In thisvolume,wesummarizedmoderndevelopmentsinvariousconcepts ofadvancedZWT.
ZWTisasetofprinciplesfocusedonwastepreventionthatencourages theredesignofresourcelifecyclessothatallproductsarereused,beingan ultimategoalthatnotrashshouldbesenttolandfills,incinerators,orthe ocean.ThisbookprovidesinvaluableinsightsofthebroadhorizonsofseveralconceptstheZWTpracticedsofarinthevariouscommercialsectors.
Overall,thisbookisdesignedtobeareferenceguidebookforexperts, researchers,andscientistswhoaresearchingfornewandmodernconcepts ofadvancedZWT.Theeditorandauthorsarewell-knownresearchers,scientists,andprofessionalsfromacademiaandindustry.OnbehalfofElsevier, wearepleasedwithalltheauthorsfortheiroutstandingandpassionatehard
workextendedtowardthecompletionofthisbook.WeextendourextraordinaryacknowledgementstoMarisaLaFleurandPeterLlewellyn(acquisitioneditors)andLetı´ciaLima(editorialprojectmanager)atElsevier,for theirdedicatedsupportandhelpduringthisproject.Intheend,wethank Elsevierforpublishingthisbook.
ChaudheryMustansarHussain Editor
Therealmofzerowaste technology:Theevolution
SunpreetSingha,SeeramRamakrishnaa,and ChaudheryMustansarHussainb aMechanicalEngineering,NationalUniversityofSingapore,Singapore,Singapore
1Thewaste
TheUnitedNations(UN)definedwasteas“thematerialswhichnot essentialproductsandhasnofurtheruseandreadytodump-off.”Thegenerationofwasteisinevitableasitcanbegeneratedduringrawmaterials’ extraction,processingofrawmaterialsintointermediate/finalproducts, consumptionoffinalproducts,andotherhuman-basedactivities(United StatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,2011).Further,thereexistvarious othertypesofwastesthatareinextricablylinkedtotheirsolidstate,andthe UNstatedthat“itisaprimaryaimofwastewatertreatmentisremoving solidsfromthewastewater”(UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme, 2011).Thescientificknowledgeoftheliteraturecontainsmanyreferences totheoverabundanceanddangersofwaste.AccordingtoBarnesetal. (Barnesetal.,2009),theoverallglobalrateofmunicipalsolidwaste (MSW)generationisestimatedtobe1.2kg/person/dayin2010,andthis ispredictedtoincreaseto1.4kg/person/dayby2025. ConceptsofAdvancedZeroWasteTools © 2021ElsevierInc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822183-9.00001-5
Consideringtheincreaseinthepopulation,thetotalgenerationofMSW isexpectedtoincreasefrom1.3billiontons/yearin2010to2.2billiontons/ yearin2025.WithregardtoMSW,itisequaltoaglobalincreaseof40tons persecondin2010andmayincreaseto70tonspersecondby2025. Accordingto Danilov-Danil’yanetal.(2009),theobservedenvironmental pollutionbecauseofsolidwastecanturnintothemainthreatduetomodern civilization.Inaddition,theriskposedbytheabundanceofsynthesized chemicalsinthewastestreamhasallowednoorganismstoevolveinnature tobreakthemdownandrenderthemharmless(Meadowsetal.,2005).In thefuturemillennia,archeologistswillfacedifficultyinidentifyinghuman civilizationasanenormousamountofnondegradedgarbagewillhavebeen buried.Further,plasticswilllikelybeourmostvisiblelegacyasthesematerialshavelongevityestimatedforhundredsofthousandsofyears(Barnes etal.,2009; Weisman,2007).
Riosetal.(2007) conductedastudyofplasticdebrisretrievedfromvariouslocationsinthePacificOceanthatconfirmedthatthismaterialisatrap forpersistentorganicpollutants.Further, Meadowsetal.(2005))notedthat over65,000industrialchemicalsarenowinregularcommercialusethatpossesseslimitedornotoxicologydataavailableforthemasaresultoflimited testing.Inthecategoryofhazardouswastes,noneiscriticallyproblematic, forexample,theby-productsofnuclearenergyandweaponsdevelopment. However,thisproblemisneitherpoliticalnorscientificthatcanmitigate. Further,numeroussecurityrisksassociatedwithnuclearorweaponmaterials haveseveralenvironmentalchallenges.Asimilarcategoryofwastes,for example,e-wastereferstoelectronictechnologiesthathavebeenproduced fromcomputers,televisions,andcellphonesareothercommonsourcesof environmentalhazards.In(Carroll,2008),ithasbeencitedthatinthe UnitedStates,about70%ofdiscardedcomputersand80%ofdiscarded TVsendupinlandfills.TheNationalSafetyCouncilestimatedthatthe UnitedStatesitselfproducedaround250milliondiscardedcomputersduring2004–2009(Royte,2005).However,theongoingtechnological advancesguaranteedroutineuselessness,andthepeaksofthee-wastemountainarecontinuouslygrowing.Indeed,thegrowthofe-wasteisspillingover fromthedevelopedworld,andthelessdevelopedcountriesdemandinternationaleffortsandtreatiestopreventit.
Puckettetal.(2002) reportedthatamillionpoundsofe-wastefrom obsoletecomputersandTVsarebeingproducedintheUnitedStatesand anestimated80%ofthishasbeencollectedforrecyclingandexportedto othercountries.Theconsequencesofthee-wastetradeinAsia,China,
India,andPakistanareextremelypollutingandarelikelytocauseserious damagetohumanhealth.Thee-wasteis,therefore,anexampleofhow thedangersofwasteflowalongageneralgradientfromwealthytopoor. Similarly,buryingtherubbishinaholeintheground,betterknownaslandfilling,isthemostcommonmodernmeansofdealingwithit;however,the dangersposedbythisarewelldocumented.
Girling(2005) presentedanexampleofaBritishstudywheretheyfound thatchildrenbornwithin2kmofalandfillsitewerestatisticallymorelikely tosufferfromabnormalities. Watson(2009) reportedthatwastemanagement(WM)processesareamajorsourceofgreenhousegasemissions throughthedecompositionoforganicmatterinlandfillsites,whichproducesthegreenhousegasmethane.Inaddition,thelandfillingsiteshave theirproliferationsteadilysubtractedfromtheearth’sfinitelandbase.Since 2001,theNYCityhasbeenshippingtherubbishoutofstatetoNJCity, Pennsylvania,andVirginia,morethan500kmaway.Similarly,Toronto’s locallandfillfilledupin2002,anditisnowexportingitswasteacrossthe borderintoMichigan(Brown,2008).
Incinerationpresentsanalternativetolandfilling,andasperthenotion “burningwastewillmakeittogoaway”isamisconception. DanilovDanil’yanetal.(2009) pointedoutthattheincinerationdecreasesabout 90%ofsolidwastevolumeandtransformsitintoagas.Ithasbeenfound thatasingletonofsolidwastecreatesabout30kgofair-borneashesand 6000m3 offumegasescontainingsulfurdioxide,nitrogenandcarbondioxide,hydrocarbons,heavymetals,anddioxins,respectively.Moreover,at 90%reductioninsolidwastevolume,thereisstillthe10%residualvolume oftoxicincineratorashthatrequireslandfilling—soincinerationisultimatelyunabletoeliminatethedependenceonfindingnewlandfillspace. Severalotherexamplesofwastemanagementpointoutthefacthowwaste canbedealtwith.Thefourstepsthatconvertvirginmaterialsintowaste includeextractionandmanufacture,distribution,consumption,andwaste. Thistransformationtakesplacerapidlyinadevelopedsociety.
Thewasteisaproblemonasignificantandglobalscale,andifleft unchecked,theriskstohumansandoverallecosystemcanbesevere.Levin etal.usedtheterm superwicked todescribewickedproblemsoftheseverest degree,asanissueofglobalclimatechange.Theydescribe:shortageoftime, problemoriginatorshouldalsoprovidesolution,weakandnonexistent addressbygovernmentauthorities,andirrationaldiscountingsystemtopush responsestofuture. Levinetal.(2012) arguedthatthecombinationoffeaturescomprisingawickedproblemhascreatedatragedybecauseofour
governanceinstitutionsandpolicies.Sincethetimeisdemandingthepotentialsolutionstotheproblemsofwaste,thus, Section2 exploresthehistoric milestonessetbyzerowastetechnology(ZWT)movement.
2HistoryofZWT
TheoriginoftheZWTterminologyisdifficulttolocateasitappears thatitsfirstinstitutionalusewasinthelate20thcenturywhenanAmerican chemistPaulPalmerfoundedZWsystems,acommercialenterprisespecializedinthereuseofchemicalby-productsthatwereotherwisedestinedfor disposal(Palmer,2007).Duringthe1990s,thetermhadbeenwidely adoptedbythegrassrootsactivistsinEnglish-speakingcountriesaround theworld,withanalogoustermssuchasZeroDechet(French)andNullAbfall(German)usedinotherlanguagesindifferentcountries.Literally, ZWmeansacomplete,100%elimination/absenceofwaste.Further,theliteraturerevealedthatZWisoftennotinterpretedliterally.Tobeableto assessZWinitiativesaroundtheworld,itisnecessarytounderstandthedifferentmeaningsimpartedtothisterm. KozlowskiRussell(2009) conducted areviewofprominentZWdefinitionsandobservedthatthetermsserve manyfunctionsatonce,forexample:
•wastereductiongoal, •visionarystatement, •resourcemanagement,and •solutiontopollutionandglobalclimatechange.
TheZWis,therefore,amultifacetedtopictobringinahostofotherterminologyandintendedmeaningsaswell.Itisoftheutmostimportanceto understandhowallofthislanguageisinterrelated(GlavicandLukman, 2007).IthasbeenobservedthattermssuchasZW,commonlyusedto describesocietalgoals,arenotideal.Murray(Murray,2002)suggestedthat ZWisacontradictionas:
Wasteisdefinedasmatterinthewrongplaceandeliminatingwastecantakewith itthepossibilityofmatterbeingintherightplace.
AstudyofZWrevealedthatanimportantpartofunderstandingthisterm involvedwhataretheirrelevantterms.Forexample, Haveletal.(2006) assertedthatZWmeansthereductionoftheproductionofalltypesofwaste tozero,whichinrealityisnotpossibleinasocietyorientedtowardconsumption.Further,thetermdefiningtheeliminationofthepresentmethods ofwastedisposal,suchaslandfillingorincineration,isalsoimpossible.
Reportedly,ZWisnotatechnologybutastrategythatbeginswithbetterindustrialdesignandendswithsourceseparationofdiscardedproducts. Asperthe CentralVermontSolidWasteManagementDistrict(2009),ZW isnotabouteliminatingdiscardsbuttostrivetocapturetheresourcesinthe rubbishproductsinawaythattheycanbereusedandrecycledinsteadof landfillorincinerated.Accordingto Snow(2011),ZWhasbeencompared withtheoldermanufacturingsectorgoals,includingzeroemissions,zero accidents,andzerodefects.Ithasbeenpointedoutbytheresearchersthat allofthesewereadoptedas“impossible”targetsinitially,butprovedtheir worthbydramaticallychangingindustryandsociety.Theassertionhasbeen supportedby EdgerlyandBorrelli(2007),whonotethatmoremodestlevels ofwastereductionsuchas50%–60%diversionbysomemunicipalitiesand regionshavebeenhelpedbyhavingZWgoalsinplace.
Admittedly,thedefinitionsofZWvaryfromthosethatareaspirational onlyandmayresembleWMpractices.Forexample,in Karaniand Jewasikiewitz(2007) theauthorhighlightedthatthemostunderstooddefinitionofZWistheminimizationofwastegeneration,thereuseand recyclingofwaste,andthediversionofwasteawayfromlandfillorincineration.ZWacknowledgesmorethanminimization,reuse,recycling, anddiversion.ZWisafull-systemviewtofocusontherecaptureofthe resourcesfromthewastestream,decreasingconsumption(Dinshawetal., 2006).ZWisalsodefinedasaprocesswherethematerialsdestinedforlandfillsorincineratorsarereturnedupstreamtoberecycledasfeedstockfornew productsorservices(DoppeltandDowling-Wu,1999),orelsearenaturally decomposedsotheycanbereintegratedintonaturewithoutenvironmental impacts. Lehmann(2011a) outlinedthatZWchallengesthemostcommon assumptions: Wasteisunavoidableandhasnovalue.
A GrassrootsRecyclingNetwork(2009) describedZW:
Aconcepttoredesignsthecurrent,one-wayindustrialsystemintoacircularsystem modelledonNature’ssuccessfulstrategies.
ConnettandSheehan(ConnettandSheehan,2001)pointedout:
Theneedtoreconfigureourone-wayindustrialsystemintoacircular,closed-loop system.
However, EdgerlyandBorrelli(2007) asserted: ZWoffersacircularresourcemanagementsysteminwhichdiscardedmaterialsare loopedbackintotheeconomy.
Ithasbeenseen,tillnow,thatthemeaningoftheZWterminologyhasconsiderablevariationsintermsofwhatexactmeaningisintendedfromcaseto case.Overall,twothemesstandout:
•ZWrepresentsaparadigmshiftandisbeyondmerelyfindingbettervariationstothesameoldWMstrategies.
•ZWconsiderswasteasaresourceofthecircularsysteminsteadofan externalitythatistheendproductofaone-way,linearsystem.
ZWisthecombinationofvariousphilosophicalgoalstoreduce,oreven eliminate,thewaste.However,indifferentways,ZWcanbearticulated, andacommonlyfoundviewintheliteratureisthatatleastapartialpart ofthenecessarychangeisrequiredtosuccessfullyaddresstheglobalwaste problem.Countries,suchasChina,India,andIndonesia,areattempting tocatchupwiththewesternconsumptionandsuggestingthatthestresses onfiniteresourcesthreatentobecomeworse.TheZWInternationalAlliance(ZeroWasteInternationalAlliance,2009)suggested:
ZWisagoalthatisethical,economical,efficientandvisionary,toguidepeoplein changingtheirlifestylesandpracticestoemulatesustainablenaturalcycles,where alldiscardedmaterialsaredesignedtobecomeresourcesforotherstouse.
Section2.1 takesacloseinsightathowZWinitiativesaroundtheworld havetakenupthewasteandarediscussedindetail.
2.1EvolutionofZWandZWT
Theenvironmentalissuesevolvedduetotherapideconomicdevelopment aroundtheworldincludedepletionofnaturalresources,largeamountsof industrialwastes,pollutionwithradioactiveandtoxicelements,lowering thefertilityoftheland,reductionofland,limitedproductionefficiency, andmanyothers.(Tyulenevetal.,2017).Thenegativeimpactofthehuman activitiesonenvironmentalconditionsreliesonsurveyingthelarge-scale introductionoftheZWTtechnologiestohelpsolvingproblemsofairpollution,hydrosphere,lithospherepollution,andreducetheamountofgarbage(Tyulenevetal.,2018; KoryakovandKulikov,2018).Thepositive environmentaleffectofZWTisimmense(Ohrn-Mcdaniel,2014).
Thenewcreativeapproaches,intheareaoffashionandpatternmaking, aremoredifficulttocreateamarketabledesignthatiseasytoreproduce. Whiledesigninggarments,itismostessentialtoreproducethegarment inabalancedtimeframetofitwithinanappropriatecost.TheZWapproach andapplyingittomarketabledesignforthebridgemarketcreatedaboxfor thedesignertoworkwithin.TocontradictthetraditionalshapesofZW
technology,theadoptedtechnologymustbesuccessfullyusedinproduction.SomeauthorsdescribedZWTasamodeltomeetthefollowingcredentials(Upadhyaya,2013):
•Lifecycledesign:Thisincludesthedesignanddevelopmentofcommercialgoodorserviceinawaythatitcanmeettheentirelifecycleofthe products.Inasimpledefinition,thedevelopmentofaproductsothatit canbeusedfortheentirelifecycle.
•Degreeofdemonstration:Itemphasizesthefactthatforbiddingplastic baggageisnotanoption.Rather,theaimshouldbeonthealternate, notonostracize.
•Designingforupstream:Thecorrectstylestartsonceaproductisanticipated,evenaspricesandmarketstoendwithdegradedormixed garbage.
•Capturingthehighestfunctioning:thematerialsshouldnotfocusonthe repairanduseofeachproductforthehighestavailableprice.
•Highestmanifestationandreusability:Thebuildings,coolingsystems, processingplants,conveyorsystems,andothersshouldbepreservedas completesystemsandreinstalledwhenneeded.
Thecirculareconomy(CE)concept,inthecontextofZW,isaninterwovenconceptthatpredatesZW,forexample,industrialsymbiosis(Chertow andEhrenfeld,2012).Theeco-friendlycityisaCE-relatedconceptthatis evolvinginJapan,Singapore,andotherpartsoftheworld(Dongetal., 2016).Inindustries,theCEconceptisassociatedwithabroadrangeofsubjectssuchasthermodynamicsandecologicaleconomics(Winansetal., 2017).Insystemstheoryandaccordingtothermodynamics,theapplication ofCEconceptsinfluencestheproductionandconsumptionmodelsinaway thatenablesa“de-growthphase”oftheeconomicsystem( JiaoandBoons, 2017).ApartfromthegrowthoftheCE,abusinessparadigmtowardsustainability,theconcepthasbeenexploredatdifferentlevelsbutnotsomuch debatedacademicallywithinbusinessandsustainabilityliterature(Murray etal.,2017).Further,thetermsustainabilitycannotbefullyassociatedwith theCEbecausethesocialcomponentofsustainabilityispracticallydismissed (Schneider,2015).TheZWconceptinthepastlookedateliminatingthe unneededuseofmaterialsandtheoptimizationofresources;following rethink,reduce,reuse,recycle,recover,residualsmanagement,andleaving unacceptable(Hanna,2015).
WM,intheearlierdecades,hasbeenchangedthroughenvironmental issuesandconceptsofwasteatcertainperiods,illustratedbythekeywords includingcleaning,pollutionprotection,producerresponsibility,resources,
andrenewableenergyinKorea(Yangetal.,2015).Sincethelegislation beganinthe1960s,differentlawsandactshavebeenenactedinWMbased onsuchissuesinhistory.Ithasbeenseenthatthehighestlevelofchanges occurredinthewastedependsoncategorizingthewasteanditsapplication. ChangesthatoccurredintheclassificationofWMhaveproducedseveral efficientresultssuchasanincreaseintherecyclingrate,easeofhandling wastestream,anddecreasingtreatmentcosts.UntiltheWMLawcameinto effectinDecember1986,theFilthandCleaningLaw(1973)andtheEnvironmentalProtectionLaw(1963)havebeenregulatedinKorea(Pariatamby andTanaka,2014).Ontheuniversallevel,thevariousmilestonessethave beenmadeasdiscussedin(Connett,2013).ThescopeoftheZWstudyconductedby Zaman(2017) highlightedthatallZWlifephasefromtheextractionofresourcestothefinaldisposalofwaste.Researchersconducteda significantnumberofstudiesonregulatorypolicy(19%);however,the greatestnumberofstudieswereconductedonWM(22%)followedby ZWextractionprocesses(32studies)andZWtreatment(31studies).There shouldbeasignificantchangetomakeontherefurbishmentofhuman’slife styletoreduceconsumption(Hoglandetal.,2014).Followingthisconcept, environmentallyfriendlywaysoflivingusingalternativesourcesofenergy andeatingorganicallygrownfoodhavealreadybeenstartedamongtheliteratecommunity.Foracceptingthattheglobalproblemofwasteis extremelychallenging,oneshouldrecognizethecosttosocietyfor addressingthemostacuteissues(Wilsonetal.,2015).Relatively,thegenerationoftheprogressivesoundeconomicinvestment,thesocioeconomic andenvironmentalopportunityofaddressingwasteissuesshouldbeconsideredasstrengths.However,stepsinproducingtheZWstrategystartwith thepreliminaryassessments(refer Fig.1)ofexistingWMsystems.ThepreliminaryassessmentandevaluationisimportanttomeasureexistingWM performance.Thewastecharacterizationandprominentissuesinachieving ZWgoalsneedtobeidentifiedatthispreevaluationstage(Kerdlap etal.,2019).
Theauditandreductionofthetechnologies,inasmartway,arefeasible toimplementonthesoftwaresideforwastedatamanagementand benchmarking.Indeed,thephysicalprocessofwastecollectionisthetechnicalbarrierthatneedstobeovercom ebyadoptingdigitalmeans.Despite thetopeconomiesoftheworld,suchasJapan,theUnitedStates,andthe UnitedKingdom,developingpartoftheworldalsosortswastesonsite throughspecializedbins.Further,sma rtwastebinscanmeasuretheoverall volumeofwastegenerated,buttheycannotmeasurethevolumesofwaste
Responsible
Fig.1 StepsindevelopingaZWstrategy(Zaman,2017).
bymaterialtype.Thedenseurbancent ers,likeSingapore,requirehardwaretechnologiesthatcanefficientlymeasurethevolumeofwastegeneratedandestimateitsmaterialcomposition(Hoglandetal.,2014).Any legislationorlegalpolicyfortheZWshouldbeintroducedbyadopting theoverarchingguidelinesimplementedinfourphases(refer Fig.2). Theprimemotiveofsuchresultingstrategies,despiteovercomingthe waste,shouldalsoreducethematerialandenergyconsumptioninall nations(Lehmann,2010).ForachievingtheZW,themaindifficulty requirescontinuedandcombinedeffortsbyindustry,governmentbodies, universityresearchers,andthepeop leandorganizationsinourcommunity.Further,thegovernmentsshouldformulatetheeffectivenessofthe policiestoreducetheenvironmentalimpactsofconsumptionandproduction,addressingissuessuchashouseholdconsumption,publicprocurement,corporatebehavior,andtechnologicalinnovation. Zaman(2015) outlinedsomerecommendationstofollow.
Waste prevention through zero waste process, extraction techniques, design and production process
avoidance through sustainable consumption and responsible purchasing behavior
reduction and minimization through zero waste management and treatment
Phase 4: Regulation and assessment throught strategic regulatory policies and evaluation tools
Fig.2 PhasesinimplementingZWstrategy(Zaman,2015).
Ithasbeenunderstoodthatwastecontrolcanbestartedatindividual levels;however,variousbusinessgroupsandconcernedgovernment authoritiescanhelptheindividualstomakemoreenvironmentallyconsciousmethodologies.Therearemanysuccessstoriesaroundtheworld includingGermany,Austria,Spain,Italy,theUnitedKingdom,Singapore, Korea,Japan,andtheUnitedStates.Similarly,thedevelopingworldisstill worryingaboutfinancialtroubles.
3PresentageofZW
ThephilosophicalconceptofZWandZWThasevolvedintoseveral technicalmethodologiesprovidingrealisticcheckstoevaluatewhetherthe implementedsystemsareprovidingqualitativeand/orquantitative
outcomesforevaluations.Thissectionaimedtoreviewtheguidingprinciples,particularlyinthecontextof:
•sustainabilitygoals:includingthecomplexrelationshipsbetweenimpacts systemsand
•newinnovativetechnologies.
3.1Sustainability
Theterm“Sustainability”isdefinedasthegoalofsustainabledevelopment includingeconomicandsocialdevelopmentthatprotectandenhancethe naturalenvironmentandsocialequity(GertsakisandLewis,2003).This termenteredthepublicdebateaftertheWorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopmentpublishedtheirlandmarkreport,OurCommon Future,in1987.Itwasdefinedbythereportthatthedevelopmentmeets theneedsoftoday’srequirementswithoutcompromisingtheabilityof futuregenerations(WCED(WorldCommissiononEnvironmentand Development),1987).Sustainabilityconceptrecommendsthattheindustriesandtheiroperationsshouldbeencouragedtobecomemoreefficient intermsofutilizationoftheresources,productionoflesspollutionandprocesswaste,andtheuseofnonrenewableresourcestominimizeirreversible adverseimpactsonhumanhealthandtheenvironment.Further,thesustainablesocietyshouldbetheonethatpersistsoverwhelminggenerations,flexible,andwisetoundermineeitheritsphysicaloritssocialsystemsofsupport. Thesustainabilityshouldfocusontheuseofrenewableresources,sustainablealternativesofrenewablesubstitutes,andgenerationofthewasteswith onlyassimilativecapacity.
Forsustainabledevelopment,itisofutmostimportancetoestablisha wastehierarchyforWM,atagloballevel,thatcaninfluencethetechnical trajectoriesofWMregimes. Fig.3 showsthehierarchyofWM.Thedevelopmentofnewtechnologicalapproachescanserveasalaunchingpadfor specifictechnologicaltrajectoriesandthebasisforamoresustainableorganizationofeconomicactivities(BucletandGodard,2013).Thesuggested hierarchyshouldstemfrom;first,intheshort/mediumterm,thisapproach canreducethebenefitsofmanagementoptionsthatmustbebettertoadapt specificwastestreams(Lazarevicetal.,2010).However,thecontextofthe wastecontrolhierarchyhasbeenchangedwiththegeographicallocations,as representedin(Williams,2015).Despitetheincreasingreuseandrecycling efforts,themajorityofwasteproducedisstillplacedintostoragefacilities. The“R-word”inscientificliteraturehasproliferatedanddeliveredthe
keyaspectsofWMandresourcerecovery.Further,thesehavebeenused freelyalongwithreprocessing,recycling,resourcerecovery,andreuse,as wellasrehabilitation,reclamation,restoration,recuperation,reconstruction, andremediation(Lottermoser,2011).
Itiscriticaltobeawareanddevelopbettermeasuresandgoalsformoving towardZWandCEtoemphasizeonsourcereduction,reducedconsumption,productandserviceredesign,andreuse. Velevaetal.(2017) described howtomeasuresomethingthatisnonexisting.Foridentifyingthereusefactor,itisaboldtaskyetveryfewerenterprisesaretrackingsuchrecords.In mostofthecases,anoutboundpartyhiredbytheenterprisecollectstheused products,andnoinformationisrelayedback.Ithasbeenconcludedby Cole etal.(2014) thatZWisdifficulttoachievewithoutenforcingclearmanagementpolicies,andthezerowastestrategiesshouldincludesocialandenvironmentalaimswithWMperformancetargetsandtheabilitytomonitor progress.Toachievesetmilestones,thereisaneedtoestablishalink betweenallstakeholderstoproduceaholisticapproachtoWM.
Further,thisrequiresadditionalefforts,innovation,creativeandeffective policies,partnershipworking,andsupportfromNationalGovernmentsto moveinthedirectionofZW.Similarly,theZWmodelinemergingcountriesshouldbedevelopedforpost-consumerwasteinurbanareaswithdifferinglevelsofservice.Indeed,wasteminimizationandrecyclinghavetobe identifiedasnecessarystepsforthesuccessofanystrategicmodel.These shouldalsofocusonthewasteraisedaftertheminimizationandrecycling ofsuchwastesusingasuitablemodel(MateteandTrois,2008).Inaddition, therearelotsofsuggestionsgivenbytheauthorsmentionedin Couthand Trois(2012), Zaman(2014), Lehmann(2011b), CarricoandKim(2014),
Fig.3 Wastemanagementhierarchy.
and Garcı´a-Tenetal.(2016).Inrecentyears,environmentalistsofthedevelopedworldarecriticizingtheincreaseofmanufacturingandhousehold wastesandadvocatingtheinstitutionalizationofZWasasocietalgoaltospur WMagenciestoeliminatetheneedforlandfills.Further,theintegratedWM shouldrecognizelandfillingasthelastchoiceavailableinthehierarchyof WM(NaviaandRoss,2009).
Further,severalsolutionshavebeensuggestedtoimprovetheuseofthe hierarchywithregardtoachievedematerialization(VanEwijkand Stegemann,2016).Thehierarchycanbecomprehensivelyspecifiedon theopen-loopandclosed-looprecycling,alongwithfordifferentcombinationsofmaterialsandtreatments,includingbansonlandfillofparticular materialsandproducts.TheCEconceptasbackground,thewastehierarchy index(WHI),canbeupgradedtoallowthecalculationofthelevelofimplementationconsideringrecyclingandincineration,andthefinallymodified systemcancontributetoCE.ThestreamlinedWHIallowsitsapplicationat themoment,beingvalidtobeappliedwithexistingdatafromEuropean countriesreportingtoEurostat(PiresandMartinho,2019). Cherubini etal.(2008) investigatedscenariosforurbanWMinterestingtechnological andenergyoptions.Unfortunately,noneoftheseoptionscanfullyprovidea safewastedisposalstrategyoranappropriateresourcemanagementpattern forafullrecoveryofavailableresourcepotentialoftheunpresortedwastes. Further,concerningpollutionproblems,itdoesnotappearthatthescenarios canaddresstheunsolvedproblems,socialcriticism,andpointoutthepositiveaspects. Bindeletal.(2012) representedtheworksystemofproduct servesasanotorioussystemthatemphasizesthetransitionofownershipfrom thecustomertothemanufacturer.Thegoalisnottoselltheproduct,but instead,toincreaseitsoperationtime,tomanufacturemoredurableproducts,todesigndisassemblyproducts,andtoextendtheusephaseoftheproductasfarastechnicallyandeconomicallypossible. Piresetal.(2019) highlightedthefactthatthewastepreventionandreusemeasuresinaspecificphaseofaproductshouldcreatemorewasteinsubsequentlifestagesor theavoidanceoftoxicmaterialsthatareusedtoincreasedurability.
3.2Innovativetechnologies
Therecenttechnologicalinnovationshaveincreasedpressureon manufacturingcompaniestothinkbeyondtheeconomicbenefitsoftheir processesandproductsandconsidertheenvironmentalandsocialeffects ( Joungetal.,2013; HussainandMishra,2018; HussainandKecili,2019;
Hussain,2019).Therefore,theultimategoalformanufacturersistopromote manufacturingprocessesandmanufacturedproductswhichcanminimize theenvironmentalimpactswhilemaintainingeconomicbenefits.Thecurrentsituationischallengingmanufacturingenterprisesaroundtheworldto becompetitiveinthemarketplacebydevelopingandimplementingsustainablemanufacturingtechniquesandtools.Further,themanufacturershave engagedintheidentificationofthesustainabilityofmeasurementsolutions, andafeweffectivemeasurementmethodsarealreadyavailableforassessing theimpactsofmanufacturingontheenvironmentandsociety.Thevarious setsofindicators,evaluationcriteria,andtheircharacteristicsarewell describedby Joungetal.(2013).TheNationalInstituteofStandardsand Technology(NIST)indicatorcategorizedthefivedimensionsofsustainability,suchasenvironmentalstewardship,economicgrowth,socialwell-being, technologicaladvancement,andperformancemanagement.Further, Fig.4 showsthetop-levelcategorizationandthefirst-levelsubcategorization ( Joungetal.,2013).
Similarly,aparadigmofIndustry4.0isanextstepforwardtowardmore sustainableindustrialvaluecreation.Thisstepismainlycharacterizedasa contributiontotheenvironmentaldimensionofsustainability(Stockand Seliger,2016).Thisparadigmallocatestheresources,includingproducts, materials,energy,andwater,whichcanberealizedmoreefficientlybased
Sustainability
Fig.4 SchematicrepresentationoftheNISTindicator( Joungetal.,2013).
onintelligentcross-linkedvaluecreationmodules(Kagermannetal.,2015).
ThemacroscopicperspectiveofIndustry4.0isrepresentedin Fig.5, highlightingtheend-to-endengineeringcross-linkingofstakeholders, products,andequipmentalongwiththeproductlifecycle.Thelifecycle consistsoftherawmaterialacquisitionphase,themanufacturingphase— containingtheproductdevelopment,theengineeringoftherelated manufacturingsystemandthemanufacturingoftheproduct,including reuse,remanufacturing,recycling,recovery,anddisposal—andthetransport betweenallphases(StockandSeliger,2016). Jayaletal.(2010) presenteda holisticviewofproductsandinvolvedmanufacturingprocesseswithaparticularemphasisonthesupplychain,includingmanufacturingsystemsacross multipleproductlifecycles,improvedmodels,sustainabilityevaluation,and optimizationtechniquesattheproduct,process,andsystemlevels.Onthe sameline,acriticalliteraturereviewonthesamehasbeendescribedby Seligeretal.(2011) and GarettiandTaisch(2012).Companiesarebeginning todiscovertheimplicationsofusingadditivemanufacturing(AM)technologiesonextendingproductlifecyclesandclosingtheloop.
AM,anewtechnology,enablesthedesignerswithnearlyunlimitedfreedomofdesign,allowsformasscustomizationofconsumergoods,andoffers thepotentialforcreatingsuchlastingobjectsofdesire,pleasure,andattachment(Diegeletal.,2010).TheAMhasbegunitsjourneyfordeveloping
Fig.5 MacroprospectiveofIndustry4.0inthecontextofsustainability(Stockand Seliger,2016).
sophisticatedproductsforvariousindustries(LeBourhisetal.,2013).
Accordingto FordandDespeisse(2016):
•TheadoptionofAMandotheradvancedmanufacturingtechnologies appearstoheraldafutureinwhichvaluechainsareshorter,smaller,more localized,morecollaborative,andoffersignificantsustainabilitybenefits.
•TheAMmimicsbiologicalprocessesbycreatingproductslayer-bylayer.
•Itimprovesresourceefficiency:improvementscanberealizedinboth productionandusephasesasmanufacturingprocesses.
•ExtendsproductlifethroughtechnicalapproachesthroughvariousR’s.
•Reconfiguredvaluechainsintoshorterandsimpler.
Fig.6 showstheAMimplicationsinsustainabilitythroughlifecycleanalysis (LCA).IthasbeenobservedthattheAMcanprovideopportunitiesforcommercialorganizationstoexperimentwiththeirbusinessmodels.Thetransitiontodirectdigitalmanufacturingwillleadtodigitaldesignsbeingkept onfileremanufacturingwillenableproductlifeextensionandprovide incentivesforproduct-servicebusinessmodels.Further,theexploitation oftheseavenueswillleadtochangesinthedistributionofmanufacturing andthereconfigurationofvaluechains.Thesignificantchangesarecontingentonorganizations,firstforredesigningthecomponentsandtheproducts tohavefewersubcomponentssubsequentlyleadingtosimplifiedsupply chains(FordandDespeisse,2016).
AM for sustainability through product life cycle
Fig.6 SustainabilityimplicationsofAMthroughproductlifecycle.
