ComputerVisionTechnologyfor FoodQualityEvaluation
SecondEdition
Editedby Da-WenSun
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4.6SupportVectorMachine....................................................................................101
4.6.1BinaryClassification......................................................................................101
4.6.2Multiclassification..........................................................................................103 Nomenclature............................................................................................................106
Chapter5:IntroductiontoHyperspectralImagingTechnology............................111 M.Kamruzzaman,D.-W.Sun
5.1Introduction........................................................................................................111
5.2FundamentalsofHyperspectralImagingTechnology......................................112
5.3MultivariateDataAnalysis................................................................................116
5.3.1SpectralPreprocessing...................................................................................116
5.3.2DevelopmentofMultivariateCalibration.....................................................117
5.3.3ModelValidationandEvaluation..................................................................118
5.3.4SelectionofImportantWavelengths.............................................................118
5.3.5MultivariateImageAnalysis..........................................................................119
5.4HyperspectralImageAnalysisSoftware...........................................................119
5.5ApplicationofHSIforMuscleFoods...............................................................120
5.5.1Beef................................................................................................................122
5.5.2Pork................................................................................................................122
5.5.3Lamb...............................................................................................................125
5.5.4Chicken...........................................................................................................126
5.5.5Turkey.............................................................................................................129
5.5.6Fish.................................................................................................................129
Chapter6:IntroductiontoRamanChemicalImagingTechnology........................141 J.Qin,K.Chao,M.S.Kim
6.1Introduction........................................................................................................141
6.2PrinciplesofRamanScattering.........................................................................142
6.3RamanSpectroscopyTechniques......................................................................143
6.3.1BackscatteringRamanSpectroscopy.............................................................143
6.3.2TransmissionRamanSpectroscopy...............................................................144
6.3.3SpatiallyOffsetRamanSpectroscopy...........................................................144
6.3.4Surface-EnhancedRamanSpectroscopy.......................................................144
6.3.5OtherRamanTechniques...............................................................................145
6.4RamanChemicalImagingandAcquisitionMethods.......................................145
6.5RamanImagingInstruments..............................................................................149
6.5.1MajorComponentsofRamanImagingSystems..........................................149
6.5.2RamanImagingSystemsandCalibrations...................................................154
6.6RamanImageAnalysisTechniques..................................................................158
6.6.1ImagePreprocessing......................................................................................158
6.6.2TargetIdentification.......................................................................................159
6.6.3MappingandQuantitativeAnalysis..............................................................161
Part2QualityEvaluationofMeat,PoultryandSeafood
Chapter7:QualityEvaluationofMeatCuts....................................................175
N.A.Valous,L.Zheng,D.-W.Sun,J.Tan
7.1Introduction........................................................................................................175
7.2QualityEvaluationUsingComputerVision.....................................................177
7.2.1BeefQuality,YieldGrade,Composition,andTenderness...........................177
7.2.2PorkColor,Marbling,Grade,andComposition...........................................178
7.2.3PoultryInspection,ContaminantDetection,andComposition....................179
7.2.4LambYieldGradeandTenderness...............................................................179
7.3QualityEvaluationUsingHyperspectralImaging............................................180
7.3.1BeefTenderness,MicrobialSpoilage,andComposition.............................180
7.3.2PorkGrading,Composition,andMicrobialSpoilage..................................181
7.3.3PoultryClassification,ContaminantDetection,andComposition...............183
7.3.4LambClassification,Composition,andTenderness.....................................185
7.4FutureWork.......................................................................................................185
8.1Introduction........................................................................................................195
9.3ColorImagingforQualityInspection...............................................................215
9.3.1DetectionofSplenomegaly...........................................................................215
9.3.2VisceraInspection..........................................................................................216
9.3.3WholesomenessInspection............................................................................217
9.4SpectralImaging................................................................................................217
9.4.1QualityCharacterization................................................................................217
9.4.2SkinTumorDetection....................................................................................219
9.4.3SystemicDiseaseDetection...........................................................................220
9.4.4HeartDiseaseDetection................................................................................221
9.4.5SystemicDiseaseIdentification.....................................................................222
9.4.6QualityInspectionbyDual-BandSpectralImaging.....................................224
9.5PoultryImageClassifications............................................................................225
9.5.1AirSacsClassificationbyLearningVectorQuantization............................225
9.5.2QualityClassificationbyTextureAnalysis...................................................225
9.5.3SupervisedAlgorithmsforHyperspectralImageClassification..................230
10.1Introduction......................................................................................................243
10.1.1DevelopmentsinNewHardwareandTechnologies.................................243
10.1.2CentralProcessingUnit(CPU):ComputingPower.................................244
10.1.3GraphicalProcessingUnit:AcceleratedComputing................................244 10.1.4NewCameraTechnology..........................................................................245
10.2NewMethods...................................................................................................247
10.2.1HyperspectralImaging...............................................................................247
10.2.2SortingofCodRoe,Liver,andMilt.........................................................247
10.2.3X-Rays........................................................................................................248
10.2.4TwoImageMethod....................................................................................249
10.3Color.................................................................................................................249
10.3.1RawSeafood..............................................................................................249
10.3.2ProcessedSeafood......................................................................................250
10.3.3ColorofGillsandEyes.............................................................................251
10.3.4Quality,Gaping,Defects............................................................................252
10.3.5Area,Volume,andShape..........................................................................256
10.3.6ViewAreaVersusWeight..........................................................................258
10.4Automation.......................................................................................................260
10.4.1Robot-BasedPosttrimmingofSalmonFillets..........................................261
10.4.2AutomatedSortingofPelagicFishBasedon3-DMachineVision........262
10.5ConclusionandOutlook..................................................................................263
10.5.1FusionofSensorData...............................................................................264
10.5.2Dense3-DPointCloudImageMaps........................................................264
10.5.3Dense3-DVisualServoingofRobots......................................................264
Part3QualityEvaluationofFruitandVegetables
12.3.2DetectionofCitrusCanker........................................................................318
12.3.3DetectionofOtherSkinDefects...............................................................319
12.4InternalQualityInspection..............................................................................319 References.................................................................................................................321
Chapter13:QualityEvaluationofStrawberry.................................................327 J.-H.Cheng,D.-W.Sun,M.Nagata,J.G.Tallada
13.1Introduction......................................................................................................327
13.1.1OverviewofStrawberries..........................................................................327
13.1.2NecessityofQualityMeasurement...........................................................327
13.1.3ComputerVisionTechnologiesforQualityMeasurement.......................328
13.2GradingofSize,Shape,andRipeness............................................................329
13.2.1StandardsforQualityGrades....................................................................329
13.2.2PreliminaryStudyforSizeandShapeJudgment.....................................330
13.2.3AdvanceTechniquesforSizeandShapeJudgment.................................332
13.2.4GradingofRipeness..................................................................................336
13.3DetectionofBruisesandFecalContamination..............................................337
13.3.1ImportanceofDetectingBruises...............................................................337
13.3.2ColorImagingforBruiseDetection.........................................................338
13.3.3NIRImagingforBruiseDetection............................................................338
13.4.1ImportanceofMeasurementofInternalQuality......................................343
13.4.2MeasurementofFirmness..........................................................................343
13.4.3MeasurementofSolubleSolidsContent...................................................346 13.4.4EstimationofAnthocyaninDistribution...................................................347
Chapter15:GradingofPotatoes....................................................................369
F.Pedreschi,D.Mery,T.Marique
15.1Introduction......................................................................................................369
Part4QualityEvaluationofGrains
Chapter16:WheatQualityEvaluation............................................................385
16.2.1ContextforWheatQualityMonitoring.....................................................386 16.2.2Area-ScanImaging....................................................................................387
16.2.6Morphological,Color,andTexturalAlgorithms.......................................393
16.3SoftX-RayImaging.........................................................................................396
16.3.1SoftX-RaysforInsectInfestationDetectioninGrain.............................397
16.4NearInfraredSpectroscopy(NIRS)andHyperspectralImaging..................398
16.4.1MeasurementofNearInfraredRadiation.................................................399
16.4.2NearInfraredSpectroscopyInstrumentation............................................401
16.4.3NearInfraredHyperspectralImaging.......................................................402
16.4.4ApplicationofNearInfraredSpectroscopyandHyperspectral ImagingSystems........................................................................................403
16.5ThermalImaging..............................................................................................405
16.5.1ApplicationofThermalImaging...............................................................406
16.6PotentialPracticalApplications.......................................................................406
16.6.1AutomationofRailcarUnloading.............................................................406
16.6.2OptimizationofGrainCleaning................................................................406
16.6.3QualityMonitoringofExportGrains........................................................406
16.6.4DetectionofLow-LevelInfestation..........................................................407 References.................................................................................................................407
Chapter17:QualityEvaluationofRice...........................................................413 Y.Ogawa
17.1Introduction......................................................................................................413
17.2QualityofRice.................................................................................................413
17.3QualityEvaluationofRawRice.....................................................................416
17.3.1MorphologicalFeatures.............................................................................416
17.3.2SurfaceandStructuralTraits.....................................................................419
17.3.3MoistureandCompoundDistributions.....................................................422
17.3.4DefectDetection........................................................................................425
17.4QualityEvaluationofCookedRice................................................................426
17.4.1ChangesinWaterDistributionDuringSoaking.......................................426
17.4.2WaterMigrationandStructuralChangesDuringBoiling........................428
17.4.3GrainStructureofCookedRice................................................................430
17.5QualityEvaluationofRice-RelatedProducts.................................................432
18.1Introduction......................................................................................................439
18.1.1WholeSeedAnalysisforType..................................................................440
18.1.2InternalSeedCharacteristics.....................................................................440
18.1.3RelatingSeedMorphometrytoQuality....................................................442
18.1.4AssessingSeedQualityIndirectly.............................................................442
18.1.5AddingColorintotheAnalysis................................................................444
18.1.6TheAnalysisIsOnlyasGoodastheSample..........................................444
18.1.7IntegrationandAutomationofAnalysis...................................................444 18.2Corn..................................................................................................................446
18.2.1UseofCorn................................................................................................446
18.2.2CornGrading..............................................................................................446
18.3MachineVisionDeterminationofCornQuality............................................447
18.3.1Color...........................................................................................................448
18.3.2SizeandShape...........................................................................................448
18.3.3Breakage.....................................................................................................451
18.3.4StressCracks..............................................................................................452
18.3.5HeatDamage..............................................................................................453
18.3.6MoldandFungalContamination...............................................................453
18.3.7HardnessorVitreousness...........................................................................454
18.3.8SeedViability.............................................................................................455
18.3.9OtherApplications.....................................................................................456
18.3.10ChangingDirections................................................................................456
Chapter22:QualityEvaluationandControlofPotatoChips.............................591
F.Pedreschi,D.Mery,T.Marique
22.1Introduction......................................................................................................591
22.2ComputerVision..............................................................................................592
22.3ImageFeatures.................................................................................................595
22.4Applications......................................................................................................599
22.5FriedPotatoSorting.........................................................................................604
22.5.1BrowningSortingUsingArtificialNeuralNetworks(ANN) byCARAH(Centrepourl’agronomieetl’agro-industriedela ProvinceeHainaut,Belgium)...................................................................604
22.5.2BrowningSortingWithoutANN(WalloonAgricultural ResearchCenter,Belgium)........................................................................607
22.5.3BrowningSortingandAcrylamideEstimationUsingANN byCARAH.................................................................................................610
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Contributors
M.Z.Abdullah SchoolofElectricalandElectronicEngineering,UniversitiSainsMalaysia, Penang,Malaysia
Z.Ayvaz C¸anakkaleOnsekizMartUniversity,C¸anakkale,Turkey
M.O.Balaban UniversityofAuckland,Auckland,NewZealand
D.F.Barbin UniversityCollegeDublin(UCD),NationalUniversityofIreland,Dublin,Ireland
J.Blasco InstitutoValencianodeInvestigacionesAgrarias(IVIA),Moncada,Spain
K.Chao BeltsvilleAgriculturalResearchCenter,Beltsville,MD,UnitedStates
J.-H.Cheng SouthChinaUniversityofTechnology,Guangzhou,China
S.Cubero InstitutoValencianodeInvestigacionesAgrarias(IVIA),Moncada,Spain
Q.Dai SouthChinaUniversityofTechnology,Guangzhou,China
R.Diaz AINIATechnologicalCentre,Valencia,Spain
C.-J.Du UniversityCollegeDublin(UCD),NationalUniversityofIreland,Dublin,Ireland
C.Erkinbaev UniversityofManitoba,Winnipeg,MB,Canada
P.K.Ghosh Agriculture,FoodandRuralDevelopment,GovernmentofManitoba, Winnipeg,MB,Canada
S.Gunasekaran UniversityofWisconsin-Madison,Madison,WI,UnitedStates
H.-J.He UniversityCollegeDublin(UCD),NationalUniversityofIreland,Dublin,Ireland
A.Iqbal UniversityCollegeDublin(UCD),NationalUniversityofIreland,Dublin,Ireland
D.S.Jayas UniversityofManitoba,Winnipeg,MB,Canada
M.Kamruzzaman UniversityCollegeDublin(UCD),NationalUniversityofIreland, Dublin,Ireland
C.Karunakaran CanadianLightSource,Saskatoon,SK,Canada
M.S.Kim BeltsvilleAgriculturalResearchCenter,Beltsville,MD,UnitedStates
Y.Lu MichiganStateUniversity,EastLansing,MI,UnitedStates
R.Lu MichiganStateUniversity,EastLansing,MI,UnitedStates
T.Marique Centrepourl’Agronomieetl’Agro-IndustriedelaProvincedeHainaut(CARAH), Belgium
D.Mery PontificiaUniversidaddeCato ´ licadeChile,Santiago,Chile
E.Misimi SINTEFFisheriesandAquaculture,Trondheim,Norway
E.Molto ´ InstitutoValencianodeInvestigacionesAgrarias(IVIA),Moncada,Spain
M.Nagata UniversityofMiyazaki,Miyazaki,Japan
S.Nashat SchoolofElectricalandElectronicEngineering,UniversitiSainsMalaysia, Penang,Malaysia
Y.Ogawa ChibaUniversity,Matsudo,Japan
J.Paliwal UniversityofManitoba,Winnipeg,MB,Canada
B.Park USNationalPoultryResearchCenter,Athens,GA,UnitedStates
F.Pedreschi PontificiaUniversidaddeCato ´ licadeChile,Santiago,Chile
J.Qin BeltsvilleAgriculturalResearchCenter,Beltsville,MD,UnitedStates
M.A.Shahin GrainResearchLaboratory,Winnipeg,MB,Canada
D.-W.Sun SouthChinaUniversityofTechnology,Guangzhou,China;UniversityCollege Dublin(UCD),NationalUniversityofIreland,Dublin,Ireland
S.J.Symons GrainResearchLaboratory,Winnipeg,MB,Canada
J.G.Tallada UniversityofMiyazaki,Miyazaki,Japan
J.Tan UniversityofMissouri,Columbia,MO,UnitedStates
N.A.Valous UniversityCollegeDublin(UCD),NationalUniversityofIreland,Dublin,Ireland
Z.Xiong SouthChinaUniversityofTechnology,Guangzhou,China
C.Zheng UniversityCollegeDublin(UCD),NationalUniversityofIreland,Dublin,Ireland
L.Zheng UniversityCollegeDublin(UCD),NationalUniversityofIreland,Dublin,Ireland
AbouttheEditor
BorninsouthernChina,ProfessorDa-WenSunisaglobal authorityinfoodengineeringresearchandeducation.Heisa MemberoftheRoyalIrishAcademy,thehighestacademichonor inIreland;aMemberofAcademiaEuropaea(TheAcademyof Europe),oneofthemostprestigiousacademiesintheworld;anda FellowoftheInternationalAcademyofFoodScienceand Technology.Hehassignificantlycontributedtothefieldoffood engineeringasaresearcher,asanacademicauthority,andasan educator.
Hismainresearchactivitiesincludecooling,drying,and refrigerationprocessesandsystems;qualityandsafetyoffood products;bioprocesssimulationandoptimization;andcomputer vision/imageprocessingandhyperspectralimagingtechnologies.Hismanyscholarlyworkshave becomestandardreferencematerialsforresearchersintheareasofcomputervision,computational fluiddynamicsmodeling,vacuumcooling,etc.Resultsofhisworkhavebeenpublishedinover800 papers,includingmorethan400peer-reviewedjournalpapers(WebofScienceh-index ¼ 71), amongthem,31papershavebeenselectedbyThomsonReuters’s EssentialScienceIndicatorsSM as highly-citedpapers,rankinghimNo.1intheworldinAgriculturalSciences(December2015). Hehasalsoedited14authoritativebooks.AccordingtoESI,basedondataderivedoveraperiodof 10yearsfromtheWebofScience,thereareabout4500scientistswhoareamongthetop1%ofthe mostcitedscientistsinthecategoryofAgricultureSciences,andProfessorSunhasconsistently beenrankedamongthetop50scientistsintheworld(hewasatthe20thpositioninDecember 2015),andhasrecentlybeennamedHighlyCitedResearcher2015byThomsonReuters.
HereceivedafirstclassBScHonorsandMScinMechanicalEngineeringandaPhDin ChemicalEngineeringinChinabeforeworkinginvariousuniversitiesinEurope.Hebecamethe firstChinesenationaltobepermanentlyemployedinanIrishUniversitywhenhewasappointed collegelecturerattheNationalUniversityofIreland,Dublin(UniversityCollegeDublin)in1995. Hewasthencontinuouslypromotedintheshortestpossibletimetoseniorlecturer,associate professor,andfullprofessor.Dr.SunisnowprofessorofFoodandBiosystemsEngineering,and directoroftheFoodRefrigerationandComputerizedFoodTechnologyResearchGroupat UniversityCollegeDublin(UCD).
Asaleadingeducatorinfoodengineering,ProfessorSunhassignificantlycontributedtothe fieldoffoodengineering.HehastrainedmanyPhDstudents,whohavemadetheirown contributionstotheindustryandacademia.Hehasalsogivenlecturesonadvancesinfood engineeringonaregularbasisinacademicinstitutionsinternationallyandhasdeliveredkeynote
speechesatinternationalconferences.Asarecognizedauthorityinfoodengineering,hehasbeen conferredadjunct/visiting/consultingprofessorshipsfrom10topuniversitiesinChina,including ZhejiangUniversity,ShanghaiJiaotongUniversity,HarbinInstituteofTechnology,China AgriculturalUniversity,SouthChinaUniversityofTechnology,JiangnanUniversity.Inrecognition ofhissignificantcontributiontoFoodEngineeringworldwideandforhisoutstandingleadership inthefield,theInternationalCommissionofAgriculturalandBiosystemsEngineering(CIGR) awardedhimthe“CIGRMeritAward”in2000,andagainin2006,theInstitutionofMechanical Engineers(IMechE)basedintheUnitedKingdomnamedhim“FoodEngineeroftheYear2004,” andin2008hewasawardedthe“CIGRRecognitionAward”inhonorofhisdistinguished achievementsasthetop1%ofAgriculturalEngineeringscientistsintheworld.In2007,hewas presentedwiththeonly“AFST(I)FellowAward”inthatyearbytheAssociationofFood ScientistsandTechnologists(India).In2010,hereceivedthe“CIGRFellowAward”;thetitleof FellowisthehighesthonorinCIGRandisconferredtoindividualswhohavemadesustained, outstandingcontributionsworldwide.InMarch2013,hewaspresentedwiththe“YouBring CharmtotheWorldAward”byHongKong-basedPhoenixSatelliteTelevision,withotheraward recipientsincludingthe2012NobelLaureateinLiteratureandtheChineseAstronautTeamfor theShenzhouIXSpaceship.InJuly2013hereceived“TheFrozenFoodFoundationFreezing ResearchAward”fromtheInternationalAssociationforFoodProtection(IAFP)forhissignificant contributionstoenhancingthefieldoffoodfreezingtechnologies;thisisthefirsttimethatthis prestigiousawardwaspresentedtoascientistoutsidetheUnitedStates.InJune2015hewaspresentedwiththe“IAEFLifetimeAchievementAward.”ThisIAEF(InternationalAssociationof EngineeringandFood)awardhighlightsthelifetimecontributionofaprominentengineerinthe fieldoffood.
HeisaFellowoftheInstitutionofAgriculturalEngineersandaFellowofEngineersIreland(the InstitutionofEngineersofIreland).Heisalsothefounderandeditor-in-chiefof FoodandBioprocess Technology anInternationalJournal (Springer)(2012ImpactFactor ¼ 4.115),serieseditorofthe ContemporaryFoodEngineering bookseries(CRCPress/TaylorandFrancis),formereditorof JournalofFoodEngineering (Elsevier),andeditorialboardmemberforanumberofinternational journalsincluding JournalofFoodProcessEngineering, JournalofFoodMeasurementand Characterization, PolishJournalofFoodandNutritionalSciences,etc.HeisalsoaChartered Engineer.
Atthe51stCIGRGeneralAssemblyheldduringtheCIGRWorldCongressinQuebecCity, CanadaonJune13 17,2010,hewaselectedIncomingPresidentofCIGR,becameCIGRPresident in2013 14,andisnowCIGRPastPresident.CIGRistheworldlargestorganizationinthefieldof agriculturalandbiosystemsengineering.
