The Difference Between Cognitive and Behavioral Theories 40
The A-B-Cs of Learning 44
What Is the Role of Observational Learning? 45
Modeling 45
What Is Reinforcement? 46
Positive Reinforcement 46
Negative Reinforcement 47
What Is Extinction? 51
What Is Punishment? 53
Positive Punishment 53
Negative Punishment 54
How Do We Distinguish Between Reinforcers and Punishers? 55
How Are Reinforcers and Punishers Learned? 55
Primary and Secondary Positive Reinforcers 55
Primary and Secondary Aversives 58
Deprivation and Satiation States 60
What Is Stimulus Control? 61
What Is Shaping? 62
What Is Chaining? 63
Total or Whole Task Chaining 64
Forward Chaining 64
Backward Chaining 64
What Are Schedules of Reinforcement? 65
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule 65
Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules 66
Extinction 68
Vignette Revisited 69
Summary 70
Key Terms 70
Discussion Questions 71
Chapter Objectives 74
Vignette 75
Overview 75
What Are the Considerations We Must Make Prior to Implementing an Individualized Behavior Support Plan? 76
How Do We Define Behavior and Develop Goals and Objectives? 77
Defining Behavior 78
Goals 80
Behavioral Objectives 81
How Do We Record Behaviors? 83
Permanent Products 84
Event or Frequency Recording 84
Duration and Latency Recording 85
Interval Recording 85
How Do We Develop Recording Instruments? 87
What Is Interobserver Agreement? 92
Permanent Products 92
Event or Frequency Recording 93
Duration and Latency Recording 94
Interval Recording 94
What Factors Influence Interobserver Agreement? 95
Reactivity 96
Observer Drift 96
Complexity of the Measurement System 96
Observer Expectations 96
What Are Single-Case Experimental Designs? 97
A-B Design 97
Withdrawal Design 99
Multiple-Baseline Designs 100
Changing-Criterion Design 103
Alternating Treatments Design 105
Vignette Revisited 107
Summary 107
Key Terms 108
Discussion Questions 108
4. Functional Behavior Assessments and Behavior Support Plans 110
Chapter Objectives 110
Vignette 111
Overview 111
What Are the Assumptions of Behavior Support? 113
Contextual Behavior 113
Functions of Behavior 113
Other Assumptions 116
Why Is It Important to Know About Functional Behavior Assessments? 116
What Are the Types of Functional Behavior Assessments? 117
Indirect Assessments 118
Descriptive Analyses 124
Functional Analyses 134
When to Use Each Type of Assessment 134
How Do We Develop a Behavior Support Plan? 136
Building the Behavior Support Plan 137
Writing the Behavior Support Plan 139
Assessing the Fidelity of the Behavior Support Plan 142
Vignette Revisited 143
Summary 143
Key Terms 145
Discussion Questions 145
5. Increasing Desirable Behaviors 146
Chapter Objectives 146
Vignette 147
Overview 147
How Can Challenging Behavior Be Decreased by Increasing Appropriate Behavior? 148
How Can Prompting Strategies Be Used to Increase Desirable Behaviors? 148
Antecedent Prompt and Test Procedure 148
Most-to-Least Prompting 149
Antecedent Prompt and Fade Procedure 149
Least-to-Most Prompting 150
Graduated Guidance 150
Time Delay 151
What Is Shaping? 152
What Are the Premack Principle and the Response Deprivation Hypothesis? 152
Premack Principle 152
Response Deprivation Hypothesis 153
What Is Behavioral Momentum? 154
What Are Self-Management Procedures? 155
Reasons for a Lack of Self-Control 155
Reasons for Teaching Self-Management 156
Types of Self-Management Skills 157
The Need for Consequences 166
What Is Preference and Choice? 168
What Is Correspondence Training? 168
What Are Behavioral Contracts? 169
What Are Token Economy Systems? 171
How Do We Produce Generalization of Behavior Change? 172
Response Generalization 172
Stimulus Generalization 173
How Is Consequence-Imposed Behavior Change Maintained? 175
Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules 175
Use of Naturally Occurring Reinforcers 175
Use of Self-Management Procedures 177
What Is the Planning Process for Generalization and Maintenance? 177
Vignette Revisited 178
Summary 178
Key Terms 179
Discussion Questions 180
6. Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors 181
Chapter Objectives 181
Vignette 182
Overview 182
What Are the Least Restrictive, Least Intrusive, and Most Effective Alternatives for Reducing Unwanted Behavior? 183
Restrictiveness 183
Intrusiveness 183
Effectiveness 183
Cautions With the Use of Restrictive or Intrusive Procedures 184
Conclusion 185
What Are Informal Procedures? 185
Situational Inducement 185
Redirection 186
Chain Stopping 186
Proximity Control 188
What Are Behavior Reduction Procedures? 189
Level I Procedures (Presentation of Reinforcement) 190
Level II Procedure (Removal of Source of Reinforcement) 196
What Are Aversive-Based Procedures? 198
Negative Side Effects 198
Level III Procedures (Contingent Removal of Reinforcing Stimuli) 199
Level IV Procedures (Presentation of Aversive Stimuli) 203
How Do We Decide Which Procedure to Use? 206
How Is Consequence-Imposed Behavior Change Generalized? 207
How Is Consequence-Imposed Behavior Change Maintained? 207
Vignette Revisited 207
Summary 208
Key Terms 208
Discussion Questions 209
7. Preliminary Considerations
Chapter Objectives 212
Vignette 213
Overview 213
Why Is Classroom Management Critical? 215
What Are Effective Classroom Arrangements? 217
What Are Nonverbal Communication Methods? 219
How Do We Set Effective Classroom Rules? 220
Developing Effective Classroom Rules 222
How Do We Establish Routines? 224
What Is Precorrection? 225
What Are Social Skills? 229
What Are Group-Oriented Management Approaches? 230
Dependent Group Management 230
Interdependent Group Management 231
Independent Group Management 232
What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Group-Oriented Management Approach? 240
Dependent Group Management 240
Interdependent Group Management 240
Independent Group Management 241
What Are Important Considerations When Using Group-Oriented Management Approaches? 241
Teachers Should Avoid Negative Traps 241
Teachers Should Actively Practice Positive Interaction Skills 243
Teachers Should Use a Teaching Interaction Strategy When Attempting to Correct Unwanted Behavior 243
Vignette Revisited 243
Summary 244
Key Terms 244
Discussion Questions 245
8. Instructional Variables 246
Chapter Objectives 246
Vignette 247
Overview 247
What Are the Levels of Time? 249
Available Time 249
Allocated Time 250
Engaged Time 252
Academic Learning Time 253
What Is the Importance of Curriculum and Lesson Pacing? 254
How Do We Plan for Transitions? 255
What Is Effective Instruction? 258
What Are Teaching Functions? 258
Daily Reviews 259
Presentation of New Content 260
Guided Practice 260
Independent Practice 261 Weekly and Monthly Reviews 262
What Are the Stages of Learning? 262
Acquisition Stage 262
Proficiency Stage 263
Maintenance Stage 263
Generalization Stage 263
Adaptation Stage 264
What Are Response Prompting Strategies? 264
Antecedent Prompt and Test Procedure 264
Most-to-Least Prompting 265
Antecedent Prompt and Fade Procedure 265
Least-to-Most Prompting 265
Graduated Guidance 266
Time Delay 266
What Is an Effective Lesson Plan Format? 267
What Are Three Critical Components for Providing Effective Instruction in the Classroom? 268
Organization of Instruction 268
Program Design 268
Teacher Presentation Techniques 269
What Is Mastery? 270
What Is Differentiated Instruction? 271
What Are Three Teaching Behaviors That Can Help Reduce Behavior Problems in the Classroom? 272
Appropriate Instructions 272
Specific Praise 272
Appropriate Error Corrections 273
What Is an Academic Functional Assessment? 273
What Are Evidence-Based Practices? 274
Key Features of Effective Programs 274
Direct Instruction 275
Key Features of Effective Instructional Practices 275
Other Resources 276
Vignette Revisited 277
Summary 277
Key Terms 278
Discussion Questions 279
Are Schools Safe? 284
School-Related Violent Deaths 284
Weapons Possession and Physical Fights in Schools 286
Students’ Perceptions of Personal Safety at School and Away From School 288
Bullying at School and Cyber-Bullying Anywhere 288
Teacher Reports on Student Misbehavior, Tardiness, and Class Cutting 289
Safety and Security Measures Taken by Schools 290
Profiling Students at Risk of Targeted Violence 290
How Do We Conduct a Fact-Based Threat Assessment? 296
Key Concepts 296
Four-Pronged Threat Assessment Approach 299
Vignette Revisited 305
Summary 306
Key Terms 307
Discussion Questions 307
10. Schoolwide Positive Behavior Intervention and Support 308
Chapter Objectives 308
Vignette 309
Overview 309
What Is Schoolwide Positive Behavior Intervention and Support? 310
Goals 312
Key Elements 313
What Are the Organizational Systems Within a SWPBIS Program? 314
Leadership Organizational System 315
Schoolwide Organizational System 317
Nonclassroom Organizational System 318
Classroom Organizational System 322
Individual Organizational System 324
Academic Support System 326
What Is the School-wide Evaluation Tool? 328
What Are the Benchmarks for Advanced Tiers? 331
Vignette Revisited 334
Summary 335
Key Terms 336
Discussion Questions 337
11. Evidence-Based Interventions and Programs 338
Chapter Objectives 338
Vignette 338
Overview 339
What Are a Strategy, an Intervention, and a Program? 340
Strategy 341
Intervention 341
Program 343
What Are the Criteria for Being Defined as an Evidence-Based Intervention? 344
The Intervention Is Operationally Defined 344
The Qualifications of People Who May Use the Intervention With Success Are Defined 345
The Outcomes That May Be Expected From Using the Intervention Are Defined 345
The Settings (or Contexts) in Which the Intervention Is Expected to Be Effective Are Defined 346
The Target Population or Populations for Whom the Intervention Is Effective Are Defined 346
The Conceptual Theory and Basic Mechanisms Framing the Intervention Are Defined 346
How Do Schools Identify Evidence-Based Interventions? 346
Step 1. Is the Intervention Backed by Strong Evidence of Effectiveness? 347
Step 2. If the Intervention Is Not Backed by Strong Evidence, Is It Backed by Possible Evidence of Effectiveness? 349
Step 3. If the Answer to the Questions in Steps 1 and 2 Is No, One May Conclude the Intervention Is Not Supported by Meaningful Evidence 351
How Do Schools Assess the Magnitude of the Effects of an Intervention? 352
Statistical Significance 352
Effect Size 352
Where Can Schools Find Evidence-Based Interventions? 354
How Do Schools Develop the Capacity to Implement Interventions? 355
Human Capacity 355
Technical Capacity 356
Physical Capacity 356
Funding Capacity 357
How Do Schools Implement and Sustain Interventions? 357
How Do Schools Evaluate Interventions and Programs? 359
Process Evaluations 360
Outcome Evaluations 361
Vignette Revisited 362
Summary 363
Key Terms 364
Discussion Questions 364
12. Response to Intervention (RTI) and SWPBIS Models 365
Chapter Objectives 365
Vignette 366
Overview 366
Where Did RTI and Multitiered Intervention Models Originate? 367
What Are the Expected Effects of RTI Intervention Models? 370
What Are Some Conceptual Issues That Arise Within RTI Intervention Models? 371
Problem Solving and Standard Protocol 372
Response to Intervention and Resistance to Intervention 372
Response to Intervention and Responsiveness to Intervention 373
Instruction and Intervention 373
What Are the Key Elements of RTI Intervention Models? 373
Universal Screening 374
Data-Based Problem-Solving Process 375
Continuum of Scientifically Based Interventions 375
Progress Monitoring 375
What Is the Link Between RTI and Schoolwide Positive Behavior
Intervention and Support (SWPBIS)? 378
Primary (Tier 1) 379
Secondary (Tier 2) 382
Tertiary (Tier 3) 389
Vignette Revisited 389
Summary 390
Terms 391
391
Preface
Purpose
One of the most critical issues facing teachers and related-services personnel today is behavior management. Behavior management consistently ranks as the most concerning issue in surveys completed by school personnel. Unfortunately, most do not feel well equipped to deal with the multitude of behavior problems they see every day in the schools. We wrote this textbook with these individuals in mind. It is critical for teachers and related personnel to receive high-quality training in behavior management; a solid textbook written by experts in the field that incorporates evidence-based best practices is an important foundational aspect of this training.
This textbook is designed differently from other management texts. We wrote this textbook to aid teachers and related-services personnel in the planning processes that must take place when preventing or responding to behavior management issues. We see this planning as occurring across three levels of support—individualized, classroom, and schoolwide. Other textbooks do not provide the balanced coverage of these levels of support as is done in this text. For example, many textbooks provide extensive coverage of classroom management supports but provide little, if any, coverage of schoolwide or individualized supports. Other texts provide extensive coverage of individualized supports but provide little, if any, coverage of schoolwide and classroom supports. Therefore, our goal is to provide extensive coverage of all three levels of support to help teachers and related-services personnel to plan for and respond to behavior management issues effectively.
This textbook can be used with undergraduate or graduate students in general education, special education, and educational and school psychology. Instructors teaching courses on behavior management, the principles of behavior, applied learning theory, and the classroom applications of educational psychology will find this textbook helpful.
Additionally, consultants and administrators can use this textbook as a foundational text for those receiving inservice training on individualized, classroom, and schoolwide support planning. Target audiences include teachers and related-services personnel (e.g., school psychologists, counselors, social workers, behavior specialists, and instructional assistants).
Major Features and Pedagogical Aides
There are several major features of this textbook.
First, important aspects of behavior management (i.e., working with parents and families, ethics and the law, diversity, and data collection) are infused in chapters throughout the book.
Second, every chapter includes objectives that provide a clear overview of what will be covered in the chapter.
Third, all chapters have a vignette at the beginning that highlights an important issue covered in the chapter. This vignette is revisited at the end, showing how the issue was addressed.
Fourth, chapter headings are phrased as questions to facilitate easier note taking and discussion.
Fifth, several tables and figures are evident in every chapter to aid in the understanding of key concepts.
Sixth, discussion questions are found at the end of each chapter to test student understanding of the content. Answers to these questions are provided in the instructor’s manual.
Finally, an extensive index and glossary are included to aid in the location and definition of key terms.
Changes Made From the First Edition
We made several changes and additions to this second edition.
Changes Throughout the Book
First, we added a new author, Dr. Mark O’Reilly, from the University of Texas at Austin. Dr. O’Reilly brings specific expertise in individualized behavior management approaches including functional behavior assessments and behavior support plans. He also has a long and successful record in applied behavior analysis.
Second, we changed the title of the textbook to reflect the trend of addressing behavior management support as a comprehensive issue rather than an individual one. This comprehensive approach incorporates individual, classroom (including instructional), and schoolwide supports (including those for nonclassroom settings such as the cafeteria, playground, and hallways).
Third, the sequence of the chapters was changed to reflect how the material is most frequently taught in college classes. In the current edition, the chapter sequence in Part I remains the same. In Part II, individualized supports are described (this content was covered in Part IV of the first edition). Classroom supports continue to be addressed in Part III. Part IV contains information on schoolwide supports (this information was covered in Part II in the first edition). Finally, the term supports replaces organizational systems in the title of chapters to better reflect current terminology in the field.
Finally, all chapters were updated with current research, corresponding citations, additional tables and figures, and rewritten pedagogical features.
Chapter-Specific Changes
Significant changes were made to several chapters.
Chapter 1. New information was added to this chapter on the best practices in behavior management, and the section on ethics was expanded to include a statement on seclusion and restraint.
Chapter 5. Discussion of preference and choice, as well as of prompting strategies related to behavior issues, was added to this chapter.
Chapter 7. The material from the Think Time® chapter (Chapter 8) in the first edition was edited and integrated into this chapter.
Chapter 10. Information on the “school evaluation rubric” was removed and coverage of the School-wide Evaluation Tool (SET) and the Benchmarks for Advanced Tiers (BAT) was added to this chapter.
Chapter 11. This chapter was previously Chapter 5 in the first edition, and was rewritten to focus on what makes a program evidence based. It now includes coverage of the criteria for being defined as an evidence-based intervention and how schools assess the magnitude of the effects of an intervention.
Chapter 12. This new chapter provides coverage of the response to intervention (RTI) approach and how to integrate multitiered intervention models such as RTI with the schoolwide positive behavior intervention and support model (SWPBIS).
Ancillaries for Instructors
Additional ancillary materials further support and enhance the learning goals of the second edition of Comprehensive Behavior Management: Individualized, Classroom, and Schoolwide. These ancillary materials include the following:
Password Protected Instructor Teaching Site
This password-protected site (www.sagepub.com/martella) offers instructors a variety of resources that supplement the book material, including the following:
• Test Bank (Word): This Word test bank offers a diverse set of test questions and answers for each chapter of the book. Multiple-choice and short-answer/essay questions for every chapter help instructors assess students’ progress and understanding.
• PowerPoint Slides: Chapter-specific slide presentations offer assistance with lecture and review preparation by highlighting essential content, features, and artwork from the book.
• SAGE Journal Articles: A “Learning From SAGE Journal Articles” feature provides access to recent, relevant full-text articles from SAGE’s leading research journals.
Each article supports and expands on the concepts presented in the chapter. This feature also provides discussion questions to focus and guide student interpretation.
• Web Resources: These links to relevant websites direct instructors to additional resources for further research on important chapter topics.
• Lecture Notes: These lecture notes summarize key concepts on a chapter-by-chapter basis to help instructors prepare for lectures and class discussions.
• Answers to In-Text Questions: The site provides answers to the chapter discussion questions found at the end of each chapter.
• Course Syllabi: Sample syllabi—for semester, quarter, and online classes—provide suggested models for instructors to use when creating the syllabi for their courses.
We believe the changes and additions made to this second edition have significantly improved the quality of the textbook. We are confident the new information will be regarded as an important addition to the understanding of comprehensive and evidence-based behavior management supports.
SAGE would like to gratefully acknowledge the following peer reviewers for their editorial insight and guidance:
Robert L. Michels
Santa Clara University
Su-Je Cho
Fordham University
Graduate School of Education
Judith E. Terpstra
Southern Connecticut State University
DeAnn Lechtenberger
Texas Tech University
Suzanne McQuillan Jimenez
George Mason University
Karen Coughenour
Francis Marion University
Gholam Kibria
Delaware State University
Acknowledgments
We dedicate this book to our families. Further, to complete this textbook, several individuals were involved. We would like to thank all those at Sage for their continued support in the entirety of the project, especially Diane McDaniel, without whom this project would not have come to fruition. We would like to thank Karen E. Taylor for her excellent editorial work. To the students who helped with tasks associated with the production of this text—Crosby Wilson and Alana Neis—we extend our sincere thanks. And finally, we wish to thank the reviewers who provided invaluable feedback and suggestions to help us produce a better product.
Part I Introduction to Behavior Management
1 Behavior Management Models
Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
• describe what is meant by discipline,
• explain how assertive discipline is implemented,
• define logical consequences,
• illustrate how to implement the reality therapy model,
• specify the approach of love and logic,
• describe the Ginott model,
• characterize the Kounin model,
• depict the Jones model,
• explain what character education is, and describe two character education programs,
• characterize the pros and cons of each of these models,
• list the five concrete recommendations to help teachers reduce common behavior problems,
• define the behavioral model and its characteristics,
• describe the misunderstandings of the behavioral model, and
• specify the right to effective behavioral treatment and the right to an effective education.
Controlling Angry Outbursts Through Evidence-Based Practices
MS. JACKSON HAS A STUDENT in her seventh-grade classroom who is having difficulty due to his angry outbursts. Ms. Jackson has tried a variety of techniques to decrease José’s outbursts, all without success. She has tried telling him how his actions affect others. She has also tried to help him manage his anger by counting to 10 before he speaks. As a last resort, Ms. Jackson has been sending José to the office, where he talks about his anger with a school counselor.
Ms. Jackson does not know what to do. She has discussed the problem with other teachers and has tried their suggestions. She has asked José’s parents to help her by talking with José and by not allowing him to play video games after school if he has a difficult day.
Ms. Jackson recently learned José had been assessed two years previously for a suspected behavior disorder. The assessment team, however, determined he did not meet the criteria for such a disability. She has also learned José has had counseling services over the last few years but to no avail. Most teachers believe José is simply a student who has difficulty controlling his anger and that the best way to prevent his angry outbursts is to stay away from him and not to make any demands when he is in a bad mood.
Ms. Jackson, however, believes that not making demands on José to prevent outbursts is not a viable option. She believes doing so is not really helping her or José. She also believes her job is to teach José how to act appropriately while he is in her classroom. Therefore, Ms. Jackson decides to journey into the world of behavior management approaches to see what has been found to work in situations such as hers.
Overview
The topic of how to manage student behavior (i.e., a clearly defined and observable act) in schools has been around as long as there have been schools. Behavior management has been and still is the chief concern of educa tors across the country (Dunlap, Iovannone, Wilson, Kincaid, & Strain, 2010; Westling, 2010). When students misbehave, they learn less and keep their peers from learning. Classroom behavior problems take up teachers’ time and disrupt the classroom and school. In fact, difficulty managing student behavior is cited as a factor associated with teacher burnout and dissatisfaction. For example, “50 percent of urban teachers leave the profession within the first five years of their career, citing behavior problems and management as factors influencing their decision to leave” (McKinney, CampbellWhately, & Kea, 2005, p. 16). More should be done to create effective classroom environments through the use of better classroom management approaches (McKinney et al., 2005; Westling, 2010).
Every year, “new and improved” behavior management approaches hit the schools only to be thrown out by the end of the year. There are at least five possible causes for this cycle. First, preservice teachers may not be trained well in behavior management methods. Typically, a single classroom management class that provides a superficial view of behavior management is offered. Second, teachers may not be trained to analyze research on behav ior management approaches. We tend to flock to the “flavor of
Vignette
the month” procedures without a great deal of regard for what has been shown to work. Third, there is no unified theory of behavior management. Because the causes of behavior problems are often not agreed on, teachers may become confused about the causes of student behavior. Fourth, schools often do not have a seamless and consistent approach to behavior management utilized across classrooms, teachers, and grade levels. Teachers tend to implement their own procedures causing confusion on the part of students. Finally, behavior management is often viewed as a reactive approach to behavior problems rather than as a proactive one.
We believe behavior management planning must occur at three levels. Figure 1.1 shows behavior management as three concentric circles. The smallest circle relates to the implementation of individualized behavior management supports for the most troubled students. Traditionally, behavior management training in special education has occurred at the individualized level. The middle circle is handled from a classroom perspective and includes effective instructional supports. Behavioral and academic programming are key aspects in the prevention of and reaction to problem behavior in the classroom. The largest circle represents schoolwide supports designed
Teachers should discuss with students expected behavior in the classroom.
to prevent and respond to behavior difficulties at the school level. These concentric circles are dependent on one another and form a comprehensive approach to behavior management. This comprehensive approach is important given the recent shift by schools from a reactive approach to behavior management to a proactive one (Lane, Wehby, Robertson, & Rogers, 2007). Viewing behavior management in this way is also helpful in reducing the staggering drop-out rates in the United States (Dynarski et al., 2008).
This chapter describes what is meant by discipline and various models used in schools to deal with student behavior. An analysis of each of the models is provided including their positive aspects and weaknesses. Additionally, five concrete recommendations to help teachers reduce common behavior problems are described along with a description of the behavioral model. Given that the conceptual focus of this textbook is behavioral, we discuss the misunderstandings of the behavioral model. Finally, behavioral ethics are highlighted via position statements from the Association for Behavior Analysis. Essentially, these statements lay out the rights individuals have to effective behavioral treatments and to an effective education. If we use effective management methods derived from the research literature, we can make significant positive gains in the lives of teachers and students.
What Is Discipline?
Over the years, discipline has been equated with punishment, specifically, corporal punish ment. Punishment and discipline, however, are not the same thing. Discipline involves teaching others right from wrong. Specifically, discipline includes methods to prevent or respond to behavior problems so they do not occur in the future (Slavin, 2009). The following are common definitions of the word dis cipline found in most dictionaries: training to act in accordance with rules, instruction, and exercise designed to train proper conduct or action; behavior in accordance with rules of conduct; and a set or system of rules and regulations. As seen in these definitions, discipline is about teaching students how to behave appropriately in different situations. It is not punishment, although punishment is one possible way of disciplining students.
What Are Some Popular Behavior Management Models Used in Schools?
With the changing attitudes toward the use of punishment-based disciplinary procedures, schools have looked for alternative models of student discipline. These models were and are aimed at developing and maintaining appropriate student behavior. The authors of these models try to describe why they work. Unfortunately, many of them have overlooked some important fundamentals; that is, they ignore the effects on students and fail to use scientific, functionally based definitions in their models. Following are brief descriptions of some of the various behavior management models used in schools. Table 1.1 provides a sample of the most commonly used models.
Model Key Aspects
Assertive Discipline
Teachers have the right to determine the environmental structure, rules, and routines that will facilitate learning.
Teachers have the right to insist that students conform to their standards.
Teachers should prepare a discipline plan in advance, including statements of their expectations, rules, and routines and the type of discipline method to be used if and when students misbehave.
Students do not have the right to interfere with others’ learning. When students do not behave in a manner consistent with teacher expectations, teachers can respond in one of three ways: nonassertively by surrendering to their students, hostilely by showing anger, or assertively by calmly insisting and assuming that students will fulfill these expectations.
Students choose to misbehave, and teachers should not accept their excuses for such misbehavior.
Teachers should use positive and negative consequences to convince students that it is to their benefit to behave appropriately.
Teachers should not feel bad if forced to use harshly negative consequences when necessary because students want teachers to help them control themselves.
Teachers have the right to ask for help from parents and school administrators when handling student misbehavior.
Logical Consequences
Inappropriate behavior is motivated by unconscious needs, e.g., to gain attention, exercise power, exact revenge, or display inadequacy.
If the motive for attention is satisfied, inappropriate behavior associated with other motives will not be manifested.
Students can learn to understand their own motives and eliminate misbehavior by having teachers help them explore why they behave as they do.
Table 1.1 Sample of Models Used in Schools
Model Key Aspects
Presenting students with a choice offers a sufficient basis on which they can learn to be responsible.
Students react to life based on their birth order.
We learn through our interaction with our environment. Within this interaction, our behaviors are exposed to natural, arbitrary, and logical consequences.
Natural consequences are usually the most effective form of negative consequences. If we cannot rely on natural consequences under all circumstances, we can use arbitrary or logical consequences.
When teachers have the option of using arbitrary or logical consequences, logical consequences should be chosen because students behave more appropriately when they suffer the logical consequences for their misbehavior.
Reality Therapy
Students are self-regulating and can learn to manage their own behavior.
Students learn responsible behavior by examining a full range of consequences for their behavior and by making value judgments about their behavior and its consequences.
Student behavior consists of an effort to satisfy personal needs for survival, belonging and love, power, freedom, and fun.
Students have a unique way of satisfying their own needs.
Students cannot be forced to change what they believe about how best to satisfy their needs.
There must be a warm, supportive classroom environment where students can complete quality work and feel good about themselves.
Students should be asked to do only useful work, to do the best they can, and to evaluate their own work to improve upon it.
Rules should be developed in the classroom.
Teachers should establish a level of mutual respect with the students.
Coercion should never be used in schools to control student behavior. If coercion is used, mistrust will prevail.
Love and Logic
Each student’s self-concept is always a prime consideration.
Students should always be left feeling as if they have some control.
An equal balance of consequences and empathy should replace punishment whenever possible.
Students should be required to do more thinking than the adults do.
There are three types of teaching and parenting styles: helicopters, drill sergeants, and consultants.
Teachers should focus on being consultants to their students.
Adults should set firm limits in loving ways without anger, lectures, or threats.
When students cause a problem, teachers should hand it back in loving ways.
(Continued)
Table 1.1 (Continued)
Model Key Aspects
Ginott Student behavior can be improved if teachers interact with students more effectively, treating them with understanding, kindness, and respect.
Positive communication by teachers improves the self-concept of students, which produces better classroom discipline.
Congruent communication should be used because students cannot think right if they do not feel right.
Students can learn to be responsible and autonomous.
Accepting and clarifying the feelings of students will improve their classroom behavior. The improper use of praise encourages student dependency on teachers.
Punishment encourages student misconduct.
Insulting students causes them to rebel.
Promoting cooperation increases good discipline.
Teachers can improve their relationships with students by ending their language of rejection and using a language of acceptance, inviting students to cooperate rather than demanding that a behavior occur, providing acceptance and acknowledgment for student behavior, conferring dignity upon the students, expressing anger with “I messages” versus “you messages,” using succinct language rather than overtalking, and providing appreciative praise that describes student behavior rather than ability.
Teachers need to model self-discipline to show their students how to deal with problems.
Kounin Negative or positive moves by teachers toward students radiate out (the ripple effect) and influence others.
Students need to be controlled by their teachers.
Control can be improved by increasing the clarity and firmness of desists (i.e., remarks intended to stop misbehavior).
Teachers can improve control by displaying “withitness” (i.e., being aware of what is going on around them).
Teachers should use “momentum” by beginning lessons immediately after the start of class, keeping lessons moving with little downtime, bringing the lessons to a close, and making efficient transitions from one lesson to another.
Teachers should achieve “smoothness” in a lesson by removing undue interference or changes that disrupt the students.
Teachers can use group alerting by gaining students’ attention to inform them of what is expected.
Students should be made active learners by asking them to answer questions, to demonstrate concepts, or to explain how something is done.
Teachers can control or have an influence over several activities at once by using “overlapping.”
Students are more successful when teachers make lessons interesting, avoiding “satiation” (i.e., when students are bored or frustrated, they tend to become less than interested in a topic). Lessons and seatwork should be enjoyable yet challenging.
Model Key Aspects
When students have been appropriately identified as problem students and when the teachers’ moves are properly timed, greater control of student behavior is possible.
Jones Children need to be controlled to behave properly.
Teachers can achieve control through nonverbal cues and movements calculated to bring them physically closer and closer to the students.
Parents and administrators can be used to gain control over student behaviors.
Teachers should demonstrate skill clusters including body language and easy-toimplement group-based incentive systems that are tied to academic content using “Grandma’s rule.”
Student seating should be organized so that students are easy to reach.
Teachers should use graphic reminders that provide examples and instructions, quickly praise students for doing something correctly, and give straightforward suggestions that will get students going and leaving immediately.
Teachers should utilize good classroom structure, limit setting, responsibility training, and backup systems.
Character Education
Character education promotes core ethical and performance values.
Students learn to understand, care about, and act upon these core ethical and performance values.
Programs should encompass all aspects of the school culture.
Teachers should foster a caring school community.
Students should be given opportunities for moral action.
Character education supports academic achievement.
Programs focus on the intrinsic motivation of students.
Whole-staff involvement is key.
Positive leadership of staff and students is essential.
Parents and community members should be involved. Results are assessed and improvements are made.
Assertive Discipline
Canter and colleagues developed the assertive discipline model, originally based on nine major aspects (shown in Table 1.1). As seen in the table, discipline rests on how the teacher responds to misbehavior. It is up to the teacher to keep students in line during class. Canter and colleagues have modified assertive discipline over the years (Charles, 1996; Malmgren, Trezek, & Paul, 2005). Originally, Canter tried to get teachers to be strong leaders in the classroom. Therefore, his focus was on getting and keeping teachers in charge. In more recent times, however, Canter emphasizes the importance of focusing
