Comparative Approachesto ProgramPlanning
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DiscussionQuestions49
CaseExercise:ChronicPain51
Chapter3RationalPlanningandPrescriptiveApproaches59
DiscussionQuestions114 viiiCONTENTS
Case:TheMayorandtheStreetEducators61
Introduction69
HistoryofRationalPlanningandPrescriptiveApproaches71
DimensionsofRationalPlanningandPrescriptiveApproaches75
TheLogicModel75
AssessingNeeds78
DefiningandAnalyzingProblems80
SelectingInterventionStrategies82
WritingGoalsandObjectives87
ProgramDesignandDecision-Making91
AccountabilityinaPrescriptiveApproach96
AccountabilityChallenges97
InformationSystems100
Budgeting103
RationalPlanning104
Mind-sets104
Skills106
StrengthsandChallengesofRationalPlanning110
Summary112
xCONTENTS
EngaginginCriticalThinking181
MakingEthicalDecisions187
ComparingProgramPlanningApproaches192
ComparingDimensions192
ExaminingAccountability198
ThinkingaboutMind-setsandSkills201
DecisionIssuesforApproachSelection205
Summary208
DiscussionQuestions208
Appendix:ComparingPlanningApproaches210
Chapter6ProgramPlanninginDiverseCulturalContexts213
CultureandContext216
DefiningCulture216
ElementsinCultureDevelopment217
CulturalCompetence220
SkillsoftheCulturallyCompetent222
ChallengestoCulturallyCompetentHumanServiceProgramming225
UnderstandingEmpiricism225
RecognizingRealismandInterpretivism227
RespondingtoAccountabilityDemands229
CulturalCompetenceandProgramPlanning231
PlanningwithSensitivitytoDifference233
PlanningwithSensitivitytoInclusion238
PlanningwithSensitivitytoContext240
PlanningAcrossMultipleOrganizationalSettings244
IssuesWhenPracticingInternationally245
Summary247
Conclusion249
Exercises250
thatlookeddoableonpaperwereanythingbutdoableinreallife. Eventhoughourgraduates’facilitywith‘‘logicmodels’’wowed employersandevenpotentialfunders,whenitcametoimplementationmanywereoftensurprisedtofindthatprogramdesigns didnotalwaysunfoldintheenvisionedmanner.Infact,welearned inthisprocessthatexcellent,precise,evidence-baseddesignscould winaccoladesfromprofessionals and funders,butthattheprocess ofenactingplansrevealedunexpectedgapsandbarriersforstaff taskedwithimplementation.Ironically,whilesomefundedprogramswerenotalwayscreativelydesignedforaddressingcomplex situationsthatneededalternativeapproaches,staffofcommunitybasedprogramsthatappearedtoworkcouldnotalwaysarticulate whyandhowtheirprogramsdidwork.Theycouldnotdiscuss theirplanningexperiencesintermsthatcouldbegraspedbyexactingprofessionalaudiences.Ourchallenge,then,becametoprepare ourstudentstothinkandtalkintheestablishedlanguageofprogramplanning,aswellasofferthemalternativewaysofplanning, thinking,talking,andsurviving.Theyneededtobefacileatenteringtheestablishedworldofprogramplanningwhilealsoknowing whentousedifferentapproaches.Mostofall,theyneededto recognizethattherewasnoonebestwaytoplan.Withthiscame anecessitytoaccuratelyassessthesituationforwhichtheywere planningand,fromthat,determinetheappropriateapproachfor thecircumstancesathand.Toaccomplishthis,wehadthestimulatingchallengeofdetermininghowtoimparttheneededknowledge, skills,andattitudes.Ourstudentshavetoldusthatwehavebeen abletomeetthechallenge.
Therefore,wedecidedtowritethisbookwiththepurposeof comparingandcontrastingdifferentwaysofprogramplanning. Wedosooutofabeliefthattherearemultiplewaysofknowing, andthattherearemultiplewaysofplanninganddoing.Because thesewaysaredifferentdoesnotmakeonesuperiortoothers,and
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wehavefoundthatrecognizingthattherearedifferencescan befreeing.Itallowsthepurposeoftheplanningprocessto drivethemethodsused,ratherthanthemethodsdrivingthe design.Thisgoesalongwaytowardfacilitatingprofessionalprogramplannersinacquiringresourcesforplanningandhaving increasedflexibilityforfunctioninginvaryingsocial,economic, andculturalsettings.
Ourbookisgearedtofutureprogramplannersinmaster’sprogramsinsocialwork,publicadministration,nonprofitmanagement,publichealth,communitypsychology,appliedsociology, humanservices,andrelatedfields.Itmayalsobeusefulinrequired senior-levelcoursesonlargesystemschangeofferedinbaccalaureateprograms.Insocialwork,communitypsychology,applied sociology,andhumanservicesprograms,wheremanystudents expecttoperform‘‘directservicework,’’itcanincreaseunderstandingofdirectserviceprograms.Coursesinprogramplanning, macrosocialworkpractice,programevaluation,organizationpractice,policyimplementation,andrelatedsubjectswillbenefitfrom usingthisbookforcreatingexpandedapplicationsofprogram planningstrategies,tactics,andskills.
Reasonsforallpractitionerstobecomefamiliarwiththeskills offeredinthisbookwillbecentralinthepagesthatfollow.All practitionersbothimpactandareimpactedbyprogrammingat somestageintheirdirectservicedeliverywork.Theyarealso sometimesalienatedbythelanguageandtechniquesoftraditional planning,thinkingthatplanninghasnothingtodowiththeirefforts inrelationshipbuildingandproblem-solvingwiththeirclients.We believethatanalternative,nonlinearapproachtoplanningthat takesintoaccountintuitionandserendipityandcreativelycapitalizesoncomplexcircumstancesissuretomakesensetomany studentswhoareturnedoffbymoretraditional,prescriptiveplanningapproaches.
ORGANIZATIONOFTHEBOOK
Thebookiscomposedofsixchapters,successivelybuildingboth understandingandcompetenceforgoodprogramplanning.Endof-chapterdiscussionquestionsandexercisesfocusonskillsdevelopmentderivedfrommaterialineachchapter.Practicalapplication ofplanningconceptsismadethroughreal-lifecaseexamples intendedtobeofhelpinthinkingabouttheissuesandtheway theyarepresented,andtoassistthosenotyetengagedwiththe challengesandopportunitiesofcomplexproblem-solvinginprogramplanning.Aglossaryisofferedtoaidthinkingalongtheway andtoclarifyouruseofterms.
Conceptually,weexaminetwotypesofplanningbasedondifferentworldviews:rationalandinterpretive.Theseworldviewsare joinedbytwoapproachestoplanning:rationalplanning,whichis tiedtowhatwearecallingprescriptiveapproaches;andinterpretiveplanning,whichisconnectedtowhatwearecallingemergent approaches.Throughoutthebookwerefertoproblem-solvingasa processthatcanbeundertakenthroughprescriptiveapproaches,in whichagoalispredetermined,orthroughemergentapproaches,in whichplansunfoldinanunpredictablemanner.Wehavecarefully chosenourterms,inhopesthattheywillprovidethereaderwith viableconceptualframeworksandlanguagesinwhichtocommunicateaboutprogramplanning.
InChapter1,weintroducethepossibilitythattheneedidentificationforasocialprograminterventionmaycomefromchoices raisedbydifferentwaysofconceptualizinganopportunityor problem,thattherearechoicesinprogramdesign.Someofthese choicesarestronglycognitive,butothershaveaffectiveandpower dimensions.Throughanexplorationofthedifferencebetweena lineandacircle,Chapter2alsoseeksanevenhandedunderstandingofthedifferencesinthesechoicesandtheprocessesbywhich
programsaredesignedandplanned.Thissubsequentlytakesus intohowtoknowandunderstanddifferencesbetweeninduction anddeductionandpositivist/rationalandinterpretivistwaysof knowing.Wethinkaspectsofrationalandnonrationalthought(as opposedtoirrationalthought)areatthebasisoftheacceptanceof bothtraditionalandnontraditionalwaysofplanning.Throughthe discussionofinductionanddeduction,aswellaspositivistand interpretivistwaysofknowing,wepresentindetailthedifferent assumptionsthatarepartoflinearandmorecircularthinking problem-solvingprocessesandhowthosedifferencesareimportanttotheplanningprocess.Whilethesedifferentnotionsmaybe basedinrationalandnonrationalthoughtprocesses,theintentisto distinguishbothfromirrationalthinking.
Chapter2providesanoverviewoftheelementsthatconstitutea program;itintroducesplanningtermsandidentifiescategoriesof stakeholdersthatwillappearthroughoutthetext.Herewedescribe howprogramsdifferfromprojects,services,andpolicies.The varioussourcesofneedsidentificationandtheprogrammingideas developedtomeetthoseneedsarediscussed.Thechapteralso emphasizesthatsocialprogrammingisdependentonauthorizing andfundingsources,frompolicyenactmenttoneedsassessmentto governmentorotherfundermandatestograssrootsdemands,allof whichreflecthowdifferentlyprogramscanbethoughtabout, designed,andplanned.
Chapter3isdevotedtotraditionalrationalprogramplanning, basedontheprescriptiveapproachessuchasplannedchangeand logicmodels.Buildingontheworkofwell-knownscholarsin planningandadministration,wereviewthelogicmodelthatmoves fromneedsassessmentandproblemanalysisthroughhypothesis development,goalsandobjectivessetting,anddesigningprograms thataremonitoredandevaluatedusingtraditionalmethods.The prosandconsofusingprescriptiveapproachesareintroduced,as
Preface xix
arethespecificsofhowtheseapproachesworkandinwhich situationstheywouldlikelybemostvaluable.
Chapter4focusesoninterpretiveprogramplanning,basedon emergentapproachestoproblem-solving.Todate,textbookson programplanninghavefocusedonrationalplanningandprescriptiveapproaches,stoppingthere,assumingthatprogramplanners wouldnotneedalternativemodelsandmightnotdrawoncreative, fluidaspectsintheirwork.Usinganinterpretiveviewofplanning, thechapteroutlinesacollaborative,lessreductionistic,approachto decision-makinginprogramplanning.Politics,goals,problems, solutions,andpoliticalreasoningandpragmaticthoughtfocus andguidethereaderintoopportunitiesandchallengesofusing anemergentapproach,aswellasthespecificsofhowitworksand inwhichsituationsitwouldbevaluable.
Together,Chapters3and4outlinethedetailsofthetraditional plannedchangeorlogicmodelapproachbasedonrationalthought andthemoreinterpretivemethodsofanemergentapproachto planningbasedonnonrationalthinking.Bothchaptersuseacritical lenstodiscusswheneachapproachismostuseful,sothatin Chapter5,thereadercanengageinanassessmentofboththecosts andbenefitsofeachapproachinordertodeveloptheskillsnecessarytodeterminewhenandhoweachworksbest.Thecomparative aspectofthetextbookispursuedinChapter5.Weinvitereadersto critiquethetwoplanningapproaches,basedonwhattheylearned inChapters3and4,helpingthemtoclarifythequestionsthat shouldbeaskedandansweredindeterminingwheneachapproach worksbest.Wealsoelaborateoncriticalthinkingandethical decision-making,andexplainhowtoassesstheunintendedconsequencesofplanningchoicesinprogramimplementationand evaluation.Examplesfrompracticeexperienceareusedtocompare thedifferentapproaches.
Usingaglobal,culturallysensitiveperspectiveontheprogram planningprocess,Chapter6assiststhereaderinexploringthe sociopoliticalbenefitsofhavingmorethanoneapproachtoplanning,regardlessofculturalcontextororganizationaltradition.In thischapter,webrieflyreturntothephilosophyofsciencedialogue introducedatthebeginningofthebookasawaytochooseappropriateresponsestoculturalneeds,sothattheplannercandemonstrateskillsinculturalcompetency.Thegoalistosignalthe possibilityofconsideringanalternativeway.Ourhopeisthatthe readerwilltakeadvantageoftheopportunitytoconsiderand evaluatealternativeplanningapproachesandnotassumethat somesituationsonlyreflectalackofcompetenceforengagingin planning.Chapter6isintendedtoassistthereaderinidentifying consequencesofculturalcontextaspectsofplanningandrecognizingboththechallengesandpossiblebenefitsofembracingalternativeapproachesforsuccessfulprogramplanning.
Thematerialinthistextisintendedtohelpreadersmanagethe difficultiesofteachingandlearningalinearprocessofplanning whiletheyareexperiencingtheserendipitous,sometimesnonlinear,natureofthehumanserviceenvironment.Italsohelpsthem addressplanninginasystematicwaywhentheactualprocessisnot strictlyalinearone.Allofusshouldallwanttoencounter,manage, andenjoyplanninginvaryingculturalsettings,andcompetepositivelyandeffectivelyinaglobalhumanservicemarketplacein whichdesigningculturallysensitiveprogramsmeansbeingable toadapttothewaysofvaryingcultures.Itshouldalsoaidusin creatingandmaintaininghumanserviceorganizationculturesthat continuallyevolvestandardsforoperationalizingculturalcompetencewithinourorganizations(see,forexample:NASW,2001;U.S. DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices,2001).
Atthebeginninghere,weindicatedthat,conceptually,program planningmaybeemployedtocastanillusionofbeingincontrolofa
Preface xxi
processthatisoftennotaslinearasitisoftenconceptualized. Professionalscanbecomfortedbythatillusion,aswehaveattimes. Inthisbook,wehopetoconvincethereaderthatcomfortcanalso comefromrecognizingtheinevitabilitiesofdifferenceandfrom havingarepertoireofskillstobeusedasneeded,ratherthanusing onlyoneestablishedway.Inourclasses,studentsareheardto exclaim,ineffect,‘‘Thisishard,andmyheadhurts!’’Ourresponse isusuallysomethinglike:‘‘Thisisnotaneasycookbookapproach, andyourheadishurtingbecauseyouarethinkingsohard.If programplanningwereeasy,itcouldbedonewithoutskills,and youwouldn’tbeinschool.Ifyoumasterthevarietyofprogram planningskillsallowingyoutoworkindiversesituations,thenyou willmakearealdifferenceintherealworldofsocialprogram designandimplementation.’’Thus,wehopethefollowingpages willmakeyourheadhurtingoodways!
