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CommunicatingforSafety
CoordinatingforSafety
SharedSituationalAwareness(SSA)
AeronauticalDecisionMaking(ADM)
TheImpactofCulture
CaseStudy:JetblueFlight
ASRSExamples
RampOperations:ExampleofDisregardforAuthority
FlightCrew:ExampleofSteepTranscockpitAuthorityGradient
Conclusion
KeyTerms
ReviewQuestions
SuggestedReading
WebReferences
CHAPTERFIVE.THEROLEOFGOVERNMENT LearningObjectives
Introduction
InternationalCivilAviationOrganization(ICAO)
Background:TheChicagoConvention
ICAOOrganization
ICAORulemaking
NewICAOAnnex19,SafetyManagement
ICAOWorldwideSafetyRatings
TheFederalAviationAdministration(FAA)
Background
FAAOrganization
FAASafetyInspectionProgram
FAARulemaking
AirworthinessDirectives
ExampleofFAARulemakingProcess:TheATP-CTP
RecentFAARegulatoryDevelopments
OccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA)
Background
OSHAOrganization
OSHARulemaking
OSHAStandardsAffectingAviationOperations:Examples
TheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)
Background
EPAOrganizationandMajorOffices
EPARulemaking
MajorEnvironmentalLawsAffectingAviation
ASRSExample
PilotWarnsAboutFatigue
Conclusion
KeyTerms
ReviewQuestions
SuggestedReading
WebReferences
CHAPTERSIX.REACTIVESAFETY LearningObjectives
Introduction
WhyInvestigate?
Findings
Causes
Recommendations
InternationalAccidentInvestigation
Overview
ICAO’sRole
RegionalandNationalAuthorities
RecentMajorInternationalInvestigation
NationalTransportationSafetyBoard
NTSBMission
NTSBOrganization
OfficeofAviationSafety
OfficeofAdministrativeLawJudges
AccidentInvestigationProcess
PartyProcess
TheGo-Team
AccidentSite
Laboratory
AccidentReportPreparation
PublicHearing
FinalAccidentReportPreparation
SafetyRecommendations
InvestigatingaGeneral-AviationAccident
FamilyAssistanceandtheTransportationDisasterAssistanceDivision
FAAResponsibilitiesDuringanInvestigation
NTSBAccidentDatabasesandSynopses
NTSBMostWantedAviationSafetyImprovements
NTSBMostWantedListfor2017–2018
CaseStudy:SpanairFlight5022Accident
Background
Investigation
Findings
Causes Recommendations
Conclusion
KeyTerms
ReviewQuestions
SuggestedReading
WebReferences
CHAPTERSEVEN.PROACTIVEAVIATIONSAFETY LearningObjectives
Introduction
FlightOperationalQualityAssurance(FOQA)
AviationSafetyActionProgram(ASAP)
AviationSafetyReportingSystem(ASRS)
LineOperationsSafetyAudit(LOSA)
AdvancedQualificationProgram(AQP)
AviationSafetyInformationAnalysisandSharing(ASIAS)
GeneralIndustry(OSHA)RecordingandReportingSystems
Applicability
OSHAForm300:LogofWork-RelatedInjuriesandIllnesses
OSHAForm301:InjuryandIllnessIncidentReport
OSHAForm300A:SummaryofWork-RelatedInjuriesandIllnesses
OpenGovernmentInitiative(TransparencyinGovernment)
EnvironmentalRecordingandReporting
OtherEnvironmentalReportingRequirements
ControlofAirPollutionfromAircraftandAircraftEngines
Conclusion
KeyTerms
ReviewQuestions
SuggestedReading
WebReferences
CHAPTEREIGHT.AIRCRAFTSAFETYSYSTEMS LearningObjectives
Introduction
JetEngineDevelopment
RecentDevelopmentsinJetEngineDesign
Long-RangeCommercialJetTransportEra
High-LiftSystems
StoppingSystems
StructuralIntegrity
CabinSafety
SafetyDesignforAtmosphericConditions
Turbulence
WindShear
VolcanicAsh
IceandPrecipitation
FlightDeckHuman–MachineInterface
EarlyFlightDeckDevelopment
FlightDeck:Boeing757/767andBoeing747-400
Automation
NewFlightDeckEnhancements
CrewAlertingSystems
AircraftCommunicationsAddressingandReportingSystem
FlightManagementSystem
MultipleFlightControlComputers
CentralMaintenanceComputerSystem
Modeling,Design,andTestingTools
ComputationalFluidDynamics(CFD)
Wind-TunnelBenefits
FlightSimulation
FlightTest
Accident/IncidentInvestigation
ControlStrategiestoManageThreatsandErrors
AirbusandBoeingDesignStrategies
FlightDeckStandardization
FlightDeckAutomationandPrecisionNavigation
NewerAircraftTechnologies
WeatherDetection
CommunicationandNavigationSystems
FlightDeckDisplays
Head-UpDisplays(HUDs)
ElectronicFlightBags(EFBs)
Next-GenerationFlightOperations
ASRSExamples
Conclusion
KeyTerms
ReviewQuestions
SuggestedReading
WebReferences
CHAPTERNINE.DESIGNINGAIRPORTSFORSAFETY LearningObjectives
Introduction
AirportCertification
AirportCertificationClassification
AirportCertificationManual(ACM):FAAACNo.150/5210-22
OperationalSafety
AirportTerminalBuildings
HangarsandMaintenanceShops
RampOperations
SpecializedAirportServices
RunwayIncursions
AirportSurfaceEnvironment
TypesofAirportSurfaceEvents
ControlStrategiesandFutureInitiatives
RunwayExcursions
ASRSExamples
RampSurfaces
PeskyGroundVehicles
RunwayIncursion
CaseStudy:PSAAirlinesFlight
Conclusion
KeyTerms
ReviewQuestions
SuggestedReading
WebReferences
CHAPTERTEN.AIRTRAFFICSAFETYSYSTEMS LearningObjectives
Introduction
MajorMilestonesofATCHistory
BasicComponentsoftheATCSystem
AirspaceClassification
ATCServices
Performance-BasedNavigation(PBN)
GPSEnhancements
WideAreaAugmentationSystem
AdvantagesofSatellite-BasedNavigation
TerminalAutomationModernizationandReplacement(TAMR)
UpdateonFAANextGenBackbonePrograms
AirportSurfaceDetectionEquipment,ModelX(ASDE-X)
DeparturesandArrivals
EnRouteandOceanicOperations
UnmannedAircraftSystemsRevolution
Background
FARPart107:TheSmallUasRule(FaaSafetyBriefing)
FlyingDronesCommercially
ImpacttoAirTrafficControl
ASRSExamples
AirTrafficControlTower
AirRouteTrafficControlCenter
CaseStudy:The2006MidairCollisionOverBrazil
Conclusion
KeyTerms
ReviewQuestions
SuggestedReading
WebReferences
CHAPTERELEVEN.SAFETYDATA LearningObjectives
Introduction
AviationAccidentandSafetyStatistics
Manufacturers’InvolvementwithSafetyData
Boeing’sAccidentStatisticalSummary
UnitedStates’Statistics
GlobalStatistics
OccupationalAccidentStatistics—DepartmentofLabor,BureauofLabor
Statistics(BLS)
NorthAmericanIndustryClassificationSystem(NAICS)
Conclusion
KeyTerms
ReviewQuestions
SuggestedReading
WebReferences
CHAPTERTWELVE.MANAGINGSAFETY LearningObjectives
Introduction
EvolutionofSMS
ICAOAnnex19:ConsolidationofSMSStandards
StructureofSMS:FourComponents(PillarsofSMS)
Component#1:SafetyPolicy
Component#2:SafetyRiskManagement
IncidentandAccidentInvestigation
RoleofUnions
Component#3:SafetyAssurance
SafetyPerformanceIndicators
AuditsandInspections
Component#4:SafetyPromotion
SafetyTrainingandEducation
SafetyCommunication
HowToImplementSMS:APhasedApproach
FutureChallenges
ASRSExamples
MaintenanceProceduresandFuelSystemMalfunction
Boeing757StallWarningSystemFault
Conclusion
KeyTerms
ReviewQuestions
SuggestedReading
WebReferences
CHAPTERTHIRTEEN.PROTECTIONFROMINTENTIONAL HARM(SECURITY) LearningObjectives
Introduction
ReviewofAttacksonCivilAviation
RegulatoryMovement
InternationalResponsetoTerrorism
EvolutionofAviationSecurityintheUnitedStates
TransportationSecurityAdministration
TSARegulations
RoleofIntelligence
NationalCounterterrorismCenter
DepartmentofHomelandSecurity
ReviewofSecurityTechnologies
ImagingTechnologies
ExplosiveTraceDetectionTechnology
ExplosiveDetectionSystems(EDSs)
MetalDetectors
BiometricsandFutureCheckpointSystems
StrengtheningAircraftandBaggageContainers
CockpitDoorReinforcement
Cybersecurity
ASRSExamples
SecurityProcedures
CabinCrew
Conclusion
KeyTerms
ReviewQuestions
SuggestedReading
WebReferences
CHAPTERFOURTEEN.THEFUTUREOFCOMMERCIAL AVIATIONSAFETY
LearningObjectives
Introduction
AirTrafficManagement
AirspaceUtilization
UnmannedAircraftSystems(UAS)
CommercialSpaceVehicles
OceanicTracking
SurfacetoAirMissiles
AircraftDesign
AircraftIcingPrevention
SoftwareSafetyandCybersecurity
HumanPerformanceandReliability
Lasers
PsychologicalFitnessforDuty
SafetyManagementSystems
SMSVariableInterdependencies
FusingProactiveDataStreams
TrainingNewAccidentInvestigators
EnhancingtheDepthofAcademicEducation
ArtificialIntelligence
RecentAdvances
SituationalScenario
Conclusion
KeyTerms
ReviewQuestions
SuggestedReading
WebReferences
Index
ABOUTTHEAUTHORS STEPHEN K.CUSICK, J.D.,isanAssociateProfessorintheCollegeof AeronauticsandtheDirectoroftheFAACenterofExcellenceforGeneral AviationattheFloridaInstituteofTechnologyinMelbourne,Florida: www.pegasas.aero.Heisanexperiencedpilotwithcommercial, multiengine,instrument,andhelicopterflightratingsfromtheFAA.Heis engagedinaviationsafetyresearchinavarietyofareasincludingAviation SafetyManagementSystems,Airline,Airport,HelicopterandUASsafety initiatives.HeisaformerU.S.NavyCaptain,FlightInstructor,andNaval Aviator.DuringhislegalcareerheservedasanattorneywiththeU.S.Navy GeneralCounselandascorporatecounselservinghigh-technology aerospacecompanies.Heisafrequentconsultantandspeakerintheareaof AviationSafety.HeisarecipientoftheGeneralDynamicsAwardfor AviationExcellence.
ANTONIO I.CORTÉS, PH. D., istheAssociateDeanoftheCollegeofAviation andanAssociateProfessorofAppliedAviationSciencesatEmbry-Riddle AeronauticalUniversityinDaytonaBeach,Florida.Hepreviouslyservedas theChairoftheAppliedAviationSciencesDepartmentandhastaught AirlineOperations,AirportSafety,AccidentInvestigation,CrewResource Management,andSafetyManagementSystems.Hisresearchhasincluded expectationbiasinairlinepilots,usingflightdatatomeasureprecursorsto lossofcontrolin-flightandhumanperformance,simulationoftactile groundicinginspections,andairlinepilottrainingsuccessmeasures.Hehas experienceasanAirSafetyInvestigator,FOQA/ASAPManager,Airline Pilot,U.S.AirForcePilot,andDirectorofSafety.Hisrecognitionsinclude theFAADistinguishedServiceAwardforSafety,theNASAHonorAward forResearchinHumanFactors,andtheU.S.AirForceGeneralTunner Awardforoutstandingflightcrewperformance.
CLARENCE RODRIGUES, PH. D., isanAssociateProfessorofMechanical Engineering,ProgramCoordinatorfortheGraduateDegreeinHealth, Safety,andEnvironment(HSE)Engineering,andHSEManager(acting)for
PIOperationsatthePetroleumInstitute,theeducationandR&Ddivisionof theAbuDhabiNationalOilCompany.Priortohiscurrentemployment,he wasatenured,full-professorinthecollegeofaviationandtheprogram chairfortheB.S.inSafetydegreeprogramatEmbry-RiddleAeronautical University(ERAU)inDaytonaBeach,Florida.BeforejoiningERAU,he wasonthesafetydepartment’sfacultyattheIndianaUniversityof Pennsylvania(IUP)andhewasalsoanOSHAconsultantfortheStateof Pennsylvania.Priortotheabove,hewasCampbellSoupCompany’s worldwideengineeringmanagerforergonomicsandsystemsafety.While EngineeringManageratCampbellSoup,healsoheldanadjunctfaculty appointmentattheUniversityofPennsylvania’ssystemsengineering department.HeisalsoanHSEconsultantandhasauthoredorco-authored numerouspublications,includingthefourthandfiftheditionsof Commercial Aviation Safety.HeisaU.S.professionalengineer(PE),a certifiedsafetyprofessional(CSP),andacertifiedprofessionalergonomist (CPE),whohasconductedprofessionalworkintheUnitedStates,United ArabEmirates(UAE),Kuwait,Canada,England,India,Malaysia,Mexico, andScotland.
PREFACE It is not by luck and not by accident that our accident rates are what they are.ThosewerethewordsthatkickedoffarecentspeechbytheAssociate AdministratorofAviationSafetyoftheFederalAviationAdministration.It hastakenacenturyofhardworktomakecommercialaviationso wonderfullysafeandanefficientmeansoftransportation.OnJanuary1, 1914,thefirstscheduledflightwithapayingpassengertooktotheskies. Today,justover100yearslater,ourskiesarecrisscrossedbycontrailsas over50,000aircraftflythroughtheairspaceoftheUnitedStatesof Americaeveryday.
Bythetimeyougotosleeptonight,almosttwomillionpassengerswill havesafelyarrivedattheirdestinationsinthecountry.Safetydependson everysingleparticipantforcontinuedsuccess.Overall,commercialaviation isexceptionallysafe,butthefightforsafetymustbewaged,andwon,every singleday.Theconsequencesotherwiseareunacceptable.Ittakesthe continuousdedicationofhundredsofthousandsofprofessionals,eachhour ofeachday,toensuretheaccidentratecontinuestobelow.
In2015thepassengerfatalityratewasaroundoneper40million,some fourtimesbetterthanthepreviousyear,whichwasitselfnotoriouslysafe. IntheAirlineSafety&Lossesreview,Flightglobal’sAscentconsultancy armshowedeightfatalaccidentsin2015,allpertainingtorelativelysmall aircarriersandwithonlythreeoftheaccidentsentailingrevenuepassenger flights.Notasinglepassengerfatalityduetoanaccidentwasincurredona Western-builtjet,whichisquitehearteningconsideringthat32million flightsonsuchaircraftcarried3.7billionpassengersduringthatyear.As statedbyFlightglobal,“Iftheimprovementonairsafetysince2010is maintainedfortherestofthecurrentdecade,itwillequatetosome4,000 fewerpassengerandcrewfatalitiesthanduring2000–2009.”
Thistextprovidesamodernsynthesisoftheprinciples,industry practices,andregulatoryrequirementsofcommercialaviationsafetyinthe
UnitedStatesandtheglobalcommunityandshowcasesemergingsafety issuesthatwilltakecenterstageoverthenextdozenorsoyears.Thisbook exposesthemajortoolsinthesafetytoolkitandhowallthetoolswork togethertoensurethataccidentratesstaylowandevencontinueto improve.
Thiseditionhasundergoneasignificantrestructuringtoenhancethe logicalflowofinformationandtoupdatethecontent.Therevisedflow startswithfundamentalconceptsofaviationsafety,thenexplorestheroles ofhumansinbothcausingandpreventingaccidents,showcasesthe ingeniousapproachesusedbytoday’ssafetyprofessionalsformanaging risk,expoundsonthekeyrolesplayedbysystemdesigns,tiesallthe conceptstogetherundertheconstructofaSafetyManagementSystem (SMS),andfinisheswithapreviewofneworrecentlygrowingchallenges, suchasthethreatoflasers,unmannedaerialsystems(UAS),andsoftware bugs.
Thewritingtonehasbeenalteredtomakecontentmoreintuitiveby introducingpersonalanecdotesandvividexamples.Thiseditionalso introducescoauthorAntonioCortés,whoistheAssociateDeanofthe CollegeofAviationatEmbry-RiddleAeronauticalUniversityinDaytona Beach,Florida.Hisexperienceasanairlinepilot,aviationsafetyprogram manager,andhumanfactorsresearcheraddtotheperspectivesprovidedin thistext.
Today’saviationprofessionals,betheyairfieldmanagers,dispatchers, insuranceanalysts,airtrafficcontrollers,flightattendants,aviation maintenancetechnicians,orpilots,mustunderstandhowthekeyindustry piecesfittogethertoproducetheverysafeworldofaircarrieroperations thatweenjoytoday.Adisruptiontoanypartofthedelicatelywovensafety netcanjeopardizeacenturyofworkinaviationsafety.
Oneaspectmustbeclarifiedbeforewegoanyfurther.What,exactly,do wemeanby commercial aviation safety?Forpurposesofthistextweare referringtotheinitiativesweputinplacetopreventdamagingorinjuring eventsinvolvingaircraftusedtotransportpayingpassengersorcargo. Thoseinitiativesincludeprocedures,automatedwarnings,personnelhiring andtraining,processanalytics,scientificmeasuresagainstfatigue,and countlessothersafeguardsthataremeticulouslycreatedtoprotectourloved onesandpossessionsastheytransitthroughtheairandoperateonairports.
Mostofthecontentofthebookfocusesspecificallyontheairline,orair carrier,segmentsofcommercialaviation.
FEATURESOFTHESIXTHEDITION • Chapter1providesahigh-leveloverviewofcommercialaviationsafety. Thechapterisnewtothebookandexplainsthelinkbetweensafetyand financialperformanceforcommercialaviationventurestoincludethe distinctionandcomplementarynatureofaviationsafetyandoccupational safetyandhealthaswellasthedifferencesandcommonalitiesbetween safetyandsecurity.Basicphilosophicalprinciplesofsafetyareincluded, aswellasabriefcoverageofsafetyhistorythatincludeskeyaccidents thathaveshapedtoday’scommercialaviationindustry.
• Chapter2providesgraspableanswerstothecomplexquestionofwhy accidentshappen.Accidentsareexplainedashavingdeeprootsthatset upoperatorsformistakesandfactorsthatallcombinetocreatea catastrophe.Theimportanceofaviationpersonnelpossessingboth technicalknowledgeandsoftskillsishighlightedaskeystooperating safelyinthehigh-pacedworldofaeronautics.Differentaccident causationmodelsareexposedtohelpunderstandtheintricaciesbehind accidents.Thischapteralsointroducesanewnameforthefamous “5-M” model.Giventhatoneofthe“Ms”usedtostandfor“Man,”thenew modelchangesthatonefactorto“human”andtheentiremodelisnow calledthe“5-Factor”model.
• Chapter3isaforayintothefascinatingworldofhumanerror.The discussioncentersonhowexternalfactors,suchasvibration,and internalfactors,suchascognitivebiases,cancombinetonegatively impacthumanperformance.AnintroductiontoSituationAwareness (SA)isprovidedandtiedtothedifficultyofdesigningautomationthatis intuitive,transparent,andpredictable.
• Chapter4turnsthetablesontheprevioussectionbyexplaininghow humansarenotonlysourcesoferrors,butalsocanbeusedasagentsof accidentprevention.Throughtheskillfuluseofleadershipand followershipontheflightdeck,pilotscandetectlossofSituation Awareness(SA),worktosustainandbuildSA,andregainSAoncelost. Adepictionoftheopportunitiesofworkingingroupsversusworking
individuallyisfeaturedasakeyconceptinCrewResourceManagement (CRM)andThreatandErrorManagement(TEM).
• Chapter5discussesgovernmentregulationsthatkeepcommercial aircraftoperationssafe.Thesectiondebunksthecommonlyheldbelief thattheairlineindustryintheUnitedStatesisderegulatedbyshowing thatitisinfactveryregulatedwhenitcomestosafetyandexplainsthe rulemakingandexplainstherulemakingprocessesthatcreateasafetynet overwhichweflyeveryday.
• Chapter6isonaccidentinvestigation.Manyoftheimprovementsin aviationsafetystemdirectlyfromtheforensicanalysisoftragedies. Governmentinvestigatingagenciesaredescribedandseveralkey recommendationsthatwereenactedduetoaircraftaccidentsare showcased.
• Chapter7onproactiveandpredictivesafetyprovidesastarkcontrastto theconventionalrelianceonaccidentinvestigationtoimprovesafety. Overthepasthalfcenturyofflight,earlyadoptersofflightdata monitoringandvoluntaryreportingprogramshavereapedthebenefitsof stayingaheadofemerginghazards.Thephilosophyofproactionis explainedtounderstandthevalueofcraftingrecommendationsthatare notbasedonaccidentforensics.
• Chapter8isthefirstofthreesectionsinthetextdedicatedto understandinghowsystemdesignssetupcommercialaviationforsafety success.Aircraftdesignrequirementsareexploredtoinclude technologiesthatassistsafetywhileexpandingtheoperatingcapability ofaircraftincircumstancesthatareinherentlyhostiletoflight,suchas icingandlowvisibility.
• Chapter9spendstimediscussingtheroleplayedbyairportdesignin aviationsafetyandinvestigatesrecentadvancesbeingfieldedtoaddress runwayincursionandexcursionrisks.Specialmentionismadeofthe criticalinteractionbetweenAirportRescueFireFighting(ARFF)crews andaircraftflightcrewsduringemergencyprocedures.
• Chapter10divesintothemediuminwhichcommercialaircraftoperate toshowthatthesafetyofairtrafficisdirectlytiedtothedesignof airspace.Specialattentionisgiventothetransformationofairspace underwayduetothedigitalrevolutionthatispartoftheFAANext
Generation(NextGen)initiativeandsimilarinternationalAirTraffic Controlinitiatives.
• Chapter11dealswithsafetydataandundertakesthecriticaltaskof explaininghowbothqualitativeandquantitativedataarecollected, fused,andanalyzedtodetermineoperationalrisk.Anassociated discussionispresentedonsafetyculture,sincethevoluntaryreportingof safetydataisafundamentaloffshootofahealthyworkplace environment.
• Chapter12organizespreviousmaterialunderasingleapproachfor consistentlydealingwithactual,versusperceived,riskviaaSafety ManagementSystem(SMS).RecentinternationalandFAAguidanceis featuredtoexplaintheroleplayedbyaviationmaintenancetechnicians, flightcrew,andsupportpersonnel.ThefourcomponentsofSMSare discussedindetailincludingimplementationandfuturechallenges facingaviationcertificateholders.Theentirechapterhasbeenupdatedto reflectthenewSMSrequirementsof14CFRPart5.
• Chapter13dealswithsecurityissues,alsoknownasprotectionfrom intentionalharm.Theadaptivenatureofterroristthreatsrequires methodsforcontinuousimprovingourprecautionstoinclude informationgatheringandprocessingaswellascounterterroristactions andairlinesecuritymeasures.
• Chapter14presentssomeofthemostimportantemergingissuesin commercialaviationsafetybydescribingbothchallengesand opportunities.Someofthechallengesremainunmetinrecentyears,such asaccuratedetectionandpreventionoftheaerodynamicimpactof aircrafticing,thedifficultyofoceanictracking,andtheneedtodesign automationtodealwithhumaninformationprocessinglimitations.New emergingsafetyareasincludetheloomingdifficultyofintegrating UnmannedAerialSystems(UAS)andcommercialspacevehiclesinto airspacesharedbyconventionalcommercialaircraftandnewly highlightedthreatsposedbysoftwareerrorsandcybersecurityissues. Therelativelyrecentadventofonlineeducationandaviationdoctoral programsaretoolsthatpresentuniqueopportunitiesforexploringthe emergingchallengesofcommercialaviationsafety.
• Tables,figures,statistics,keyterms,reviewquestions,andreferences containedinthistexthavebeenupdatedandrevised.
• NumerousWebsiteshavebeenincludedtohelpstudentsandinstructors utilizethevastamountofinformationavailableontheWorldWideWeb.
• Eachchaptercontainsanumberoffeaturesthataredesignedtofacilitate studentlearning.Thesefeaturesincludethefollowing:
• Chapter outlines.Eachchapteropenswithanoutlineofthemajor topics.
• Learning objectives.Theobjectivesofthechapterareincludedso studentsknowexactlywhatistobeaccomplishedaftercompletingthe material.
• Relevance.Allexamples,applications,andtheoriesarecurrentasof thiswriting.
• Incident examples.Vividanddetaileddescriptionsofincidentsare includedwheneverappropriatetoillustrateconceptsbymakinguseof NASA’sAviationSafetyActionReportingdatabase.
• Figures and tables.Figuresandtablesaredrawnfromsourcessuchas ICAO,NTSB,Airbus,Boeing,andothercurrentWebsites.
• Logical organization and frequent headings.Itemizedbulletedlists areusedasfrequentlyaspossibletoenhancereading.
• Key terms.Eachchapterconcludeswithalistofkeytermsusedinthe text.
• Review questions.Reviewquestionsattheendofeachchaptercover alloftheimportantpoints.Thisneweditionofthetextenhancesthe questionsectionbyprovidingthemesconducivetoclassdiscussions.
• Suggested Reading and Web References.AlistofSuggestedreading andwebreferencesisincludedattheendofeachchapterforstudents whowishtopursuethematerialingreaterdepth.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS PublicationofamilestonesuchastheSixthEditionofatextbookthathas endured26yearsinsuchadynamicareaasCommercialAviationSafety trulyhumblesthecurrentauthors.Whileacknowledgmentsaretoo numeroustomention,wewishtoexpressoursincerethanksandgratitude toDr.AlexanderT.Wells,ProfessorEmeritusatEmbry-Riddle AeronauticalUniversity,aprolificwriterwhowastheoriginalauthorofthe book.Asalways,wearesincerelyappreciativeofthemanypublicand privateinstitutionsthathaveprovidedresourcematerialforthisedition.We areparticularlyindebtedtotheInternationalCivilAviationOrganization, FederalAviationAdministration,NationalTransportationSafetyBoard, DepartmentofHomelandSecurity,OccupationalSafetyandHealth Administration,EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,theBoeingCompany, andotherindustrypartnersfortheirnumerouspublications.Aspecial thanksforthededicatedsupportfromfaculty,administration,andsupport staffoftheFloridaInstituteofTechnology,Embry-RiddleAeronautical University,andThePetroleumInstitute.Wetrulyappreciatethededication ofMs.AmberL.DavisofDaytonaBeachforherprofessionalassistancein researchingandeditingthematerialcontainedinthisedition.
WearealsogratefultotheeditorsatMcGraw-HillEducationfortheir contribution,especiallyLaurenPoplawski,LaurenRogers,andLynn Messina;andApoorvaGoel,atMPSLimited,whoworkedastheProject Manageronthisbook.
Finally,wegratefullythankourfamiliesfortheirpatienceand encouragementinthisproject,especiallyourwivesJean,Diane,andNicola whomadethiseffortpossible.
STEPHEN K.CUSICK,J.D. Florida Institute of Technology
ANTONIO I.CORTÉS,PH.D.
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University CLARENCE RODRIGUES,PH.D.
The Petroleum Institute
CHAPTERONE INTRODUCTIONTOCOMMERCIAL AVIATIONSAFETY LearningObjectives
Introduction
WhatisRisk?
SafetyPhilosophy
SafetyEthics
Safetyvs.Security
TenerifeAccident
AviationSafetyHistory
SignificantAviationAccidents
MeasuringSafety
Reactive,Proactive,andPredictiveSafety
ASRSExamples
Maintenance
FlightOperations
AirTrafficControl
RampOperations
CabinCrew
Conclusion
KeyTerms
ReviewQuestions
SuggestedReading
WebReferences
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES Aftercompletingthischapter,youshouldbeableto
• Disputecommonmythsaboutsafetyandprovidereasoningastowhythe mythsarenottrue.
• Discusssafetyethicsandwhytheyareimportant.
• Explainthedifferencebetweensafetyandsecurityandhowtheyrelateto commercialaviation.
• Namesignificantaircraftaccidentsanddetailhowtheychanged regulationsinaviation.
• Differentiatebetweenretroactivesafety,proactivesafety,andpredictive safetyandidentifywheremodernsafetysystemsaretoday.
• Describecurrentsafetyprogramsthathavebeendevelopedtoimprove commercialsafety.
INTRODUCTION Signsofsafetyareallaroundus.Speedlimitsandthetypesoflinespainted onroadsaresetaccordingtoconditionspresentedbydifferentstretchesof road.Fireextinguishers,sprinklers,andexitsignsareubiquitousin buildings.Sneezeprotectorscoversaladbardstopromotefoodsafety.Cars haveantilockbrakesandairbags.Maintenancestaffputup“wetfloor”signs towarnpeopleofslipperyfloors.Signsofsecurityarealsoallaroundus. Passcodesonphonespreventothersfromaccessingprivateinformation. Onlineaccountsrequirepasswordstoaccesssensitiveareas.Securityat airportscheckspassengerstoensuretheyarenottakingdangerousitems ontoplanes.Nomatterwhatthecontextathandis,safetyisnotanaccident, andsecurityrequiresconstantvigilance.Thesetopicsareanintegralpartof anydiscussion,especiallyintheaviationindustry.
Forexample,minimumtrainingstandardsarewrittenforflightattendants topromotethepromptevacuationofpassengersduringcabinfires,ramp agentswearreflectiveveststoreducethechanceofbeingrunoverby vehicles,somemaintenanceproceduresrequiretheuseofeyeprotectionto reducethechangeorpunctureinjuries,pilotcalloutshelpensurethat everyoneontheflightdeckisawareofemergingproblemsthatmayimpact
safety,fluidquantitiesarerestrictedincarry-onbags,cockpitdoorsare reinforcedtopreventforcedentry,andpassengersarescreenedtoprevent weaponsfrombeinginaircraftcabins.
In2015,ChairmanCalinRovinescuoftheInternationalAir TransportationAssociation(IATA)saidthatsafetyisthenumberonepriority forcommercialaviation,anditwillcontinuetobeso.Butissafetytrulythe mostimportantissueincommercialaviation?Afterall,theword “commercial”impliesthatprofitisimportant.Thisbookwilldepictthekey elementsofprovidingforsafeandsecureoperations,notasimpedimentsto makingaprofitintheaviationindustry,butasprerequisites!
Whatexactlyiscommercialaviationsafety?First,letusexaminewhatit involves.Therearedifferentsectorsofaviation,allofwhichuseaircraftand peopleforavarietyoftasks.Thefollowingcategoriessumupthemajoruses forsuchassets:
• General aviation—civilianflyingthatexcludesscheduledpassenger airlines
• Corporate aviation—airtransportationspecificallyfortheneedsof companyemployeesandexecutives
• Military aviation—useofaircraftforconductingaerialwarfareand supportoperations
• Commercial aviation—usingaircrafttoprovidepaidtransportationor flightservicestopeopleandcargo.
Thisbookexplorestheaspectsofsafetyinrelationtocommercial aviation.Toalesserbutalsoimportantextent,issuesdealingwithsecurity arealsoexposed.Ultimately,oneofthemajorgoalsintheserealmsis enhancingtheefficiencyofaircraftoperationswhilepreventingeventsthat causeinjurytopeopleordamagetoequipment.Theindustrycentersaround rulesandregulationsaimedtoseamlesslyandsafelytransitionaircraft, passengers,andworkersthrougheveryphaseofaflight.
Focusingonthecommercialsectorisnotmeanttoimplythathugestrides insafetyhavenotbeenmade.Enormousimprovementshaveturned commercialaviationintoanextremelysafeandmostlyreliableformof transport.Similarly,focusingoncommercialaviationisnotmeanttosaythat theconceptscoveredinthebookdonotapplytootherrealmsofaviationor
eventoothertypesofindustries.Infact,mosttopicscoveredareapplicable toallthebranchesofaviation,andfurthermore,awiderangeofindustries.
Forexample,healthcareisveryconcernedwithsafety.TheInstituteof Medicineclaimsthat700,000patientssufferfrommedicalerrorsinthe UnitedStateseveryyear.Between44,000and98,000diefromthese mistakes,andsomeconservativecalculationsclaimthatmedicalmistakes aretheeighthleadingcauseofdeaths.Wecanputthisfigureinto perspectiveforaviators,asitiscomparabletohavingafullyloadedBoeing 747crashevery3days.Regardlessofwhichindustrywecouldname,safety is,andwillcontinuetobe,anintegralpartofthediscourse.Therefore, anyonedesiringtopursueacareeranywhereintheindustryabsolutelymust understandtheconceptsofsafetypresentedinthisbook.
Wefocusoncommercialaviationbecauseitisatypeof ultra-safe highrisk industry (USHRI).Alongwithotherindustries,suchasnuclearpower andchemical,commercialaviationaccomplishesitsmissionwhilehaving lessthanonedisastrousaccidentper10millionevents.USHRIsare describedasfacingveryhighrisksonaconstantbasis,butsomehownot succumbingtothemexceptonrareoccasions.Withinthesedomains,the smallestmistakecouldhavehugeconsequencesandjeopardizesafetyfor many.Theexcellentlevelofsafetytheseindustriesseetodayhasevolved,to agreatextent,fromcrisis-ladenevents.Whensomethingdisastrous,suchas adeath,shocksthecommunity,peoplearemovedtocreateregulationsto preventthateventfromoccurringagain.
InUSHRIs,accidentsareunderstoodtoresultfromacombinationof elements,whereasanyoftheseelementsonitsownwouldlikelynotcause anaccidentorseriousincident.Comparetheseworkenvironments,though, toothersthatsufferlessimmediateandgravecircumstances.Thinkofthose whoworkinhumanresources,education,orclericalsettings.Although mistakesinanysettingcanresultinharm,thechancesofsmallmistakes resultinginverygraveharmarerareinsuchsettings.Littlemistakesdonot causehighdamage.AlthoughUSHRIshavedrasticallyminimizederrors comparedtootherindustries,theyhavealsobeenworkingonitforawhile andarebenefitingtodayfromthedisastersandeffortsofyesterday.Figure11showsacaptainoperatingtheflightguidancepaneltomaneuveramodern airlinerintheproximityofhighmountainsaboveSouthAmerica.Overa centuryofsafetyimprovementshavemadethecommercialaviationindustry ultrasafe,butisitsafeenough?
