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CoastalReservoir TechnologyandApplications Shu-QingYang
SchoolofCivil,MiningandEnvironmentalEngineering, UniversityofWollongong,Wollongong,NSW2522,Australia
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TypesetbySTRAIVE,India
1.Worldwatercrisisandpossiblesolutions 4.Watercrisisandwhy? 23
4.1Floods(toomuch)24
4.2Pollution(toodirtyandtooturbid)24
4.3Waterscarcity(toolittle)anditsmeasurement26
4.4Newdamsinfutureandsoftpathalwayseffective?30
4.5AreNEWater(wastewaterreuse)anddesalinationsolutions?34
2.Coastalreservoirs’designandapplications 1.Coastalreservoir,itsdefinitionandclassification
1.1Definitionofcoastalreservoir39
1.2First-andsecondgenerationofcoastalreservoirs42
2.1Siteselection,reservoirshape,andsalinity52
2.2Designforhydraulicstructures,inlets/outletsandwaterqualitymanagement55
2.3Improvementsofexistingcoastalreservoirsusingthenewprinciples55
3.Coastalreservoirs’sustainability 57
3.1Costcomparison57
3.2Carbonemissionandsustainability59 3.3Environmentalimpacts59 3.4Socialimpacts60
4.Otherapplicationsofcoastalreservoirs 63
4.1Coastalenvironmentalprotection63
4.2Water,foodandenergynexus68
4.3Inlandwaterresourcesdevelopment—SPP72
4.HuaiRiverBasin’swatersolutionforflooddisasters,droughtsandwaterpollutions
6.PossiblecoastalreservoirsforNortheastAsia
1.CoastalreservoirsforChina’scoastalcities
7.WatercrisisandpossibleCRsinSoutheastAsia
1.SoutheastAsia(Mainland)
8.WatercrisisandpossibleCRsinSouth/WestAsia
2.WestAsiaandCentralAsia
2.1CoastcountriesalongPersianGulfandArabianSea404 2.2CaspianSeaandCentralAsia412 2.3CoastofBlackSea417
2.4CountriesalongeastcoastofMediterraneanSeaandAegeanSea420
3.PossiblecoastalreservoirsalongAustraliaPacificCoast
1.Introduction 85
2.Northeastcoastdivision,Australia 92
2.1Generalinformation92
2.2SoutheastQueenslandcoastalreservoirs99
2.3CoastalreservoiratRichmondestuary100
2.4NortheastQueenslandcoastalreservoirs105
3.Southeastcoastdivision(NewSouthWalesandVictoriastates,Australia) 105
3.1Generalinformation105
3.2GreaterSydneyregion115
3.3Melbourneregion125
References 131
4.Whydownstreamwatermanagementcanincreaseenvironmental flowandirrigatedwater?ExamplesfromAustralia
1.SouthAustraliaGulfDivision/MurrayDarlingRiver 133 1.1Generalinformation133
1.2CoastalreservoirinSouthAustraliaGulf139
1.3CoastalreservoirinsideLakeAlexandrina143
1.4DownstreamwatermanagementforMurray-Darlingbasin(MDB)154
2.OthercoastaldrainagedivisionsinAustralia 159
2.1Tasmaniastate159
2.2SouthwestcoastaldivisionandIndianOceandivision162 2.3NorthernAustralia174
3.Waterdiversionandinlandwatersupply 180
3.1Experienceofexistingwaterdiversionschemes180
3.2WaterdiversionfromcoastalRiverstoinlandareas184
3.3WatersupplytoAustraliaminingindustry189
4.NewZealand,PapuaNewGuinea 192
4.1NewZealand192
4.2PapuaNewGuineaRivers195 References 198
5.WatersolutionsforlargeriverbasinsinChina
1.Introduction 201
2.South-Northwaterdiversionproject(SNWDP)andYellowRiver 208
2.1GeneralinformationofSNWDproject208
2.2Downstreamwatermanagementtosolveupstreamwatershortage210
2.3CoastalreservoirsforNorthernChina213
3.SPPstrategyanditsapplications 216
3.1SPPforfloodwaterresourcesdevelopment—DongtingandPoyangLakes216
3.2SPPforlake’szeropollution-Taihulake231
3.3Productivewetlandtopretreatdrinkingwater235
3.4SPPforcleanwaterdevelopmentfromapollutedwaterways240
3.5SPPforspongycityandurbanregeneration244
3.6SPPforpandemiccontrol259
9.WatercrisisandpossibleCRsinNorthandEastAfrica
1.Basicinformation
3.1Somalia
3.3Tanzania
3.4Mozambique444 3.5Madagascar447
10.WatercrisisandpossibleCRsinSouthandWestAfrica
1.SouthernAfrica 451
1.1BasicinformationofSouthAfrica451
1.2CapeTownanditswatercrisisin2018455 1.3WatersolutionforEastCoast461
1.4NamibiaandWestCoastofSouthAfrica462
2.RiversflowingtotheAtlanticOceanfromNorthwestAfrica 466
2.1RiversflowtoNorthAtlanticOcean466
2.2RiversflowtoGulfofGuinea471
2.3NigerRiver474
3.CentralAfricaandCongoRiver 477
3.1NorthregionofCongoRiver477
11.EuropewatercrisisandpossibleCRs
1.Basicinformation 485
2.RiverstoMediterranean/BlackSea 489
2.1Background489
2.2GreeceandItaly491
2.3SpainandFrance497
2.4UkraineandRussia500
3.CoastofAtlanticEurope 504
3.1Background504
3.2BayofBiscayandPortugal504
3.3NorthSea 508
3.4BalticSea 515
12.WatercrisisinAmericancontinentandpossibleCRs 1.Basicinformation
2.1Northcoastline528 2.2Brazil 532
2.3Southeastcoast534
2.4Pacificcoast536
3.CentralandNorthernAmerica 541
3.1CentralAmerica542 3.2Mexico 546
3.3UnitedStates551 3.4Canada
Appendix 1.Selectedland-basedwaterstorages 569
1.1USPresidentHerbertHooverandHooverDamonColoradoRiver569 1.2PresidentoftheRepublicofChinaSunYat-senandThree-GorgeDam onYangtzeRiver571
1.3JohnLucianSavageandWarragambaDamforSydney’swatersupply574
2.Selectedsea-basedwaterstorages 576
2.1AncientcoastalreservoirsinChina576
2.2CoastalreservoirsinNetherlands579
2.3CoastalreservoirinAustralia581
2.4T.O.MorganandcoastalreservoirsinHongKong,China584
2.5CoastalreservoirinN.Korea587
2.6CoastalreservoirsinS.Korea588
2.7PMLeeKuanYewandSingapore’scoastalreservoirs592
2.8Ir.YuliangGuandQingcaoshacoastalreservoir,China595
2.9PMModiandcoastalreservoirsinIndia599
2.10CoastalreservoirsinJapan601
2.11CoastalreservoirsinIndonesia603
2.12CoastalreservoirsintheUnitedKingdom604
2.13CoastalreservoirinFrance606
2.14CoastalreservoirinPortugal607
3.Selectedwaterdiversionprojects 608
3.1PremierSirJohnForrestandGoldfieldswaterpipelineinWesternAustralia608
3.2PresidentofthePeople’sRepublicofChina,ZedongMaoandSouth–North WaterDiversion611
3.3Seabedpipelines—NordStreampipeline613
4.Usefultechnologiesforcoastalreservoirs 615
4.1Inlet/outletstructures615
4.2Seawallstructures(concrete,geotubes,caissons)619
Abouttheauthor Shu-QingYang receivedhisB.E.fromWuhanUniversityin1985, MEngfromtheNanjingHydraulicResearchInstitute,China,in 1988,andPhDfromtheNanyangTechnologicalUniversity,Singapore,in1997.Hehasworkedinmanyuniversities,includingthe UniversityofNewOrleans,USA(1998–99),theNationalUniversityofSingapore(1999–2003),theNanyangTechnologicalUniversity,Singapore(2003–05),theKoreaMaritimeUniversity,South Korea(2005–06),theSouthChinaUniversityofTechnology,China (2006–07),andtheUniversityofWollongong(2007–present).
Theauthor’sresearchcoverstopicssuchassedimenttransport, hydraulics/fluidmechanics,andwaterresourcesengineering.He hasrevolutionizedthesesubjects.Forsedimenttransport,his researchrevealsthatalmostallexistingsedimenttransportformulae assumethatsedimenttransportcanbefullydeterminedbyparametersinastream-wisedirectionwithoutparametersinverticalvelocity, V.Forexample,AlbertEinsteinandhissonHansAlbertEinstein onlyusedshearstress τ,whileothersusethemeanvelocity U.Theauthor’sworkshowsthatallodd phenomenalikeoceanwaves,ripples,duns,andlocalscoursaregeneratedby V,notby τ or U.Evenfor thestream-wiseparameter,sedimenttransportisdeterminedbynear-bedstream τu∗ 0 productofnearbedvelocityandshearstressandnotby τ or U.
Forhydraulics,theauthorproposedtheprinciple:Thesurplusenergywithinanycontrolvolumeina three-dimensionalflowwillbetransferredtowardthenearestboundarytobedissipated;oncethepath ofenergytransportisspecified,any3-Dflowscanbesimplifiedasthesummationof2-Dflows.Therefore,localboundaryshearstress,themostimportantanddifficultparameter,canbetheoretically determined.
Forfluidmechanics,theauthorfindsthatthenightmareofturbulencecomesfromReynolds’time averagemethod,whichneglectstheverticalmotionasEinsteindidforsedimenttransport.Infact,the loglawisvalidonlywhen V iszero.Awakefunctionisneededtocorrecttheloglawif V isupwardor V > 0,otherwisethemaximumvelocityissubmerged.Itisthesameforotherturbulentparameters; non-zero V playsanimportantroleinmass,momentum,andenergytransportinturbulence,which hasbeenignoredforahundredyears.
Shu-QingYang’sresearchinwaterresourcesengineeringstartedfrom1988fortheThreeGorges Damproject,oneofthelargestdamsintheworld.Prettysoon,herealizedthatadambenotanideal solutionforwatercrisisduetoitsnegativeimpactsontheecosystem.In2001,hepublishedhisfirst articleoncoastalreservoirsinaSingaporenewspaperandclaimedthatSingaporecouldbecomewaterindependentifcoastalreservoirsweredesignedinasmartermanner.Therearemanyexistingcoastal
reservoirsintheworld,butnoneofthedesigners/usershasrealizedthatcoastalreservoirscanquench theglobalthirst.In2002,theauthorsubmittedhis“coastalreservoir”patent,whichclaimsforthefirst timeinhistorythattheglobalwatercrisiscanbewellsolvedbycoastalreservoirs;theoptimuminterbasinwaterdiversionsarethoseconnectingcoastalreservoirsalongcoastlines.
Likeeverymajorbreakthrough,oldtechnologiesalwaystrytopreventtheadventofnewtechnologiesattheirbeginningstage;onesuchexampleisthestoryofACversusDCbetweenTeslaandEdison.TheauthorwasimmediatelyfiredbytheNationalUniversityofSingapore.Soon,themembrane technologyfordesalinationandNEWaterbecameSingapore’sdominantwatersolution.Atthesame time,theauthorreceivedtremendoussupportfromthepresidentoftheNanyangTechnological University(NTU).TheMaritimeResearchCenter,NTU,supportedthepublicationoftheauthor’s CRbooksin2004bytheTianjinUniversityPressinChinese.
TheauthoradvocatedtheCRsolutiontoChina,especiallyShanghaiandBeijing.TheChinesegovernmentproposedtheSouth–NorthWaterDiversionproject(SNDP)asthewatersolutionforBeijing. Theauthorwrotetothetopleaderandcommentedontheproject’sthreeassumptions:
(1) SouthernChinaisalwaysrichinwater,whilethenorthisalwaysshortofwater;
(2) WesternChinaisalwaysrichinwater,whileitseastcoastisalwaysshortofwater;
(3) Runofftotheseacannotbedeveloped.
Infact,southernChinaisalsoshortofwaterindryseasonsanditslargestlakesintheYangtzeRiverrun dryeveryyear.Everydropofwaterinthewesternhighlandmustreturnbacktotheseaintheeast.The coastalreservoiratthemouthoftheYellowRiver,veryclosetoBeijing,canharvest20km2/yearof water,whileBeijing’swaterdemandislessthan2km3/year.Unfortunately,Beijingdidnotreplytothe author’sletter.However,theShanghaigovernmentisalwaysopenandpursuesinnovativesolutions.In 2005,theauthorwasinvitedtoconductaCRseminarto500ofitsofficers,andthetalkwaspublished asapapertitled“CompletelySolveWaterShortageProbleminShanghaibyCoastalReservoirs.”This predictioncametruein2011whenthecity’swatersupplycamefromtheQingchaoshacoastalreservoir intheYangtzeestuary.
Since2007,theauthorhasmigratedtothedriestinhabitedcontinentintheworld,Australia,during itsMillenniumdrought,ortheworstdroughtinAustralia’shistory.TheauthorexpectedtheCRconcepttobeacceptedquicklyandappliedwidelyinAustralia.Surprisingly,noneofthefundingagencies expressedtheirinteresttosupporttheCRresearch,includingtheAustraliaResearchCounciland UOW’sGlobalChallengeProgram.Ontheotherhand,billionsofdollarswerewastedondesalination plantsinAustralia’severycapitalcity.Nevertheless,theCRideahasbeenquicklyacceptedbyother countrieslikeMalaysia,Indonesia,etc.
In2017,theUniversityofWollongongestablishedtheCenterforCoastalReservoirResearchand theauthorwasappointedasitsdirector.TogetherwithworldCRexpertsfromTheUnitedKingdom, TheNetherlands,China,Australia,India,andMalaysia,theInternationalAssociationforCoastalReservoirResearch(www.iacrr.org)launcheditsinaugurationinKualaLumpurin2017.About100people fromtheworldattendedtheevent.However,manydelegatescouldnotattendtheinaugurationdueto someunseenpoliticalissuesastheirtravel/visaapplicationswererejected.TheIACRRwasnot allowedtohaveitsinaugurationasplannedattheSeriPacificHotel,whosemanagementwasthreatenedbysometechnologycompetitors.OntheeveofIACRR’sinauguration,someIACRRleaderswere threatenedtoleavethesite.ThankGodtheIACRRwasnotdestroyedbytheseunseenpoliticiansandit isbecomingstrongerdaybyday.
In2018,theIACRRhelditsfirstinternationalCRworkshopattheUniversityofWollongongandits themewas“InnovativeSolutionstoUN’sSustainableDevelopmentGoal6.”About100delegates attendedthisworkshop.TheWollongongDeclarationonWaterstates“Coastalreservoirscanensure aplentifulsupplyoffreshwater,atthemosteconomicalrate,todifferentregionsoftheworld.Water disputesandadministrativedifficultiescanbeavoided.”
In2019,theIACRRhelditssecondinternationalCRworkshopattheNationalChengKungUniversity,Tainan.Thethemewas“FromWaterShortagetoWaterSecuritythroughStorageinDownstreamCoastalReservoirs.”TheSDG6becomesmorechallengingforearthquake-activeareaslike Taiwan,whichisblessedbyplentifulrainfall.Itisnotthattheseareasarerunningoutofwater,but waterisrunningoutoftheseregions.Theshortageisnotwater,butstorage,becausetheriskofearthquakesmakesithighlyunlikelyforlarge-scaledamstobebuilteverywhere.Acoastalreservoirisan idealsolutionforearthquake-proneregions.
In2020,TheMinistryofNationalDevelopmentPlanning/BappenasoftheRepublicofIndonesia,in collaborationwiththeInstitutionofEngineersIndonesia(PII)andtheIACRR,hostedanInternational WorkshoponCoastalReservoir.TheMinisterofNationalDevelopmentPlanningAgency,Indonesia, Mr.SuharsoMonoarfa,announcedthatdevelopingcoastalreservoirsisanidealsolutioninareasas denselypopulatedasJava,giventhattheirdevelopmentwouldnotuseupexistingland.
AlbertEinsteinsaid“Greatspiritshavealwaysencounteredviolentoppositionfrommediocre minds.”ItisunderstandablethattheCRconceptpropagatesveryslowlyintheresearchcommunity aswellasamongtopleaders.Strongoppositionshavemadethe20-yearjourneyveryslow.Except Shanghai,almostallcoastalcitiesarestillinacriticalcondition,likethe“DayZero”cityof CapeTown,SouthAfrica,andChennai,India.Globally,atleast2.7billionpeoplefacewaterscarcity foratleast1monthoftheyear.Forthisbigcommitment,IACRRshouldcontinuetowalkagainstgusts.
Theauthoracknowledgesthetremendousspiritualsupportreceived.Heexpresseshissincere appreciationtouniversitieshehasworkedat;theyjointlyshapedtheauthor’sideasandresearch. HealsoextendshisgratitudetoallIACRRmembers,FAOLand&WaterDivision,Departmentof AgricultureandWaterResourcesofAustralia,andWaterNSWfortheirsupport.Specialthanksis giventointernationalassociationslikeIAHR(hydraulics),IWA(waterassociation),IAHS(hydrology),IWRA(waterresources),andUN-WaterwhorecommendedtheCRsolutiontoitsmembers onthe2020WorldWaterDay.
Lastbutnottheleast,theauthorexpresseshisdeepestappreciationtohisfamilymembers,especiallyhischildren,LingYang,AliceLeileiYang,CatherineHuitingYang,andSolomonGuangze Yang.Nowordscanexpresshislovetothem.Thisbookisagifttoallwhomheloves,especially tohiswifeHaodiHe.
Insummary,thequesttoquenchglobalthirstusingfloodwaterisalongjourney.“Thejourneyofa thousandmilesbeginswithasinglestep.”Everyreaderofthisbookisencouragedtodotheneedfulfor localwaterresourcedevelopment.Thisbookisonlyablastingfuseforyourwatersolution.Itishoped thattheauthor’smodesteffortcaninducemanytocomeforwardwithvaluablecontributionsby readers.Itiscertainthatdamsareaging,desalinationisnotsustainable,andlong-distancewaterdiversionneedsmanypre-requests.Thefirststepistodeveloplocalwaterresources,especiallyfloodwater. Ourcrisisisnotwatershortage,butstorageshortage.Ourworstenemyisnotfromtheoutside,butis insideourminds.Coastalreservoirisaparadigmshiftfromdischargingfloodwatertostoringfloodwater,fromupstreamtodownstreamwatermanagement,andfromnegativetopositiveenvironmental impacts. Abouttheauthor xiii
Aboutthebook Thisbookdealswithwatercrisiscausedbyfloods(toomuch),waterscarcity(toolittle),waterpollution(toodirty),andsedimentation(tooturbid)inwaterbodieslikerivers,lakes,andcoastalwaters. Twoinnovativestrategiesaresuggested:coastalreservoirs(CRs)andSeparation-ProtectionPrevention(SPP).Inthisbook,dataanalysisshowsthattheworldisnotrunningoutofwater,butwater isrunningoutofourrivers.Theearth’scrustcanbedividedintotwotypes:oceaniccrustandcontinentalcrust.Allartificialwaterstoragesonthecontinentalcrustarecalledland-basedreservoirs,or damsandthoseontheoceaniccrustarecalled coastalreservoirs.Bydevelopingfloodwaterlostto thesea,coastalreservoirscansupplysufficient,high-quality,andaffordablewatertocoastalcommunitieswithoutdesalinationandreductionofriverflows.Oncethecoastalwaterdemandismet,all upstreamwaterinfrastructurescanbeusedonlyforupstreamcommunities;thus,thetensewaterdisputesbetweenupstreamanddownstreamuserscanbemoreorlessrelaxed.Forinlandareas,the depressedareashouldbeusedforwaterstorageandtheSPPprincipleshouldbeappliedtoconserve wanted(clean,disastrous)wateranddiscardunwanted(polluted,turbid)water.Thisbookdemonstrates howtoconvertfloodwaterintowaterresourcessafelyinsidelargewaterbodieslikelakesandcoastal waters.Furthermore,bothcanbeusedtoprotectthecoastalenvironmentandecosystem,forexample, coastalreservoirscanisolateandreuseballastwaterfromshipsorradioactivewaterfromnuclear powerplants,etc.CRscanalsobeusedasbarriersagainstseawaterfloodscausedbytsunamis/ typhoons.Theyprovideasolutionfortheenvironment-energy-foodnexus,andeventually,fortheintegralmanagementbetweenwater-humanandlandresourcestothriveoncoastaleconomiccorridors.
Thisbookdiscussesthehistoryofwaterresourcedevelopmentfromwells,dams,andcoastalreservoirsin Chapters1and2.TheapplicationsofCRandSPPstrategiesaregivenin Chapters3–12.In Chapters3and4,thefeasibilityofcoastalreservoirsanddownstreamwatermanagementarediscussed usingAustralia,thedriestcontinentintheworld,asanexample.InAustralia,90%ofthepopulationis concentratedincoastalareasandsocoastalreservoirscanre-useenvironmentalflowlosttotheseafor domestical/agricultural/industrialpurposes. Chapters5and6 showhowtoapplytheSPPstrategyfor inlandwatercrisis;theYangtzeRiverisselectedtoshowhowtomanageacatchment,andtheYellow Riverisselectedtoshowhowtoincreaseupstreamwatersupplywithoutinterbasinwaterdiversion. Chapters7and8 discussthewatercrisissolutionforSoutheastandSouthAsia.Singaporeisselectedto showhowtoapplysecond-generationCRsfortheirwater-food-landsufficiency.Agriculturalactivities willbeextendedfromrivervalleystocoastallandsandseasurfaces,andcoastalreservoirswillbeused forsolarfarmsandpumped-storagehydropowerstorage.Indiaisselectedtodemonstratethefeasibility ofacoastaleconomiccorridor;waterpipelinesfromIndiatothePersianGulfmayquenchtheMiddle East’sthirst. Chapters9and10 discussthe“DayZero”inSouthAfricaandwaterscarcityinAfrica.Itis concludedthatCapeTownisnotshortofwater,butwaterstorage.Coastalreservoirsatthemouthsof theOrangeRiverandtheSenegalRivercannourishthebeachesoftheSaharaandNamibDeserts.
Chapter11 showsthatdesalinationplantsinLondonandBarcelonaareunnecessaryasEurope’swater crisiscanbewellsolvedbycoastalreservoirs. Chapter12 showsthatalldamsshouldbereplacedby coastalreservoirsinthePacificRingofFirefromCaliforniadowntoChile.TheSPPstrategycanmake theGreatLakescleanwithoutalgalblooms.
Worldwatercrisisandpossiblesolutions 1.Watercycleornaturaldesalinationprocess Watercreateslifeandnourisheslife.Wateristhemostfundamentalsubstanceforthesurvivalofany lifeform,includinghumans.Waterisalsothemostwidelydistributedsubstanceonourplanet.Inthe waterglobe,waterexistsinthreeforms,i.e.,solid,liquid,andvapor.About71%ofEarth’ssurfaceis coveredbywater.Wateralsoexistsintheairandgroundasvapor,soilmoisture,andaquifers.Thetotal volumeofwaterisabout1.39billionkm3,amongwhich97.5%issalinewaterwithanaveragedepthof nearly3700massumingthewatercoversthewholeEarth’ssurface.Only2.5%ofthetotalwateris freshwater,whichcontainsverylowconcentrationsofsaltoranyothercompounds.Muchofthisis lockedupinglaciersandicecaps.Forhumanuse,onlyfreshwaterattherighttimeandrightplaces isuseful,whichisgenerallylessthan1%ofthetotalwateronEarth.Theglobalwaterdistributionand itsresidencetimesareshownin Table1.1.1,wheretheresidencetime T ofasystemisgenerally expressedas
inwhich S ¼ waterstorageand Q ¼ flowrate.
Residencetimeisdefinedastheaveragetimethatthewatermoleculeremainsinasystem,the shorter,themorefreshwateris.Conceptually,thisisequivalenttothetimeittakestofillasystem orthetimefromemptytofull.Itisimportanttounderstandthatsomewater“instorage”hasalonger residenttime,thanwhatispredictedbyEq. (1.1.1).
Fromtheresidencetimeshownin Table1.1.1,themostimportantfreshwatersourceforhuman’ssurvivalincludesatmosphericwater,riverflows(swamps,lakes),andgroundwater.Generally,water’squalityorpurityisproportionalinverselytoitsresidencetime/traveltimeontheearthsurfaceandthe
atmosphericwaterhasbetterquality.ThetotalpotablefreshwaterforhumansonEarthisverylimitedandis generallyassumedtobevirtuallyconstantduringrecordedhistory.
Inancienttimes,peopleobservednaturalphenomenalikerainfall,riverflows,floods,etc.,wondering whytheseasneverbecomefull,eventhoughtheriversrunintotheseaeveryday.ChinesepoetLiBai asked“Don’tyouseetherivercomefromthesky;Rushingintotheseaandnevercomeback?”
HolyBibleinEcclesiastes1.6says“Thewindgoestowardsthesouth,andturnedaboutintothenorth;it whirledcontinually,andthewindreturnsagainaccordingtoitscircuits”.“Alltheriversflowintothesea; yettheseaisnotfull.Totheplacefromwheretheriversflow,eithertheyreturnagain?”(Morris,1988). TheancientGreekscholarsspeculatedthattheriverwatersmaybeattributedtorain,andinthetimeofthe Renaissance,LeonardodaVincithoughtthatprecipitationalonewasinsufficienttofeedrivers.Hestated thatundergroundwaterpushingupwardsfromtheoceanwasthemaincontributorstoriverwater.The firstonewhoassertedthatprecipitationalonewasthesingleandsolecauseforthemaintenanceofrivers wasBernardPalissy(1580CE).However,thishypothesiswasnottestedscientificallyuntilPierrePerraultin1674,andthecommunityofmainstreamsciencedidnotacceptthebeliefsuntiltheearly19th century.Nowthewatercycleisclearasshownin Figs.1.1.1and1.1.2
OurEarthissimilartoamachinewhichrunsaroundaclock,poweredbytheSunwhichwarmsthe ocean’ssurface,thensuppliesabout90%oftheevaporatedwaterintothewatercycle(Estigonietal., 2017).Eventuallythesameamountofwaterisreturnedtotheoceans.Thegiant“DesalinationPlant” evaporatestheseawaterandthevaporformscloudsinthesky,andthewinddrivenbyairpressure transportsthecloudsfromtheoceantothecontinents.Theresultofcondensationoccursintheclouds, andthecoolingvaporformsprecipitation.Thewaterwhichisprecipitatedonlandistransportedback totheoceanbygravity,throughsurfacerivers,lakesandsubsurface.
Wateristransportedfromoneplacetoanother,fromoceantoair,andfromrivertoocean,through complexphysical/chemicalprocesseslikeevaporation,condensation,precipitation,infiltration,runoff,
FIG.1.1.1 Watercycledrivenbysolarenergyandwateruseafter OkiandKanae(2006),thedomestic,industrial,andirrigated waterisonly0.8%,1.7%,and5.8%oftherunofflosttothesea(i.e.,45,500km3/year).Theworldisnotrunningoutofwater,but waterisrunningoutofrivermouths.
FIG.1.1.2 Thehydrauliccycle.Numbersinboxarethewatervolumesinkm3 andtheredquantitiesinthe arrows aretheflow ratesinkm3/year.
andsubsurfaceflow,erosion,eutrophication,etc.Impuritiesinwatergenerallyincreasewhenitinteractswithsoilalongthecoursefrommountainstothesea.Thesolarenergychangesthewaterfromits liquidphasetovapor,andmoveswaterfromoceantoclouds.Potentialenergyorthegravitydrives waterdownfromvapor-to-liquidphaseandfromlandareastoriversuntiltheoceans.
Evaporationisaprocessofwaterconversionfromtheliquidphasetothegaseousphase.Ice,rain, andsnowmaydirectlysublimateintothegaseouswater.Thisprocesspurifieswaterandreplenishesthe landsurfacewithfreshwater.Evapotranspirationiswaterevaporatedfromthesoilandtranspired throughvegetationorplants.Watervaporislighterintheaircomparedtoothercomponentsofthe atmosphere,likenitrogenandoxygen,thuswatervaporexistshigherupintheatmosphereduetobuoyancyofthewatervapor.However,asthealtitudelevelincreases,thetemperaturedecreasesandalsoair pressuredrops.Watervaporcondensesatlowtemperature,andasmallliquiddropletisformedathigh elevation.Thewaterdropletisheavierthantheair,thenitfallsbecauseofgravityunlessbalancedby intensiveturbulenceoranupdraft.Avisibledarkcloudisgenerallyformedifthesedropletsarewidely distributedintheair.Thedensevaporclosetogroundleveliscalledasfog,iftherearestrongcollisions betweencoolairandmoistair,oranabruptreductioninairpressure.Precipitationistheprocessof cloudparticleswhentheycollide,growandfalloutoftheclouds.Someprecipitationfallsassnow, sleetorhail,theymayaccumulateasicecapsandglaciers,wherethefrozenwatercanexistintact forthousandsofyears.Mostprecipitationfallsasrainontheoceansurfaceoronland,whichproduces groundwaterandrunoffthatsupportstheecosystem.Incaseofsurfacewater,partofrainwaterenters rivers,lakesandswamps,andflowstowardstheoceansthroughrivers,theremainderreturnsintothe airduetoevapotranspirationprocess.
Notallrainwaterflowsintostreamsandrivers,infact,muchofitisinfiltratedintothesoiland formsthegroundwaterwhichhasthepotentialtofillanyopeningsinsubsurfaceandcomesoutas springsinsomelowerplaces.However,somegroundwatercanseepbackintoriversasthebaseflow ofrivers.Eventually,boththegroundwaterandsurfacewaterreturntotheocean,continuinganother watercycle.Riverflowstransportsediments,whichreshapesthegeologicalfeaturesonthesurfaceof theEarth,throughprocessessuchaserosionandsedimentation.Thewatercycleisalsoessentialforthe maintenanceofbiodiversityandecosystemsontheplanet.
Onaverage,therainfallontheoceansamountstoapproximately1270mm/year,andtherainfall onthecontinentsis870mm/yearwithanaveragerunoffcoefficientof0.4overthelandsurface (AmritaPal,2014 ). Fig.1.1.1 clearlyshowsthatthetotalrunofftotheseais45.5 10 3 m 3 /year, whichisahugeamountofwatercomparedw iththetotalwaterwithdrawalof3.81 10 3 km3 ,or only8.4%ofthetotalrunofflosttotheoceans.
Thisbookwillfocusonhowtodeveloptherunofflosttotheseausingthetechnologyofcoastal reservoir.Beforeitisdemonstratedwhycoastalreservoirsmaydominatefuturewatersupply (Yang,2004;Yangetal.,2005; Yang,2016 ),itisnecessarytomakeitclearwhereourwater demandcomesfromanditsavailability,whatis ourexperienceinwaterr esourcesdevelopment, aswellasthesustainabilityofthetec hnologiesthatwehaveusedsofar.
Currently,onlysurfacewaterandgroundwaterarewidelyacceptedaswaterresources,without includingtherunoffatrivermouthshownin Fig.1.1.1.Thisbookprovidesanewscientificdefinition ofwaterresources,i.e.,runofflosttoseainanestuaryshouldbealsodefinedasdevelopablewater resources,whichisequivalentlyimportantcomparedwithsurface/subsurfacewater.Thisisimportant as“in2001overhalftheworld’spopulationlivedwithin200kmofacoastline”(http://www. oceansatlas.org/subtopic/en/c/114/).Moreandmorepeoplearemigratingtocoastalareas,especially coastalcitiesduetourbanization.Thisbookoutlineshowtodevelopthewaterresourcesatriver mouthsanditsindirectinfluenceoninlandregions,withmoreattentionpaidtothecoastalcitiesin differentcountries.
Fig.1.1.1 clearlyshowsthattherunofftotheseais45,500km3/year,anddomesticwaterdemandis 380km3/year,only0.8%ofitsavailablewater.Obviously,theworldisnotrunningoutofwater,but waterisrunningoutofrivermouths(YangandSivakumar,2020).Itisnecessarytodiscusswhetherthe runoffattherivermouthisdevelopable.Currentlyeverycountryexcludesthewaterresourcesatan estuarybyassumingthatrunoffattherivermouthistoosaltytodrink,socoastalcommunitiescanonly drinkwaterfrommountainousdams/lakes(see Fig.1.1.1)ordesalinationplants. Itiswrongtoassumethatfreshwaterimmediatelymixeswithseawaterwhenthefreshwaterenters anestuary;actually,thismixingprocessneedsacertaintime.AsshowninEq. (1.1.1),thetime T dependsonthedischarge Q andvolumeofestuary S.If Q isveryhighand S isrelativelysmall, Eq. (1.1.1) tellsthatthedetentiontimeissmall,sofreshwatercanexistduringfloodseasonsorduring lowtideattherivermouthasshownin Figs.1.1.3and1.1.4a.Iftheincomingflow Q isverysmalland duringhightide(S ishigh),thefreshwatercouldbefullypollutedbyseawater.Theestuarymaybefull ofseawaterorbrackishwaterasshownin Fig.1.1.4bandc(Savenije,2012).Inotherwords,thesalinity atanestuarydependsontwoopposingfluxes:atide-drivensaltwaterfluxupstreamandafreshwater fluxthatflushesthesaltwaterintothesea.Asthedensityoffreshwaterislighterthanseawater,
Hydrodynamicsofanestuarywherearivermeetsthesea,salinitygraduallyincreasesalongthecourse.
FIG.1.1.3
FIG.1.1.4 Salinityprofilesinanestuarywheresalinityisjointlydeterminedbyriverdischargeandtide.(a)Salinewedgeatthe mouthortheestuaryisfulloffreshwaterinfloodseasons;seawaterpartiallypollutesthefreshwaterorbrackishwaterappearsin theestuarywhendischargeismedium(b);theestuaryisfullymixedwithseawaterindryseasons(c). (ReproducedwithpermissionfromSavenije,H.H.G.,2012.SalinityandTidesinAlluvialEstuaries.DelftUniversityofTechnologyWaterResources, SectionP.O.Box50482600GA,Delft,TheNetherlands.)
freshwater,likealayerofoil,isalwayslocatedabovetheseawaterlayeralonganinterface.Many numericalmodelsareavailabletopredictthesalinitywithinanestuary[Yang(2003,2015), Savenije(2005,2012)].
2.Waterresourcesavailability 2.1Groundwateranditsdevelopment As97.5%ofEarth’swaterissaline,freshwateraccountsforonly2.5%ofthetotal.Ofthetotalfreshwater,over68.7%islockedupinicecapandglaciers;andapproximately30.1%offreshwaterisinthe ground,andonly1.2%ofitissurfacewater.Naturally,groundwaterdevelopmentplaysanimportant roleforhuman’ssurvivalinhistory.Hand-dugwellsappearineverycorneroftheworld.Beforethe industrialrevolution,therewasnolarge-scaleurbanization.Atthattime,thepopulationwasalmost uniformlydistributedoverthearablelands;thepracticeprovesthattheuseofwellsandboreholes (i.e.,narrowdrilledwells)isthemosteffectivewaytosatisfyscatteredpeople’swaterdemand.
However,thismethodgraduallybecameineffectiveaftertheindustrialrevolution,astheconnectionbetweenarablelandandpeople’slivingplaceswascut.Cities,largecitiesandevenmegacities appearaspeoplecanenjoybetterlifeandmoreemploymentopportunitiesinurbanareas.Ontheother
hand,overuseofgroundwatermaypresentproblemsifpumpingratesfromwellsarefasterthanthe rechargerateofsurfacewaterinthelongterm,suchas:
l WaterTableisloweredandwellscannotmeetthewaterdemand.
l Increasedpumpingcostsandcarbonemission.
l Landsubsidencemayoccur,whichmaydamageinfrastructuresifcollapsed.
l Surfacewaterconnectedtogroundwatercouldbediminished,andconsequentlytheecosystemis deteriorated.
Excessivegroundwaterdevelopmentincoastalareascancausesaltwaterintrusion,resultinginsaltwatercontaminationofthesurface/groundwater.Currentlyintheworld,manyplaceshavethegroundwatercrisis.Forinstance,theNortheastChineseandNorthWesternIndianaquifershavebeendepleted atarateofabout10–18km3/yearsince2013(FienenandArshad,2016).OtherplacesliketheNorthern MiddleEast(i.e.,Iran,Iraq,Syria,andTurkey)andAustraliapump6.7–12.3km3/yearfromtheiraquifer.IntheUSA,twoofthemostimportantandbiggestgroundwaterreservoirs(theOgallalaaquifer fromTexastoSouthDakotaandtheCentralValleyaquiferinCalifornia),arebeingdrainedbyfarmers andcitiesatarateof15.6km3/year(http://www.takepart.com/article/2014/11/04/map-showshow-dangerously-fast-world-draining-its-groundwater/).Indonesiagovernmentdecidedtomoveits capitalfromJarkatartosomewhereelseduetoitslandsubsidencecausedbyover-developmentof groundwater.
2.2Surfacewater Rivervalleysanddeltaswereveryimportantplacesforancientcivilizationsasthefertilelandsprovide higherfoodproduction,reliablewatersupplyandnavigationaladvantage,thustheseplacesbecame concentratedsettlementsinfloodplains.Consequently,allancientcivilizationsarecloselyrelatedwith rivers.Forexample,theNileRivernourishedtheEgyptiancivilization(ElSayed,2017).Withoutthe GreatNile,thegreatachievementsdonebytheancientEgyptianwouldbeimpossible.Similarly,the greatriversoftheTigrisandtheEuphratesproduceditscivilization;TheInduscivilizationwasheavily dependentontheIndusriverandGangesriver.TheChinesecivilizationcomesfromthemuddyYellow River.
By300BCE,theancientRomans,withapopulationofabouthalfmillion,builtinnovativepipe systems,canalandaqueducttodistributeandsupplywatertoitsresidents(Phillips,2015).Thiscapabilitytotransferwateroverlongdistanceswasevenmoreimportantifnearbywaterwaspolluteddueto theincreasingpopulation.Tominimizethisproblem,Romansalsoinventedthefirstsewersystems. AftertheRomanEmpireera,todaythesewersystemswerewidelyusedeverywherearoundtheworld (Feoetal.,2014).Ithasbeensummarizedbysomehistoriansthattilltoday,adevelopedhydraulic civilizationmaintainscontroloveritspopulationbybattlingwaterdisasters,i.e.,toomuchwater (floods),toolittlewater(droughts),cleanwater(watersupply),anddirtywater(sewersystem).All theseneedalargeworkforcetomanageandovercome.
Sincetheadventofindustryinthe1800s,worldpopulationhasrisenexponentially.Nowadays,the globalcivilizationhasspreadallovertheworld.Water-richplaceslikerivervalleys,lakesanddeltas playamoreimportantroleformodernsocietiesduetourbanization.Theworldprincipalriversare listedin Table1.2.1.Thesewatershedscanberoughlydividedasfollows:60%ofcontinentalland drainsitsrunofftotheAtlanticandArcticOceans,andtheremaining40%tothePacificandIndian Oceans.Thetotalglobalrunoffaverages45,500km3/year,morethanhalfofitoccursinAsiaandSouth
TABLE1.2.1 Drainageareaandaveragerunoffforworld’smajorrivers. River
(Thailand)
(Canada) 103010,400
Tocantins (Brazil) 90710,000
Volga(Russia)138080000.200.3225021919417 RioMagdalena (Colombia) 24080000.080.26
TABLE1.2.1 Drainageareaandaveragerunoffforworld’smajorrivers—cont’d
Ohio(USA)525.77950
Columbia(USA)6697500
Zambesi (Mozambique) 12007069
Yukon(USA)8557000
Danube (Romania) 80564500.180.5122319717582.7
Niger(Nigeria)209257000.26
Niagara (Canada) 6655776
Uruguay (Uruguay) 35050000.370.95
Ogowe(Gabon)20546890.15
Pechora(Russia)32740600.120.0413612411525
Godavari(India)3133980 310
Hungho (Vietnam) 1203889
Indus(Pakistan)9607687
Kolyma(Russia)64438000.220.35
Dvina(Russia)34833680.170.0310592.481.812.8 SaoFrancisco (Brazil) 61033000.281.25 9.3
Khatanga (Russia) 4223280
GrijalvaUsumacinta (Mexico) 3265
Mahanadi(India)1332940 15
Godavari(India)3102662 309
Pyassina(Russia)1822600
Neva(Russia)28125300.160.1775.766.558.6
Continued
