PREFACE
Theoriginofthistextarosefromcountlessconversationswithotherprofessionalswhogenerallyreported,“Iknowaboutappliedbehavioranalysis. I’veseenitdonebefore.”Undoubtedly,manyofthoseprofessionalshad seenaversionofappliedbehavioranalysis(or“ABA”asitisoftenreferred to)conductedwiththeirchild,student,orpatient;however,itbecameclear thatothersheldarelativelyrestrictednotionofABA.Withoutdoubt,one ofthemostnotableutilizationsofABAhasbeenwithinthecontextof theinterventionsrelatingtoskilldeficitsandbehaviorsofexcessdisplayed byindividualswithdevelopmentaldisabilities,specificallyautism.Although numerousproceduresandapproacheshavebeenpresentedaspotentialtreatmentsforthebehavioralsymptomsofautism,thosebasedontheprinciples ofABAhavereceivedthemostempiricalsupport.Asaresult,inrecentyears, theterm“appliedbehavioranalysis”appearstobeusedquiteoftenasa synonymforaveryspecificrangeofinterventionsforautism.
ManyreaderswouldnotethatABAisbutasubfieldofthebroaderarea ofbehavioranalysisthatalsoincludes:(a)behaviorism,whichfocuseson theworldview,theory,orphilosophyofbehavioranalysis,and(b)the experimentalanalysisofbehavior(EAB),whichfocusesonidentifying andanalyzingthebasicprinciples,mechanisms,andprocessesthatexplain behavior.ABAisdistinctfromEABinthatitisconsideredaclinicaldisciplineinwhichthegeneralprinciplesoflearningandbehaviorareappliedfor thepurposeofaddressingsociallyrelevantproblemsandissues.Thus,behavioranalystswhoworkinABAconductresearchthatassistsindevelopingand evaluatingevidence-basedpracticesdirectedtowardtheremedyofproblems associatedwithsociallysignificantbehavior.Appliedbehavioranalyststhen usetheresultsoftheappliedresearchtocreateandimplementeffective evidence-basedproceduresinmorenaturalsettingssuchasschools,homes, andthecommunity.Suchworkoftenfocusesonbehavioralproblemsthat occurinparticularsettings,areassociatedwithparticularpopulations(e.g., individualswithautismorotherdevelopmentaldisabilities),andthosethat arepresentwithinlargersocialcontexts(e.g.,organizationalbehavior management).
InlightoftheefficacyofABA-basedproceduresinaddressingbehaviors associatedwithautism,itisimportanttonotethattheprinciplesunderlying thistherapeuticapproachhavebeenshowntobesimilarlyeffectivewhen
ThischapterprovidesanoverviewofthefeaturesofABAwithinthe frameworkprovidedby Baer,Wolf,andRisley(1968) andhowthosefeaturescharacterizeworkconductedinvariousareasoffocus,settings,and populations.Eachofthedimensionsisdescribedanddemonstratedusing examplesfromvariouschild,adult,andorganizationalABA-basedresearch.
DIMENSIONSOFABA
Baeretal.(1968) providedwhattheycontendedweredefiningdimensions ofABA.AsdescribedbyBaeretal.,therearesevendimensionsofABA thatmustbepresenttoensurethateffectivepracticesaredevelopedand implemented.AccordingtoBaeretal.,ABAis(a)applied,(b)behavioral, (c)analytic,(d)technological,(e)conceptuallysystematic,(f)effective,and (g)generalizable.Theremainderofthischapterwillreviewthedimensions describedbyBaeretal.usingappliedstudiesacrossvariouspopulations andareasoffocusasoutlinedinthistexttoillustratehowthey characterizeABA.
Applied
Theterm applied indicatesthataparticulartargetbehaviorofinterestisof socialsignificance.Further,itistheemphasisonsocialsignificancethatdistinguishesABAfromlaboratoryanalysis.Specifically,appliedbehavioranalystsselectbehaviorsthataresociallymeaningfulandarecurrentlyof importancetotheindividual(s)whosebehaviorisbeingaddressed.Atvarioustimes,appliedbehavioranalystshaveopportunitiestoaddressnumerous behaviorsdemonstratedbyindividuals,anditisconsideredvitalthatthey prioritizethosebehaviorsintermsofimportance.Illustrationsofthe applied dimensionofABAarewide-rangingandcanbeobservedinstudiesacross numerouspopulations,settings,andareas.
Myriadchild-focusedstudieshavebeenconductedwithinABAthat exemplifythefocusonsocialsignificance.Theseinclude(butarenotlimited to)studiesevaluatingtreatmentsforfeedingdisorders(e.g., Kadey,Piazza, Rivas,&Zeleny,2013;Kadey,Roane,Diaz,&Merrow,2013; LaRue etal.,2011;Volkert,Vaz,Piazza,Frese,&Barnett,2011),interventions forchildhoodobesity(e.g., Fogel,Miltenberger,Graves,&Koehler, 2010;VanCamp&Hayes,2012),andissuesrelatingtoattentiondeficit hyperactivitydisorder(ADHD;e.g., Northup,Fusilier,Swanson,Roane, &Borrero,1997;Ridgway,Northup,Pellegrin,LaRue,&Hightsoe,2003).
TheABA-basedapproachtotheassessmentandtreatmentofpediatric feedingdisordershasincludedawidevarietyofbehaviorsofsignificantsocial
importanceincludingfoodrefusal(Borrero,Woods,Borrero,Masler,& Lesser,2010),self-feeding(Vaz,Volkert,&Piazza,2011),andswallowing (e.g., Kadey,Piazza,etal.,2013).Forexample, Kadey,Piazza,etal.(2013) addressedthefoodconsumptionofa5-year-oldgirlwhoreliedonagastrostomytubeforhercaloricneeds.Theauthorsconductedatextureassessmentinwhichtheyevaluatedvarioustextures,acrossfoods,todetermine theonewhichthegirlcouldsuccessfullyswallow.Throughtheirsystematic processofidentifyingatexturewithwhichshecouldbesuccessfulwithindividualfoods,theauthorswereabletoincreasethegirl’sconsumptionof thosefoods.
ChildobesityisanothersociallysignificantareainwhichseveralABAbasedstudieshavebeenconducted. Fogeletal.(2010) evaluatedtheeffects ofvideogame-basedexercise(i.e.,exergaming)relativetotraditionalphysicaleducation(PE)withfourphysicallyinactiveandoverweightfifthgrade students.Theauthors’purposewastoevaluatewhetherthephysicalactivity ofthechildrenwouldincreasethroughexposureto10exergames(e.g.,Play Station;NintendoWiiBoxing,SportsBaseball,SportsTennis;iTechFitness XrBoard).Throughtheuseoftheexergamingapproach,theauthorswere abletosubstantiallyincreasethephysicalactivityofallfourchildrenabove thelevelsobservedduringtraditionalPE.
Athirdsociallysignificant,child-focusedareaofstudydealswithvariablesrelatingtoADHD. Northupetal.(1997) evaluatedtheeffectsofstimulantmedicationonfivechildrenwithADHDdiagnoses.Specifically,the authorsevaluatedthechildren’spreferencefordifferentreinforcers(quiet time,aloneplay,andsocialplay)acrossthepresenceandabsenceofstimulant medications.AlthoughtheresultsofNorthupetal.wereidiosyncraticacross children,theauthorsshowedthatstimulantmedicationcanalterchildren’s motivationfortypesofreinforcement.
Studiesconductedintheareasofpediatricfeedingdisorderssuchas Kadey,Piazza,etal.(2013),childhoodobesitysuchas Fogeletal.(2010), andADHDsuchas LaRueetal.(2011) illustratetheemphasisofchildfocusedABAonsocialsignificance.Eachofthedependentvariables,ortargetbehaviors,intheabovestudieswasmeaningfulandofpracticalimportancetothechildreninthestudiesandtopotentialfutureconsumersofthe studies.
Similarly,alargenumberofadult-focusedstudieswithhighsocialsignificancehavebeenconductedwithinABA.Theseinclude(butarenotlimited to)studiesevaluatingassessment,treatment,andtrainingpracticesinpathologicalgambling(e.g., Guercio,Johnson,&Dixon,2012;Nastally,Dixon, &Jackson,2010)aswellasteacherandcaregivertraining(e.g., Lerman,
Tetreault,Hovanetz,Strobel,&Garro,2008;Lerman,Vorndran,Addison, &Kuhn,2004).
Forexample,thedimensionofsocialsignificanceisdemonstratedin adult-focused,ABA-basedstudiespertainingtotheassessment,treatment, anddeterminationofthevariablesthatcontributetopathologicalgambling. Guercioetal.(2012) studiedatreatmentintendedtodecreaseurgestogambleandactualgamblingbehaviorofthreeadultswithacquiredbraininjury whowerealsoindicatedaspathologicalgamblers.Theauthorsimplemented atreatmentprogramthatconsistedofone-on-onetherapythatentailedprovidinginstructiontotheadultsaboutmotivatingoperations(MOs),antecedents,andconsequencesrelatingtogambling.Throughtheapplication ofthetreatmentprogram,theauthorsdemonstratedareductioninurges togamble(basedondatacollectedviaself-reports)andgamblingbehavior ineachoftheadults.
Anotheradult-focusedareaofstudythatillustratesthedimensionof socialsignificanceinABAiscareprovidertraining. Lermanetal.(2008) evaluatedatrainingprogramintendedtoteachskillstoteachersofchildren withautismrelatingtotheimplementationofpreferenceassessmentand teachingprocedures.Thetrainingprogramconsistedofavarietyofteaching methodsincludinglectures,discussion,androle-playprocedures.The resultsshowedthatthetrainingprogramresultedintheacquisitionofthe targetskillsbyeachoftheteachers,andfollow-upassessmentsuggestedthat thoseskillsmaintainedovertimefollowingtraining.Similartothechildbasedstudiesdescribedabove,eachofthedependentvariablesevaluated inadult-basedstudieswasmeaningfulandofobviouspracticalimportance.
Manystudieshavealsobeenconductedintheareaoforganizational behaviormanagement(OBM)pertainingtosafety(e.g., Ludwig&Geller, 1997)illustratingtheappliednatureofABA.Forexample, Ludwigand Geller(1997) conductedastudyinwhichtheyevaluatedanintervention aimedatincreasingsafedrivingbehaviorofpizzadeliverydrivers.Specifically, theauthorsimplementedtwointerventionswithtwogroupsofdrivers, respectively.Oneinterventionconsistedofgoalsettinginwhichthedrivers participatedinthesettingofthegoals.Thesecondinterventionconsistedof goalsettingbutthedriversdidnotparticipateinthesettingofgoals.The resultsshowedthatbothinterventionswereeffectiveatincreasingcomplete stopsatintersections.Further,theresultsalsoshowedthatnontargetedsafe drivingbehaviors(i.e.,turnsignaluse,safetybeltuse)alsoincreasedduring oneoftheinterventions.Theinterventions,whichwereantecedent-based innature,utilizedby LudwigandGeller(1997) demonstratedtheeffective
(e.g., Fienup,Luiselli,Joy,Smyth,&Stein,2013;Goomas,Smith,& Ludwig,2011).Forexample, Fienupetal.(2013) evaluatedanintervention intendedtoimprovetheperformanceofstaffatahumanservicesorganization.Specifically,theauthorsintervenedwiththepurposeofdecreasingstaff tardinessforsupervisionmeetings.Theauthorsmeasuredlatencyfromthe scheduledbeginningtimeformeetingsuntiltheactualtimeinwhichmeetingsbegan.Thisbehavioralandobservablemeasurementsystemminimized potentialinaccurateinferencesaboutthepositiveeffectsoftheintervention theyemployed. Goomasetal.(2011) focusedontheperformanceof employeesataretaildistributioncenter.Theauthorsdirectlymeasured theamountoftimeittookemployeestocompletespecifictasks.Byestablishingdirectmeasuresofbehavior,theseauthorswereabletodirectlyevaluatepotentialrelationsbetweentheirinterventionanditseffectsonthose targetedbehaviors.
Analytic
Theterm analytic indicatesthatABAemphasizesbelievabledemonstrations ofrelationsbetweenbehaviorsofinterestandenvironmentalvariables, interventions,andtreatmentsunderstudy.Systematic analyses ofbehavior arevitalforthedemonstrationofexperimentalcontrolwithregardtothe effectsofindependentvariables(e.g.,interventionsandtreatments)on dependentvariables(e.g.,sociallyrelevantbehaviorsofinterest).AnemphasisisplacedontheanalyticnatureofABAbecauseitisvitalthatapplied behavioranalystsbasetheirpracticalrecommendationson“believabledemonstrations”(Baeretal.,1968,p.93)thattheirinterventionswereresponsibleforpositivechangesinbehaviorsofinterest.Thus,itisimportantthat theinferencesaboutcausalrelationsbetweenrecommendedinterventions andpositiveoutcomesshouldbebasedonsystematic,empiricalmethods anddemonstrationsofexperimentalcontrol.
Experimentalcontrolisachievedwhenanappliedbehavioranalystdemonstratesafunctional,orcausal,relationbetweenenvironmentalvariablesof interestandbehaviorsofinterest.InABA,varioussingle-subjectexperimentaldesignsareutilizedtodemonstratefunctionalrelationsincluding(butnot limitedto)thereversal,multielement(andalternatingtreatmentsdesign), changingcriterion,andmultiple-baselineexperimentaldesigns.Thesebasic designssharethreecommonelements:(a)prediction—anticipatedfuture levelsofbehavior,(b)verification—demonstrationthatthepreviously predictedlevelsofbehaviorwouldcontinueintheabsenceofatreatment, and(c)replication—repeatingpreviouschangesinbehaviorviathe
reintroductionandsubsequentremovalofthetreatmentacrosstime,settings,and/orindividuals.
The analysis dimensionofABAisillustratedinthechild-basedliteratureas reflectedbyemphasison,anduseof,varioussingle-subjectexperimental designstodemonstratefunctionalrelationsbetweentheindependentvariables (e.g.,environmentalvariables,interventions,treatments)andsociallyrelevant behaviorsofinterest.Forexample,inthestudydescribedabove, Kadey,Piazza, etal.(2013) employedareversaldesigntosystematicallydemonstratethe relationbetweenswallowingbehavior(i.e.,mouthcleans)demonstratedby a5-year-oldgirlwithfeedingproblemsandspecifictexturelevels.Usingthe reversaldesign,theauthorsfirstimplementedasmoothtexturelevelproduced byaspecifictypeoffoodprocesser(i.e.,aMagicBullet®)anddocumentedthe percentageofbitetrialsinwhichthechildswallowedasreflectedbymouth cleans.Theauthorsconductedrepeatedsessionsinthisinitialcondition,and thechilddemonstratedhighandrelativelystablelevelsofswallowingbehavior. Theresultsofthefirstconditionprovidedpreliminaryevidenceofarelation betweenthechild’sswallowingbehaviorandthetexturelevelofthefood. However,withoutadditionalexperimentalmanipulations,itwouldhavebeen inappropriatetoinfercausalitybetweenfoodtextureandswallowing.Therefore,theauthorsendedtheconditionandimplementedasecondconditionin whichpureedfoodwaspresentedthatwasofadifferenttexturethanthefood presentedinthepreviouscondition.Theauthorsimplementedrepeatedsessionsinthesecondconditionuntiltheyobservedlowandstablelevelsofswallowing.Theresultsofthesecondconditionprovidedadditionalevidencethat theleveloftextureusedinthefirstconditionwasresponsibleforthehighlevels ofswallowingobserved.However,thepotentialeffectsofextraneousvariables onswallowingcouldnotberuledout(e.g.,avariableoutsideoftheevaluation mayhavecoincidedwiththeonsetofthesecondconditionandcouldhave influencedtheresults).Theauthorsreimplementedtheinitialconditionand swallowingbehaviorincreasedbacktolevelsobservedduringtheinitialcondition.Theseresultsprovidedadditionalevidencethatthehighlevelswallowingresultedfromthetexturelevelratherthanextraneousvariables.Theauthors subsequentlyconductedanadditionalreversal(i.e.,anadditionalpureeconditionandadditionalMagicBullet® condition)andproducedsimilarresults. Thus,theco-occurrenceofpositivechangesinthetargetbehavior(i.e.,swallowing)wasdemonstratedtooccuronlyinthepresenceofthefoodtexture producedbytheMagicBulletblender.Therefore,causalitybetweenpositive effectsobservedwiththeswallowingbehaviorandthetreatmentcouldbereasonablyinferred.
Carr&Durand,1985).FCTinvolves(a)evaluatingandidentifyingthereinforcermaintainingchallengingbehaviorviaafunctionalassessment(e.g.,functionalanalysis; Carr&Durand,1985;Iwata,Dorsey,Slifer,Bauman,& Richman,1982/1994);(b)traininganewappropriatecommunicativebehavior(e.g.,cardexchange,microswitch,signlanguage)anddeliveringthesame reinforcercontingentontheresponse;(c)placingchallengingbehavioron extinction(i.e.,reinforcementiswithheldfollowingoccurrencesofchallengingbehavior; Fisheretal.,1993;Hagopian,Fisher,Sullivan,Acquisto,& LeBlanc,1998);and(d)insomecases,applyingpunishmentcontingenton challengingbehavior(Hagopianetal.,1998;Wackeretal.,1990).Thus, theeffectivenessofFCTisbasedonthebehavioralmechanismsincludingreinforcement(positiveand/ornegative)and,inmanycases,extinctionandpunishment,aswellastrainingproceduressuchastheuseofatime-delayprompt.
TheapproachofconceptualizingFCTusingbehavioralmechanismsand aconceptualsystemisdistinctfromapotentialapproachtothetreatment thatmightfocusonotheraspectsofthetreatment.Forexample,aclinician focusingonFCTwithoutconsideringtheunderlyingconceptualsystem mayfavorconceptualizingthetreatmentasonethatfocusesontheutilizationoftechnology(e.g.,iPadtechnology,voice-outputdevice)forcommunicationandmistakenlyassumethattheeffectivenessofthetreatmentis basedontheprovisionoftechnology-basedcommunicativetechniques. Suchanapproachwouldbeproblematicforseveralreasons.First,without consideringtheantecedentsandreinforcementcontingenciesassociated withchallengingbehavior,whilefocusingsolelyontrainingcommunicationusingtechnology-basedmodalities,itislikelythetreatmentwillfail toeffectivelytreatthechallengingbehaviorbecausethecontingenciescontrollingthebehaviorwillnothavebeenaddressed.Thus,toaddressthecontingenciescontrollingthebehavior,theeffectiveappliedbehavioranalyst considersthebehavioralmechanismsresponsibleforthechallengingbehavioraswellasthetarget-appropriatecommunicativebehaviors(technologybasedorotherwise).Inaddition,as Baeretal.(1968) asserted,withoutusing aconceptualsystemwhenimplementingthetreatment,itisunlikelytheclinicianwillgeneralizeandapplythetreatmenteffectivelyinothersituations.
Guercioetal.(2012) providedanexampleoftheapplicationofatreatmentbasedonabehavioralconceptualsystemforadultpathologicalgamblersinindividualswithacquiredbraininjury.Asdescribedpreviously, theauthorsimplementedaprogramthatconsistedofone-on-onetreatment therapysessionsinwhichtheyfocusedonteachingtheparticipantsaboutthe MOs,antecedents,andreinforcersassociatedwithgamblingbehaviors.
theUSDArecommendeddailyguidelinesprovidedabenchmarkwith whichtoevaluateeffectiveness;thefavorablecomparisontothatbenchmark providedclearevidenceoftheeffectivenessoftheintervention.
Lebbon,Sigurdsson,andAustin(2012) providedanexampleofthedemonstrationofeffectivenessinOBM-basedABAresearch.Theauthorsevaluatedaninterventionpackageconsistingoftraining,peerobservations, peer-directedfeedback,andgraphicfeedback.Toevaluatetheintervention package,theauthorscollecteddataonseveraldependentvariablesincluding OccupationalSafetyHealthAdministrationrecordableincidents,lostworkdays,andpeerobservations.Theresultssuggestedthattheintervention packagedecreasedthetotalnumberofincidentsandlostdayswhencomparedtopreinterventionconditions.Theauthorsprovidedacosteffectivenessanalysisbycomparingtheaveragedirectcostofindividual work-relateddisablinginjuriesandotherinjuriestothetotalcostofthe interventiongiventhereductionininjuriesduringthecourseofthestudy. Theresultssuggestedthattheinterventionwasclearlycost-effective,providingevidenceofthe effectiveness oftheintervention.
Generality
ThelastdimensionofABAplacesanemphasisontheextenttowhichgains are generalizable toothersettings,caregivers,orbehaviors. Generalization is importantbecauseitisnotbeneficialtoimproveaclient’sbehavioronly insettings(e.g.,clinics)outsideofthenaturalenvironment,particularlyif theclientonlyspendsafewhoursofhis/herweekoutsidethenaturalenvironment.Thebehavioralinterventionisonlybeneficialifitimproves behavioracrossdifferentsettingsandwhenitisimplementedbydifferent individuals(e.g.,multiplecaregivers).
SilberandMartens(2010) providedanexampleoftheapplicationof child-focusedABAinwhichthedimensionofgeneralitywasevident. Theauthorsevaluatedamultipleexemplarapproachtoaprogramforgeneralizedoralreadingfluencydemonstratedbychildreninthefirstandsecond grades.Specifically,theauthorscomparedthreeconditionsincludingacontrol,areadinginterventionthatconsistedofteachingkeywordsandsentencestructures,andatypicalreadinginterventionconsistingofpreview andrepeatedreadings.Followingtheimplementationofeachcondition, theauthorsconductedprobeswithnontrainedreadingpassagestoevaluate theextenttowhichthechildren’slearnedskillsgeneralized.Theresults showedthatbothreadinginterventionsweremoreeffectiveatpromoting generalizationofreadingskillsasevidencedbysignificantlyhigherscores
duringthegeneralizationprobeswithuntrainedreadings.Byshowingthe spreadofthepositiveeffectsoftheinterventionstountrainedreadingpassages,theauthorsdemonstratedthegeneralityoftheinterventions.
Stokes,Luiselli,Reed,andFleming(2010) providedanexampleofthe emphasisongeneralizationintheABA-basedsportsmanagementliterature. Duringthestudy,theauthorsevaluatedtheutilityofdescriptivefeedback alone;descriptivefeedbackincombinationwithvideo-basedfeedback; andacombinationofdescriptivefeedback,video-basedfeedback,andan audio-basedfeedbackprocedure(i.e.,teachingwithacousticalguidance, TAG)toimprovelinepass-blockingskillsinhighschoolfootballplayers. Afterdemonstratingtheeffectivenessoftheinterventionpackageconsisting ofdescriptivefeedback,video-basedfeedback,andTAGwithimprovementsinblocking,theauthorsassessedimprovementsduringgamesituations(withfourofthefiveparticipants)intheabsenceofthe intervention.Theresultsshowedthatallfourplayersdemonstratedhigh levelsofcorrectblockingtechniquesduringgamesituationssuggestingthat generalizationhadoccurredwiththeintervention.
The generality dimensionofABAisalsoillustratedinnumerousOBMbasedABAstudies.Forexample,asdescribedearlier, LudwigandGeller (1997) evaluatedtwoapproachestoimprovingintersectionstoppingby pizzadeliverydriversaswellasgeneralizationtonontargetedsafedriving behaviors(i.e.,turnsignalusage,safetybeltusage).Bothinterventionswere showntoimproveintersectionstopping.However,significantincreasesin nontargetedturnsignalandsafetybeltusageweredemonstratedwiththe driverswhoparticipatedinthegoal-settingprocess.Thus,theresultssuggestedahighlevelof generality oftheintervention.
SUMMARY
FeaturesofABAincludesevendimensionsdescribedby Baeretal.(1968) includingapplied,behavioral,analytic, technological,conceptuallysystematic, effective,andgeneralizable.Applied behavioranalysts,throughbothapplied workandresearch,haveconductedpracticecharacterizedbythesedimensions andfeaturesacrosspopulationsandspecificareasoffocusformorethanahalfcentury.Inaddition,assessmentandinterventionpracticesbasedontheprinciplesofABAhavebeenimplementedsuccessfullyineducational,clinical, sports,andbusinesssettingstoaddressawiderangeofbehavioralissues.
Thischapterhighlightedthewidebreadthanddiversityofapplicationof proceduresandmethodologiesbasedonthedisciplineofABA.Despitethe
impressionthatABAissynonymouswithspecificassessmentandtreatment approachestoautismanddevelopmentaldisabilities(e.g., Bowman&Baker, 2014),thewiderangeofstudiesdescribedinthischapterintermsofpopulations,areasoffocus,andsettingsillustratestheactualnatureoftheimpact anddisciplineofABA.
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